LC-MS-based quantification method for Achyranthes root saponins

Chemical Profiling of Shen-Wu-Yi-Shen Tablets Using UPLC-Q-TOF-MS/MS and Its Quality Evaluation Based on UPLC-DAD Combined with Multivariate Statistical Analysis

Shen-Wu-Yi-Shen tablets (SWYST) is a traditional Chinese medicine prescription used for treating chronic kidney disease (CKD). This study aims to characterize the constituents in SWYST and evaluate the quality based on the quantification of multiple bioactive components. SWYST samples were analyzed with ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UPLC-Q-TOF-MS) and a data-processing strategy. As a result, 215 compounds in SWYST were unambiguously identified or tentatively characterized, including 14 potential new compounds. Meanwhile, strategies based on characteristic fragments for rapid identification were summarized, indicating that the qualitative method is accurate and feasible. Notably, the glucose esters of laccaic acid D-type anthraquinone were first found and their fragmentation patterns were described by comparing that of O-glycoside isomers. Besides, based on comparisons of the cleavage ways of mono-acyl glucose with different acyl groups or acylation sites, differences in fragmentation pathways between 1,2-di-O-acyl glucose and 1,6-di-O-acyl glucose were proposed for the first time and verified by reference substances. In addition, a validated UPLC-DAD was established for the determination of 11 major bioactive components related to treatment of CKD (albiflorin, paeoniflorin, 2,3,5,4'-tetrahydroxy-stilbene-2-O-β-d-glucoside (TSG), 1-O-galloyl-2-O-cinnamoyl-β-d-glucose, emodin-8-O-β-d-glucoside, chrysophanol-O-β-d-glucoside, aloe-emodin, rhein, emodin, chrysophanol and physcion). Moreover, TSG and 1-O-galloyl-2-O-cinnamoyl-β-d-glucose were found as the quality markers related to the origins of SWYST based on multivariate statistical analysis. Conclusively, the findings in this work provide a feasible reference for further studies on quality research and mechanisms of action in treating CKD.

Characterization of the Components and Metabolites of Achyranthes Bidentata in the Plasma and Brain Tissue of Rats Based on Ultrahigh Performance Liquid Chromatography-High-Resolution Mass Spectrometry (UHPLC-HR-MS)

BACKGROUND

Achyranthes bidentata (AR) is a traditional Chinese herb used for the treatment of hypertension and cerebral ischemia, but its pharmacological effects are not known.

AIM OF STUDY

We aimed to detect and accurately identify the components and metabolites of AR in the plasma and brain tissue of Sprague Dawley rats.

METHODS

We employed ultrahigh performance liquid chromatography-high-resolution mass spectrometry (UHPLC-HR-MS) to detect AR components in the plasma and brain tissue of rats. The absorption and metabolites in the plasma and brain tissue of normal control rats and rats that underwent middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) were characterized and compared.

RESULTS

A total of 281 compounds, including alkaloids, flavonoids, terpenoids, phenylpropanes, sugars and glycosides, steroids, triterpenes, amino acids, and peptides, was identified in samples of Achyranthes bidentata (TCM-AR). Four types of absorbable prototype components and 48 kinds of metabolites were identified in rats in the normal control plasma group which were given AR (AR plasma group), and five kinds of metabolites were identified in rats of the normal control brain tissue group which were given AR (AR brain group). Three absorbed prototype components and 13 metabolites were identified in the plasma of rats which underwent MCAO and were given AR (MCAO + AR plasma group). Six absorbed prototype components and two metabolites were identified in the brain tissue of rats who underwent MCAO and were administered AR (MCAO + AR brain group). These results showed that, after the oral administration of AR, the number of identified components in plasma was more than that in brain tissue. The number of prototype components in the AR plasma group was higher than that in the MCAO + AR plasma group, which may indicate that metabolite absorption in rats undergoing MCAO was worse. The number of prototype components in the MCAO + AR brain group was higher than that in the AR brain group, indicating that the blood-brain barrier was destroyed after MCAO, resulting in more compounds entering brain tissue.

CONCLUSIONS

UHPLC-HR-MS was used to rapidly analyze the components and metabolites of AR in the blood and brain of rats under normal and pathologic conditions, and to comprehensively characterize the components of TCM-AR. We also analyzed and compared the absorbable components and metabolites of normal rats under cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury to explore the potential mechanism of action. This method could be applied to various Chinese herbs and disease models, which could promote TCM modernization.

