Characteristics of urban sidewalks/streets and objectively measured physical activity

The associations between place-based measures of walkability and physical activity across a range of diverse streetscapes

Walkability relates to aspects of a physical environment that have the potential to influence walking in that environment. In 2019, the Environmental Protection Agency developed the National Walkability Index (NWI), an easily accessible, U.S. Census block-group-level indicator of walkability. Although the NWI could be the metric of choice for researchers and urban planners, there is a lack of empirical evidence for its validity. The current study examined the validity of the NWI and Walk Score for predicting physical activity (PA) occurring along urban streetscapes. A wearable video device (Gogloo E7 SMART eyewear) was used to capture videos of streetscapes in 24 U.S. Census block groups in three different sized cities. The block groups varied in walkability, income level, and minority composition. The videos, collected over 10 months during 2019 at different times on weekdays and weekends, were reviewed by experts to obtain counts of walkers/h and individuals performing leisure PA/h (dependent variables). The independent variables were the NWI, its components - transit stop proximity, intersection density, employment/household occupancy mix, and employment mix, and Walk Score. Block group was the level of analysis. Linear regression indicated Walk Score, employment/household occupancy mix, and employment mix were associated with walkers/h (p < .001) while only employment/household occupancy mix, and employment mix were associated with leisure PA/h (p < .001). The NWI did not account for a significant portion of the variance in PA outcomes. A place-based examination of PA and walkability indexes favors the use of Walk Score and a modified version of the NWI.

A comprehensive evaluation of physical activity on sidewalks and streets in three U.S. Cities

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Video-enhanced observation provides objective data on sidewalks/streets activity.

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Neighborhood-level walkability was strongly associated with sidewalks/streets use.

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Most people (67%) were walking; others were sitting, standing, cycling, jogging.

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Sidewalk/street activity varied by time of day, weather, & environmental condition.

A considerable proportion of outdoor physical activity (PA) is done on sidewalks/streets. The purpose of the current study was to create a comprehensive picture of PA and non-PA (sitting and standing) occurring on sidewalks/streets. A wearable video device was used to capture videos during 2019 in three different size (small, medium, large), U.S. cities along 24 observation routes (sidewalks/streets) located in 24 study areas that varied in walkability, income level, and minority composition. Videos were collected over the course of one year during different times of week and weekend days. Expert reviewers examined each video to extract data on counts of people engaged in different types of activities (e.g., walking) per minute of video. A total of 1154 individuals were described in 1237 min of video as either walking (66.9%), sitting/standing (25.7%), jogging (4.2%), cycling (1.8%) or skating/playing (1.4%). A greater number of active people/min were seen in the evening and in the small city (P < 0.05) while more non-PA people/min were observed in the medium city and during the weekend (P < 0.05). Active and non-PA people/min were associated with walkability, income, and minority composition. For instance, in high walkability, low income areas, 3.2 active people/min were observed in areas with a high percentage of non-minority residents compared to 0.9 active people /min in areas with a high percentage of minority residents. Sidewalks/street activities are related to dynamic interactions between social and physical environmental factors. The results of this study may serve as a reference to which future, similar evaluations can compare.

An examination of the intersection environment associated with perceived crash risk among school-aged children: using street-level imagery and computer vision

While computer vision techniques and big data of street-level imagery are getting increasing attention, a "black-box" model of deep learning hinders the active application of these techniques to the field of traffic safety research. To address this issue, we presented a semantic scene labeling approach that leverages wide-coverage street-level imagery for the purpose of exploring the association between built environment characteristics and perceived crash risk at 533 intersections. The environmental attributes were measured at eye-level using scene segmentation and object detection algorithms, and they were classified as one of four intersection typologies using the k-means clustering method. Data on perceived crash risk were collected from a questionnaire conducted on 799 children 10 to 12 years old. Our results showed that environmental features derived from deep learning algorithms were significantly associated with perceived crash risk among school-aged children. The results have revealed that some of the intersection characteristics including the proportional area of sky and roadway were significantly associated with the perceived crash risk among school-aged children. In particular, road width had dominant influence on risk perception. The findings provide information useful to providing appropriate and proactive interventions that may reduce the risk of crashes at intersections.

Assessing Physical Activities Occurring on Sidewalks and Streets: Protocol for a Cross-Sectional Study

Background

A considerable proportion of outdoor physical activity (PA) is done on sidewalks and streets, necessitating the development of a reliable measure of PA performed in these settings. The Block Walk Method (BWM) is one of the more common approaches for this purpose. Although it utilizes reliable observation techniques and displays criterion validity, it remains relatively unchanged since its introduction in 2006. It is a nontechnical, labor-intensive, first generation method. Advancing the BWM would contribute significantly to our understanding of PA behavior.

Objective

This study will develop and test a new BWM that utilizes a wearable video device (WVD) and computer video analysis to assess PAs performed on sidewalks and streets. The specific aims are to improve the BWM by incorporating a WVD (eyeglasses with a high-definition video camera in the frame) into the methodology and advance this WVD-enhanced BWM by applying machine learning and recognition software to automatically extract information on PAs occurring on the sidewalks and streets from the videos.

Methods

Trained observers (1 wearing and 1 not wearing the WVD) will walk together at a set pace along predetermined 1000 ft sidewalk and street observation routes representing low, medium, and high walkable areas. During the walks, the non-WVD observer will use the traditional BWM to record the numbers of individuals standing, sitting, walking, biking, and running in observation fields along the routes. The WVD observer will continuously video the observation fields. Later, 2 investigators will view the videos to determine the number of individuals performing PAs in the observation fields. The video data will then be analyzed automatically using multiple deep convolutional neural networks (CNNs) to determine the number of humans in the observation fields and the type of PAs performed. Bland Altman methods and intraclass correlation coefficients (ICCs) will be used to assess agreement. Potential sources of error such as occlusions (eg, trees) will be assessed using moderator analyses.

Results

Outcomes from this study are pending; however, preliminary studies supporting the research protocol indicate that the BWM is reliable for determining the PA mode (Cramer V=.89; P<.001), the address where the PA occurred (Cohen kappa=.85; P<.001), and the number engaged in an observed PA (ICC=.85; P<.001). The number of individuals seen walking along routes was correlated with several environmental characteristics such as sidewalk quality (r=.39; P=.02) and neighborhood aesthetics (r=.49; P<.001). Furthermore, we have used CNNs to detect cars, bikes, and pedestrians as well as individuals using park facilities.

Conclusions

We expect the new approach will enhance measurement accuracy while reducing the burden of data collection. In the future, the capabilities of the WVD-CNN system will be expanded to allow for the determination of other characteristics captured in videos such as caloric expenditure and environmental conditions.

International Registered Report Identifier (IRRID)

PRR1-10.2196/12976

Validation of the Block Walk Method for Assessing Physical Activity occurring on Sidewalks/Streets

The block walk method (BWM) is one of the more common approaches for assessing physical activity (PA) performed on sidewalks/streets; however, it is non-technical, labor-intensive, and lacks validation. This study aimed to validate the BWM and examine the potential for using a wearable video device (WVD) to assess PA occurring on sidewalks/streets. Trained observers (one wearing and one not wearing the WVD) walked together and performed the BWM according to a previously developed protocol along routes in low, medium, and high walkable areas. Two experts then reviewed the videos. A total of 1150 (traditional) and 1087 (video review) individuals were observed during 900 min of observation. When larger numbers of individuals were observed, the traditional method overestimated the overall number of people as well as those walking and sitting/standing, while underestimating the number of runners. Valid estimates of PA occurring on sidewalks/streets can be obtained by the traditional BWM in low and medium walkability areas and/or with non-common activities (cycling); however, its validity is questionable when sidewalks/streets use volume is high. The use of WVDs in PA assessment has the potential to establish new levels of accuracy, reduce resource requirements, and open up the possibility for retrospective analysis.