Preliminary Exploration of Potential Active Ingredients and Molecular Mechanisms of Yanggan Yishui Granules for Treating Hypertensive Nephropathy Using UPLC-Q-TOF/MS Coupled with Network Pharmacology and Molecular Docking Strategy

Hypertensive nephropathy (HN) is a prevalent complication of hypertension and stands as the second primary reason for end-stage renal disease. Research in clinical settings has revealed that Yanggan Yishui Granule (YGYSG) has significant therapeutic effects on HN. However, the material basis and action mechanisms of YGYSG against HN remain unclear. Consequently, this study utilized a comprehensive method integrating ultraperformance liquid chromatography-quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UPLC-Q-TOF/MS), network pharmacology, and molecular docking to delineate the active ingredients and potential therapeutic mechanisms of YGYSG for treating HN. Firstly, sixty distinct components were recognized in total as potential active ingredients in YGYSG by UPLC-Q-TOF/MS. Subsequently, the mechanisms of YGYSG against HN were revealed for the first time using network pharmacology. 23 ingredients played key roles in the complete network and were the key active ingredients, which could affect the renin-angiotensin system, fluid shear stress and atherosclerosis, HIF-1 signaling pathway, and AGE-RAGE signaling pathway in diabetic complications by regulating 29 key targets such as TNF, IL6, ALB, EGFR, ACE, and MMP2. YGYSG could treat HN through the suppression of inflammatory response and oxidative stress, attenuating the proliferation of renal vascular smooth muscle cells, lessening glomerular capillary systolic pressure, and ameliorating renal dysfunction and vascular damage through the aforementioned targets and pathways. Molecular docking results revealed that most key active ingredients exhibited a high affinity for binding to the key targets. This study pioneers in clarifying the bioactive compounds and molecular mechanisms of YGYSG against HN and offers scientific reference into the clinical application.

Comprehensive metabolic profiles of Achyranthes bidentate in rat serum via ultra-high performance liquid chromatography time-of-flight mass spectrometry and their correlation with osteoinductive activity

The osteoinductive effect of crude and salt-processed Achyranthes bidentata is associated with the serum metabolites. Grey relationship analysis between the serum metabolites and osteoinductive effect will help to clarify the bioactive serum metabolites. First, an ultra-high performance liquid chromatography time-of-flight mass spectrometry method was used to develop serum metabolic fingerprint of rats after oral administration of crude and salt-processed Achyranthes bidentata. The MS¹ and MS² data of serum metabolites were scanned in the range of m/z 100-1500 and 50-1200, respectively. The chemical structures of the metabolites were thoroughly elucidated. Two prototypes and twelve metabolites have been identified. Second, osteoblasts were cultured with the drug-containing serum at different time points. The osteoinductive effect of crude and salt-processed Achyranthes bidentata was evaluated by detecting the proliferation rate and alkaline phosphatase activity of osteoblasts. Third, grey correlation analysis was utilized to elucidate the spectral-effect relationship between serum metabolic fingerprints and osteoinductive effect. Finally, the correlation coefficients of ten metabolites, i.e., oleanolic acid, poststerone-M1, chikusetsusaponin V-M1, oleanolic acid-M2, oleanolic acid-M4, spinacoside D-M1, chikusetsusaponin I-M1, betavulgaroside IV-M2, chikusetsusaponin IVa and achyranthoside IV-M1 were above 0.7. Collectively, our work will provide helpful knowledge for the future research on Achyranthes bidentata.

Achyranthoside D (AD) improve intervertebral disc degeneration through affect the autophagy and the activation of PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathway

PURPOSE

This study aims to explore the potential mechanism of Achyranthoside D (AD) in improving intervertebral disc (IVD) degeneration (IDD).

METHODS

The IDD model of SD rats and nucleus pulposus cells (NPCs) was established by lumbar cone annulus puncture and tert-butyl peroxide, respectively. Cell proliferation was detected by CCK8 assay. Apoptosis was detected by flow cytometry and TUNEL staining. IVD tissue injury was observed by HE staining. Alcian blue staining observed the glycoprotein secretion in IVD. Monodansylcadaverin (MDC) staining was used to detect the formation of autophagosomes. The LC3 expression was tested by immunofluorescence. The type II collagen, aggrecan and MMP3 expression were detected by ELISA. RT-qPCR was used to detect the Casp 3, Bax, Bcl2, Acan, Col2a1 and Mmp3 expression. The LC3, P62, type II collagen, aggrecan, Beclin1, Akt, MMP3, p-mTOR, PI3K, mTOR, p-PI3K and p-Akt expression were analyzed by western blot.