Residents' expectations for new rail stops: Optimistic neighborhood perceptions relate to subsequent transit ridership

Although complete street policies are proliferating, little is known about how nearby residents perceive and act on their new active transportation opportunities. We survey the same neighborhood residents before and after they receive a new complete street renovation with five new light rail stops. We compare Time-1 expectations to use rail with Time-2 evidence of rail use, based on both self-reported and objective GPS/accelerometer measures of ridership. We examine neighborhood perceptions of four groups, created by combining Time-1 expectations to ride with Time-2 ridership: No expect/no ride, no expect/ride, expect/no ride, and expect/ride. The strongest differences were between the no expect/no ride and expect/ride groups. The riders had more positive expectations for light rail's impact on the neighborhood than non-riders; these broad expectations were more powerfully associated with rail ridership than individual barriers to use, such as time constraints or weather. More positive perceptions of the route to rail stops (pleasantness, traffic safety, and crime safety) were also held by riders. Some of the more positive perceptions helped distinguish between the expect/ride group and the expect/no ride group. These results underscore that increasing positive neighborhood perceptions might help convert expected riders into actual riders.

Reliability and One-Year Stability of the PIN3 Neighborhood Environmental Audit in Urban and Rural Neighborhoods

Reliable and stable environmental audit instruments are needed to successfully identify the physical and social attributes that may influence physical activity. This study described the reliability and stability of the PIN3 environmental audit instrument in both urban and rural neighborhoods. Four randomly sampled road segments in and around a one-quarter mile buffer of participants' residences from the Pregnancy, Infection, and Nutrition (PIN3) study were rated twice, approximately 2 weeks apart. One year later, 253 of the year 1 sampled roads were re-audited. The instrument included 43 measures that resulted in 73 item scores for calculation of percent overall agreement, kappa statistics, and log-linear models. For same-day reliability, 81% of items had moderate to outstanding kappa statistics (kappas ≥ 0.4). Two-week reliability was slightly lower, with 77% of items having moderate to outstanding agreement using kappa statistics. One-year stability had 68% of items showing moderate to outstanding agreement using kappa statistics. The reliability of the audit measures was largely consistent when comparing urban to rural locations, with only 8% of items exhibiting significant differences (α < 0.05) by urbanicity. The PIN3 instrument is a reliable and stable audit tool for studies assessing neighborhood attributes in urban and rural environments.

Street use and design: daily rhythms on four streets that differ in rated walkability

Few studies have correlated counts of street users to walkability features or tested for temporal variations in use across the day. Trained observers counted street users for four streets that differed in walkability according to the Irvine-Minnesota audit. From 7 am to 7 pm weekdays, across four 2-hour observation periods, all four streets had significant quadratic trends of increasing then decreasing use. Furthermore, the two most walkable streets also showed significant linear increases in users across the day. Part of a street's identity is its temporal activity rhythm, and both walkability and rhythms can inform urban design and renewal.

Mapping review of accessible pedestrian infrastructures for individuals with physical disabilities

BACKGROUND

Due to the ageing population and higher prevalence of individuals living with physical disabilities, there is a critical need for inclusive practices when designing accessible pedestrian infrastructures for ensuring social participation and equal opportunities.

PURPOSE

Summarize the physical characteristics of current pedestrian infrastructure design for individuals with physical disabilities (IPD - motor, visual and hearing) found in the scientific literature and assess its quality.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A mapping review of the existing literature on pedestrian infrastructures specifically built for individuals with physical disabilities identifying measurable physical characteristics for their design was done using online databases (Urban Studies Abstracts, Geobase, PubMed, and Cairn and secondary research). Information about accessibility (physical characteristics) of existing pedestrian infrastructures was extracted. The quality of the evidence was assessed using the Guidelines for critical review form - Quantitative studies and Qualitative studies version 2.0 (SAGE Publications, Inc., Thousand Oaks, CA).

RESULTS

Of the 1131 articles identified, forty-one articles examined access to bus stops, curb ramps, lighting, pedestrian crossings, ramps, shared spaces, sidewalks and steps. Six articles reported on more than one physical disability. Quality scores were generally low (quantitative: 2-11/15 and qualitative: 1-22/23). Recommended design features differed for the same infrastructure.

CONCLUSIONS

While there were a fair number of articles (n = 41) documenting accessible design features of pedestrian infrastructures, the quality of the evidence was low. The review identified knowledge gaps. Although specific design solutions exist, they have not yet been tested among individuals with various or multiple types of physical disabilities to ensure access to pedestrian infrastructures by all. Implications for Rehabilitation Pedestrian infrastructures still pose problems to mobility, limiting social participation and quality of life outcomes for individuals with physical disabilities (motor, visual and hearing). The results of this mapping review show that few articles are concerned with the accessibility of pedestrian infrastructures for more than one type physical disability, which might lead to recommendations that are inadequate for individuals with differing disabilities, few recommendations have been compared, most studies have been performed in environments not representative of northern countries and their quality score was generally low. Health professionals and State Parties have a complementary expertise that should be put to use in the determination and implementation of best design solutions to ensure the respect of the needs of individuals with physical disabilities. This review can thus help them have an idea of what has already been done to identify what needs to be achieved to fill the gap of knowledge required to insure access for individuals with motor, visual as well as hearing disabilities. Rehabilitation profesionals should take part in the assessment of the proposed solutions as well as the development of new designs to fill knowledge gaps.

Walkability, complete streets, and gender: Who benefits most?

Does street walkability and a new complete street renovation relate to street use and gender composition? We audited two mixed-walkability complete streets ("complete less-urban" and "complete-urban"), one low-walkable street, and one high-walkable street at pre-renovation and twice post-renovation. Complete street users increased, especially for the complete-less urban street. Typically, the high-walkable street attracted the most and the low-walkable street attracted the fewest total people, males, and females; complete streets were in between. On blocks with people, females were only 29% of users; females were much less common on low- walkable streets. Street improvements might enhance gender equity.

Active Transportation on a Complete Street: Perceived and Audited Walkability Correlates

Few studies of walkability include both perceived and audited walkability measures. We examined perceived walkability (Neighborhood Environment Walkability Scale—Abbreviated, NEWS-A) and audited walkability (Irvine–Minnesota Inventory, IMI) measures for residents living within 2 km of a “complete street”—one renovated with light rail, bike lanes, and sidewalks. For perceived walkability, we found some differences but substantial similarity between our final scales and those in a prior published confirmatory factor analysis. Perceived walkability, in interaction with distance, was related to complete street active transportation. Residents were likely to have active transportation on the street when they lived nearby and perceived good aesthetics, crime safety, and traffic safety. Audited walkability, analyzed with decision trees, showed three general clusters of walkability areas, with 12 specific subtypes. A subset of walkability items (n = 11), including sidewalks, zebra-striped crosswalks, decorative sidewalks, pedestrian signals, and blank walls combined to cluster street segments. The 12 subtypes yielded 81% correct classification of residents’ active transportation. Both perceived and audited walkability were important predictors of active transportation. For audited walkability, we recommend more exploration of decision tree approaches, given their predictive utility and ease of translation into walkability interventions.