RESULTS

The IVD tissue damage and apoptosis occurred in the Model group, and the glycoprotein secretion decreased. Compared with Model group, AD-H group alleviated the injury of IVD tissue, inhibited the apoptosis of cells, and increased the secretion of glycoprotein. 40 μg/mL AD restored the proliferation activity of NPCs. Compared to the Normal group, the NPCs apoptosis increased, the Collagen II, aggrecan and Bcl2 expressions were significantly decreased, the MMP3, Bax and Casp 3 expression were significantly increased, and the LC-3 II/I expression in IVD tissues were increased significantly in Model group, all of which was reversed in AD group. AD promoted the p-Akt, p-PI3K, p-mTOR, LC-3 II/I and Beclin1 expression, inhibited the P62 expression to alleviate the damage of nucleus pulporeus cells and the degeneration of IVD.

CONCLUSION

AD improved IDD by affecting the PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathway and autophagy.

Recent Advances in Separation and Analysis of Saponins in Natural Products

To better control the quality of saponins, ensure their biological activity and clinical therapeutic effect, and expand the development and application of saponins, this paper systematically and comprehensively reviews the separation and analytical methods of saponins in the past decade. Since 2010, the electronic databases of PubMed, Google Scholar, ISI Web of Science, Science Direct, Wiley, Springer, CNKI (National Knowledge Infrastructure, CNKI), Wanfang Med online, and other databases have been searched systematically. As a result, it is found that ionic liquids and high-performance countercurrent chromatography are the most popular extraction and separation techniques for saponins, and the combined chromatography technique is the most widely used method for the analysis of saponins. Liquid chromatography can be used in combination with different detectors to achieve qualitative or quantitative analysis and quality control of saponin compounds in medicinal materials and their preparations. This paper provides the latest valuable insights and references for the analytical methods and continued development and application of saponins.

Elucidating Drought-Tolerance Mechanisms in Plant Roots through 1H NMR Metabolomics in Parallel with MALDI-MS, and NanoSIMS Imaging Techniques

As direct mediators between plants and soil, roots play an important role in metabolic responses to environmental stresses such as drought, yet these responses are vastly uncharacterized on a plant-specific level, especially for co-occurring species. Here, we aim to examine the effects of drought on root metabolic profiles and carbon allocation pathways of three tropical rainforest species by combining cutting-edge metabolomic and imaging technologies in an in situ position-specific ¹³C-pyruvate root-labeling experiment. Further, washed (rhizosphere-depleted) and unwashed roots were examined to test the impact of microbial presence on root metabolic pathways. Drought had a species-specific impact on the metabolic profiles and spatial distribution in Piper sp. and Hibiscus rosa sinensis roots, signifying different defense mechanisms; Piper sp. enhanced root structural defense via recalcitrant compounds including lignin, while H. rosa sinensis enhanced biochemical defense via secretion of antioxidants and fatty acids. In contrast, Clitoria fairchildiana, a legume tree, was not influenced as much by drought but rather by rhizosphere presence where carbohydrate storage was enhanced, indicating a close association with symbiotic microbes. This study demonstrates how multiple techniques can be combined to identify how plants cope with drought through different drought-tolerance strategies and the consequences of such changes on below-ground organic matter composition.

Saponin constituents of Achyranthes root

Achyranthes root is a crude drug used as diuretic, tonic and remedy for blood stasis. Characteristic oleanolic acid saponins with a dicarboxylic acid moiety have been isolated as one of the representative constituents of this crude drug. This review focuses on the triterpene saponin constituents, especially those with a characteristic dicarboxylic acid moiety, of A. bidentata and A. fauriei. Several groups isolated the saponins and different names were given to one compound in some cases. The names of the compounds are sorted out and the stereochemistry of the dicarboxylic acid moieties are summarized. HPLC analysis of the composition of the saponin constituents and the effect of processing and extraction conditions on the composition are reviewed. Biological activities of the saponin constituents are also summarized.

Fast and Sensitive LC-MS/MS Method for the Quantitation of Saponins in Various Sugar Beet Materials

An LC-MS/MS method was developed for the simultaneous quantitative analysis of the following 11 triterpene saponins within different sugar beet materials and plant compartments: betavulgaroside I (1), betavulgaroside II (2), betavulgaroside III (3), betavulgaroside IV (4), betavulgaroside VIII (5), boussingoside A2 (6), 3-O-[β-d-glucopyranosyl-(1 → 2)-(β-d-xylopyranosyl-(1 → 3))-β-d-glucuronopyranosyl]-28-O-β-d-glucopyranosyl-3β-hydroxyolean-12-en-28-oic acid (7), betavulgaroside V (8), chikusetsusaponin IVa (9), calenduloside E (10), and ginsenoside R0 (11). Our results showed highly varying amounts of saponins within different varieties, roots, and leaves as well as different plant compartments. The amounts for sugar beet roots were in the range of 862 mg/kg to 2 452 mg/kg. They were mostly higher for leaves compared to roots of the same variety with amounts ranging from 907 mg/kg to 5 398 mg/kg. Furthermore, the occurrence of sugar beet saponins within different side streams was examined; in this context, sugar beet fiber contained the highest amounts of saponins for all investigated plant constituents and byproduct streams with a total amount of 12.7 g/kg. Finally, this is the first publication about the occurrence of individual saponins in sugar beets.