[Indicators of physical and social neighborhood attributes measured by the Systematic Social Observation method]

Place of residence is heavily shaped by social position, indicating that neighborhood characteristics can be important contributing factors to health iniquities. The objectives were to construct indicators of the physical and social environment in an urban context based on variables obtained with the Systematic Social Observation method (SSO) and to analyze them according to the Health Vulnerability Index (HVI). The instrument was developed to determine the characteristics of the physical and social neighborhood in two health districts in Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais State, Brazil. Data were collected from April to June 2011. To develop the simple indicators, ratios were calculated for the number of observed items per residence in each segment. Composite indicators were built using principal components analysis via covariance matrix. The final sample consisted of 1,295 street segments nested in 147 neighborhoods. Indicators referring to street conditions and transit items, mobility, appearance, housing and property, physical disorder, safety/security, and services showed a dose-response behavior in relation to HVI (p < 0.05). Indicators pertaining to place to practice physical activity and leisure did not show significant differences. The indicators displayed coherent behavior towards different HVI strata and proved adequate within each respective domain and subdomain.

Cost-effectiveness of investing in sidewalks as a means of increasing physical activity: a RESIDE modelling study

BACKGROUND

Studies consistently find that supportive neighbourhood built environments increase physical activity by encouraging walking and cycling. However, evidence on the cost-effectiveness of investing in built environment interventions as a means of promoting physical activity is lacking. In this study, we assess the cost-effectiveness of increasing sidewalk availability as one means of encouraging walking.

METHODS

Using data from the RESIDE study in Perth, Australia, we modelled the cost impact and change in health-adjusted life years (HALYs) of installing additional sidewalks in established neighbourhoods. Estimates of the relationship between sidewalk availability and walking were taken from a previous study. Multistate life table models were used to estimate HALYs associated with changes in walking frequency and duration. Sensitivity analyses were used to explore the impact of variations in population density, discount rates, sidewalk costs and the inclusion of unrelated healthcare costs in added life years.

RESULTS

Installing and maintaining an additional 10 km of sidewalk in an average neighbourhood with 19 000 adult residents was estimated to cost A$4.2 million over 30 years and gain 24 HALYs over the lifetime of an average neighbourhood adult resident population. The incremental cost-effectiveness ratio was A$176 000/HALY. However, sensitivity results indicated that increasing population densities improves cost-effectiveness.

CONCLUSIONS

In low-density cities such as in Australia, installing sidewalks in established neighbourhoods as a single intervention is unlikely to cost-effectively improve health. Sidewalks must be considered alongside other complementary elements of walkability, such as density, land use mix and street connectivity. Population density is particularly important because at higher densities, more residents are exposed and this improves the cost-effectiveness. Health gain is one of many benefits of enhancing neighbourhood walkability and future studies might consider a more comprehensive assessment of its social value (eg, social cohesion, safety and air quality).

Environmental, behavioral, and psychological predictors of transit ridership: Evidence from a community intervention

Understanding who takes advantage of new transit (public transportation) interventions is important for personal and environmental health. We examine transit ridership for residents living near a new light rail construction as part of "complete street," pedestrian-friendly improvements. Adult residents (n=536) completed surveys and wore accelerometer and GPS units that tracked ridership before and after new transit service started. Transit riders were more physically active. Those from environments rated as more walkable were likely to be continuing transit riders. Place attachment, but not perceived physical incivilities on the path to transit, was associated with those who continued to ride or became new riders of transit. This effect was mediated through pro-city attitudes, which emphasize how the new service makes residents eager to explore areas around transit. Thus, place attachment, along with physical and health conditions, may be important predictors and promoters of transit use.

Support for physical activity policies and perceptions of work and neighborhood environments: variance by BMI and activity status at the county and individual levels

PURPOSE

To examine support for local policies encouraging physical activity and perceived neighborhood environment characteristics by physical activity and weight status of respondents across U.S. counties.

DESIGN

We used a random-digit-dial, computer-assisted telephone interview (CATI) to conduct a cross-sectional telephone questionnaire in selected U.S. counties in 2011.

SETTING

Counties with high prevalences of obesity and sedentary behavior (HH; n = 884) and counties with low prevalences of obesity and sedentary behavior (LL; n = 171) were selected nationally.

SUBJECTS

Adult respondents from HH (n = 642) and LL (n = 566) counties.

MEASURES

Questions were asked of respondents, pertaining to support for physical activity policies in various settings, neighborhood features, time spent in physical activity and sedentary behaviors, self-reported weight and height, and personal demographic information.

ANALYSIS

Means and frequencies were calculated; bivariable and multivariable linear and logistic regression models, developed. Models were adjusted for individual characteristics and county HH/LL status.

RESULTS

Respondents in LL counties perceived their neighborhood and work environments to be more supportive of healthy behaviors and were more supportive of local physical activity policies than respondents in HH counties (p < .001 for all). Positive neighborhood environment perceptions were related to reduced body mass index, increased physical activity, and decreased sedentary behavior.

CONCLUSION

Policy support and neighborhood environments are associated with behaviors. Results can inform targeting policy agendas to facilitate the improvement of environments (community, work, and school) to be more supportive of physical activity.

The impact of a temporary recurrent street closure on physical activity in New York City

At least 70 US cities have now introduced ciclovías-large-scale street closures to promote physical activity-joining numerous other cities worldwide that have implemented ciclovías in efforts to improve population health. We assessed the impact of Summer Streets, a New York City program in which 6.9 contiguous miles of urban streets were closed to traffic and opened for walking, cycling, and group activities, such as dancing and yoga, on population physical activity levels. Screen line counts were used to estimate attendance, and a street intercept survey was conducted to assess demographic characteristics of participants, baseline adherence to physical activity recommendations, and type and duration of physical activity at Summer Streets. In addition, a traffic study was used to determine if there were vehicular traffic delays as a result of the program. About 50,000 people participated in Summer Streets; among participating New Yorkers, bicyclists averaged 6.7 miles, runners 4.3 miles, and walkers 3.6 miles, equivalent to 72-86 min of moderate physical activity. Among New Yorkers attending Summer Streets, 24 % reported that they did not routinely engage in moderate- or vigorous-intensity physical activity. These non-routine exercisers engaged in the equivalent of 26-68 min of moderate-intensity physical activity at Summer Streets. Summer Streets served as an enticement for New Yorkers, including those who did not ordinarily meet physical activity recommendations, to engage in physical activity. There were no significant vehicular traffic delays during the program.

The built environment predicts observed physical activity

BACKGROUND

In order to improve our understanding of the relationship between the built environment and physical activity, it is important to identify associations between specific geographic characteristics and physical activity behaviors.

PURPOSE

Examine relationships between observed physical activity behavior and measures of the built environment collected on 291 street segments in Indianapolis and St. Louis.

METHODS

Street segments were selected using a stratified geographic sampling design to ensure representation of neighborhoods with different land use and socioeconomic characteristics. Characteristics of the built environment on-street segments were audited using two methods: in-person field audits and audits based on interpretation of Google Street View imagery with each method blinded to results from the other. Segments were dichotomized as having a particular characteristic (e.g., sidewalk present or not) based on the two auditing methods separately. Counts of individuals engaged in different forms of physical activity on each segment were assessed using direct observation. Non-parametric statistics were used to compare counts of physically active individuals on each segment with built environment characteristic.

RESULTS

Counts of individuals engaged in physical activity were significantly higher on segments with mixed land use or all non-residential land use, and on segments with pedestrian infrastructure (e.g., crosswalks and sidewalks) and public transit.

CONCLUSION

Several micro-level built environment characteristics were associated with physical activity. These data provide support for theories that suggest changing the built environment and related policies may encourage more physical activity.