LC-MS analysis of saponins of Achyranthes root in the Japanese market

LC-MS analyses of saponin fractions of Achyranthes roots in the Japanese market revealed that there were three patterns for the saponin fraction of their water extracts, i.e., the saponins with a sugar moiety at position 28 [achyranthosides B (3), C (4) and D (5)] were the major constituents, the saponins without sugar moiety at position 28 [betavulgarosides II (10) and IV (11)] were the major constituents, and mixtures of these saponins. In a decoction prepared from the sample which contained 10 and 11 as the major saponins, their amounts were largely decreased compared with those of the water extract. As large amounts of these saponins were found in the precipitates formed by heating of the water extract, these saponins were seemed to precipitate out under heating. When hot water was used for the extraction, 3, 4 and 5 were detected even from the samples whose water extract did not contain these saponins. This was attributed to inhibition of endogenous esterase which hydrolyzes the ester linkage at position 28. When saponins were extracted with reagent grade 1-butanol, in addition to the decrease of the amounts of highly polar saponins, oxidative decarboxylation of 3 and 10 occurred resulting in formation of achyranthoside E (6) and spinacoside D (12), respectively. As these changes were not observed with HPLC grade 1-butanol, which contain not more than 5 ppm of peroxide impurities, the change was attributable to the peroxide impurities contained in the reagent grade 1-butanol.

A liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry approach for study the tissue distributions of five components of crude and salt-processed Radix Achyranthes in rats

This study developed a robust and reliable approach using liquid chromatography- tandem mass spectrometry for the simultaneous determination of five saponins in rat tissues: β-ecdysterone, chikusetsusaponin IV, ginsenoside Ro, 25S-inokosterone and chikusetsusaponin IVa. This is the first report on a comparative tissue distribution study of crude and salt-processed Radix Achyranthes in rats. After one-step protein precipitation by acetonitrile, the tissue samples were sent to LC-MS/MS for multiple reaction monitoring. The retention times of the five saponins and internal standard were 1.77, 3.14, 3.01, 1.83, 3.26 and 4.77 min. The standard curves showed good linear regression (r²  > 0.9991) in the range of 10.3-1562.5 ng/mL. The intra- and inter-day accuracy and precision were within 15% of the nominal concentration. The recoveries of the five saponins were 92.0-99.9%. Finally, this approach was successfully applied to tissue distribution analysis of the five saponins after oral administration of crude and salt-processed Radix Achyranthes in rats. The largest concentration of the five saponins was observed in kidney after salt-processing, which indicated that processing could enhance the bioavailability.

Therapeutic Effects of Cyathula officinalis Kuan and Its Active Fraction on Acute Blood Stasis Rat Model and Identification Constituents by HPLC-QTOF/MS/MS

BACKGROUND

Cyathula officinalis Kuan is widely used in the clinics for the treatment of blood stasis in China.

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the improving blood rheology and anti-inflammatory properties of C. officinalis Kuan extract (CO) and its active fraction (ACO) on acute blood stasis model Wistar rats and characterize the correlative constituents.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

CO at 0.26, 0.53, and 1.04 g/kg and ACO at 0.38, 0.75, and 1.5 g/kg were administered to acute blood stasis model Wistar rats for 3 days. Whole blood viscosity, plasma viscosity, and the levels of interleukin-6 (IL-6), nitric oxide (NO), tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) in the plasma were measured. HPLC-QTOF/MS/MS method was used to identify the major constituents of ACO; the properties of two representative components (cyasterone and chikusetsusaponin IV) from ACO on thrombin-induced human umbilical vein endothelial cells damage model were also assessed by the levels of thromboxane A2 (TXA2), endothelin (ET), malondialdehyde (MDA), COX-2, endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS), and superoxide dismutase (SOD).