Independent and joint associations between multiple measures of the built and social environment and physical activity in a multi-ethnic urban community

Physical activity is associated with reduced risk of a number of health outcomes, yet fewer than half of adults in the United States report recommended levels of physical activity. Analyses of structural characteristics of the built environment as correlates of physical activity have yielded mixed results. We examine associations between multiple aspects of urban neighborhood environments and physical activity in order to understand their independent and joint effects, with a focus on the extent to which the condition of the built environment and indicators of the social environment modify associations between structural characteristics and physical activity. We use data from a stratified, multi-stage proportional probability sample of 919 non-Hispanic Black, non-Hispanic White, and Hispanic adults in an urban community, observational data from their residential neighborhoods, and census data to examine independent and joint associations of structural characteristics (e.g., street network connectivity), their condition (e.g., sidewalk condition), and social environments (e.g., territoriality) with physical activity. Our findings suggest that sidewalk condition is associated with physical activity, above and beyond structural characteristics of the built environment. Associations between some structural characteristics of the built environment and physical activity were conditional upon street condition, physical deterioration, and the proportion of parks and playgrounds in good condition. We found modest support for the hypothesis that associations between structural characteristics and physical activity are modified by aspects of the social environment. Results presented here point to the value of and need for understanding and addressing the complexity of factors that contribute to the relationships between the built and social environments and physical activity, and in turn, obesity and co-morbidities. Bringing together urban planners, public health practitioners and policy makers to understand and address aspects of urban environment associated with health outcomes is critical to promoting health and health equity.

Walkable communities and adolescent weight

BACKGROUND

Neighborhood design features have been associated with health outcomes, including the prevalence of obesity.

PURPOSE

This study examined the association between walkability and adolescent weight in a national sample of public secondary school students and the communities in which they live.

METHODS

Data were collected through student surveys and community observations between February and August 2010, and analyses were conducted in Spring 2012. The sample size was 154 communities and 11,041 students. A community walkability index and measures of the prevalence of adolescent overweight and obesity were constructed. Multivariable analyses from a cross-sectional survey of a nationally representative sample of 8th-, 10th- and 12th-grade public school students in the U.S. were run.

RESULTS

The odds of students being overweight (AOR 0.98, 95% CI=0.95, 0.99) or obese (AOR=0.97, 95% CI=0.95, 0.99) decreased if they lived in communities with higher walkability index scores.

CONCLUSIONS

Results suggest that living in more-walkable communities is associated with reduced prevalence of adolescent overweight and obesity.

The association between sidewalk length and walking for different purposes in established neighborhoods

Background

Walking in neighborhood environments is undertaken for different purposes including for transportation and leisure. We examined whether sidewalk availability was associated with participation in, and minutes of neighborhood-based walking for transportation (NWT) and recreation (NWR) after controlling for neighborhood self-selection.

Method

Baseline survey data from respondents (n = 1813) who participated in the RESIDential Environment (RESIDE) project (Perth, Western Australia) were used. Respondents were recruited based on their plans to move to another neighborhood in the following year. Usual weekly neighborhood-based walking, residential preferences, walking attitudes, and demographics were measured. Characteristics of the respondent’s baseline neighborhood were measured including transportation-related walkability and sidewalk length. A Heckman two-stage modeling approach (multivariate Probit regression for walking participation, followed by a sample selection-bias corrected OLS regression for walking minutes) estimated the relative contribution of sidewalk length to NWT and NWR.

Results

After adjustment, neighborhood sidewalk length and walkability were positively associated with a 2.97 and 2.16 percentage point increase in the probability of NWT participation, respectively. For each 10 km increase in sidewalk length, NWT increased by 5.38 min/wk and overall neighborhood-based walking increased by 5.26 min/wk. Neighborhood walkability was not associated with NWT or NWR minutes. Moreover, sidewalk length was not associated with NWR minutes.

Conclusions

Sidewalk availability in established neighborhoods may be differentially associated with walking for different purposes. Our findings suggest that large investments in sidewalk construction alone would yield small increases in walking.

Multiple dimensions of residential environments, neighborhood experiences, and jogging behavior in the RECORD Study

OBJECTIVE

The purpose of this study was to examine the associations between a broad range of environmental characteristics and jogging behavior while taking into account different complementary outcomes to describe the behavior.

METHODS

Using the RECORD Cohort Study (7290 participants, 2007-2008, Paris region, France), multilevel models were used to investigate individual/neighborhood variables associated with the probability of jogging; the time spent jogging; and the location of the practice.

RESULTS

The presence and quality of green and open spaces was associated both with a greater probability of jogging [risk ratio (RR) for the first vs. the fourth quartile=1.22, 95% credible interval (CrI): 1.03-1.44] and with the practice of jogging within rather than outside the neighborhood (RR=1.29; 95% CrI: 1.10-1.53). Moreover, a high social cohesion and the presence of enjoyable places were associated with a higher probability of jogging (RR=1.15; 95% CrI: 1.00-1.31; RR=1.22; 95% CrI: 1.03-1.44) while the presence of parks or a lake increased the probability of jogging inside rather than outside the neighborhood (RR=1.29; 95% CrI: 1.10-1.53; RR=1.14; 95% CrI: 1.03-1.26).

CONCLUSIONS

Paying attention to physical and social environments, related neighborhood experiences, and attitudes toward health may be an effective approach to promote outdoor physical activity.

Using built environmental observation tools: comparing two methods of creating a measure of the built environment

PURPOSE

Identify an efficient method of creating a comprehensive and concise measure of the built environment integrating data from geographic information systems (GIS) and the Senior Walking Environmental Assessment Tool (SWEAT).

DESIGN

Cross-sectional study using a population sample.

SETTING

Eight MUNICIPALLY defined neighborhoods in Portland, Oregon.

SUBJECTS

Adult residents (N = 120) of audited segments (N = 363).

MEASURES

We described built environmental features using SWEAT audits and GIS data. We obtained information on walking behaviors and potential confounders through in-person interviews.

ANALYSIS

We created two sets of environmental measures, one based on the conceptual framework used to develop SWEAT and another using principal component analysis (PCA). Each measure's association with walking for transportation and exercise was then assessed and compared using logistic regression.

RESULTS

A priori measures (destinations, safety, aesthetics, and functionality) and PCA measures (accessibility, comfort/safety, maintenance, and pleasantness) were analogous in conceptual meaning and had similar associations with walking. Walking for transportation was associated with destination accessibility and functional elements, whereas walking for exercise was associated with maintenance of the walking area and protection from traffic. However, only PCA measures consistently reached statistical significance.

CONCLUSION

The measures created with PCA were more parsimonious than those created a priori. Performing PCA is an efficient method of combining and scoring SWEAT and GIS data.

Measuring the built environment for physical activity: state of the science

Physical inactivity is one of the most important public health issues in the U.S. and internationally. Increasingly, links are being identified between various elements of the physical-or built-environment and physical activity. To understand the impact of the built environment on physical activity, the development of high-quality measures is essential. Three categories of built environment data are being used: (1) perceived measures obtained by telephone interview or self-administered questionnaires; (2) observational measures obtained using systematic observational methods (audits); and (3) archival data sets that are often layered and analyzed with GIS. This review provides a critical assessment of these three types of built-environment measures relevant to the study of physical activity. Among perceived measures, 19 questionnaires were reviewed, ranging in length from 7 to 68 questions. Twenty audit tools were reviewed that cover community environments (i.e., neighborhoods, cities), parks, and trails. For GIS-derived measures, more than 50 studies were reviewed. A large degree of variability was found in the operationalization of common GIS measures, which include population density, land-use mix, access to recreational facilities, and street pattern. This first comprehensive examination of built-environment measures demonstrates considerable progress over the past decade, showing diverse environmental variables available that use multiple modes of assessment. Most can be considered first-generation measures, so further development is needed. In particular, further research is needed to improve the technical quality of measures, understand the relevance to various population groups, and understand the utility of measures for science and public health.