RESULTS

CO and ACO significantly reduced whole blood viscosity, plasma viscosity, and levels of IL-6, NO, TNF-α, and COX-2 in vivo. Forty compounds were identified from ACO, mainly as phytoecdysteroids and saponins. Cyasterone and chikusetsusaponin IV could significantly inhibit levels of TXA2, ET, MDA, and COX-2 and promote the activities of eNOS and SOD in vitro.

CONCLUSION

CO and ACO possessed significant improving blood rheology and anti-inflammatory effects on acute blood stasis model rats and the representative components Cyasterone and chikusetsusaponin IV showed significant anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and anticoagulant effects in vitro.

SUMMARY

Cyathula officinalis Kuan is widely used in the clinic for the treatment of blood stasis in ChinaThe C. officinalis Kuan extract and the active fraction of C. officinalis Kuan (ACO) possessed significant improving blood rheology and anti-inflammatory effects on acute blood stasis model ratsForty compounds were identified from ACO, mainly as phytoecdysteroids and saponins Abbreviations used: TCM: Traditional Chinese Medicine, CO: Cyathula officinalis Kuan extract, ACO: Active fraction of Cyathula officinalis Kuan, ROS: Reactive oxygen species, IL-6: Interleukin-6, TNF-α: Tumor necrosis factor alpha, NO: Nitric oxide, COX-2: Cyclooxygenase-2, TXA2: Thromboxane A2, ET: Endothelin, MDA: Malondialdehyde, eNOS: Endothelial nitric oxide synthase, SOD: Superoxide dismutase, ESI: Electronic spray ionization, ELISA: Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, HUVECs: Human umbilical vein endothelial cells, DMEM: Dulbecco's modified Eagle medium, MMP: Matrix metalloproteinase.

The genus Achyranthes: A review on traditional uses, phytochemistry, and pharmacological activities

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Achyranthes L. (Amaranthaceae), also known as Chaff Flower and Niuxi/, mainly includes two famous medicinal species namely A. bidentata and A. aspera. A. bidentata has been widely used as blood-activating and stasis-resolving medicine for the treatment of various diseases including amenorrhea, dysmenorrhea, lumbago, gonalgia, paraplegia, edema, stranguria, headache, dizziness, odontalgia, oral ulcer, hematemesis, and epistaxis. A. aspera has been widely used to treat various diseases, including gynecological disorder, asthma, ophthalmia, odontalgia, haemorrhoids, and abdominal tumor, and has been applied to difficult labour, wound healing, insect and snake bites.

AIM OF THIS REVIEW

This review aims to provide systematically reorganized information on distributions, botanical characteristics, ethnopharmacology, chemical constituents, qualitative and quantitative analysis, pharmacological activities, and toxicity of Achyranthes species to support their therapeutic potential.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The relevant information on Achyranthes species was gathered from worldwide accepted scientific databases via electronic search (Google Scholar, Web of Science, ScienceDirect, ACS Publications, PubMed, Wiley Online Library, SciFinder, CNKI). Information was also obtained from International Plant Names Index, Chinese Pharmacopoeia, Chinese herbal classic books, PhD and MSc dissertations, etc.

RESULTS

A comprehensive analysis of literatures obtained through the above- mentioned sources confirms that the ethnomedicinal uses of Achyranthes species are mainly recorded in China, India, Korea, Pakistan, Ethiopia, Kenya, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Philippines, etc. Phytochemical investigations revealed that the major bioactive substances of Achyranthes plants are polysaccharides, polypeptides, triterpenoid saponins, and ketosteroids. Achyranthes plants have been shown to not only act on immune system, nervous system, bone metabolism, and reproduction, but also possess a wide range of biological activities, including blood-activating, anti-tumor, anti-inflammation, anti-arthritis, anti-oxidation, anti-aging, wound healing, etc. Toxicity studies indicated that A. bidentata and A. aspera seem non-toxic at the common therapeutic doses.

CONCLUSIONS

A. bidentata and A. aspera are very promising to be fully utilized in the development of nutraceutical and pharmaceutical products. There are, however, needs for further in-depth studies to confirm some ethnomedicinal uses of Achyranthes plants and to elucidate the scientific connotation of the widely documented property of conducting drug downward of A. bidentata. In addition, other widespread Achyranthes species like A. japonica and A. rubrofusca ought to be studied. Likewise, systematic comparative studies of the chemical constituents of medicinal Achyranthes plants resources with the same local name are also needed. Furthermore, not only should the investigations on the structure-activity relationship of the main bioactive compounds triterpenoid saponins and ketosteroids be carried out, but the pathways of absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion ought to be clarified. Last but not least, there is also a need to evaluate the long-term chronic toxicity and acute toxicity in vivo of the main bioactive compounds.