Polyunsaturated fatty acids and cerebral function: focus on monoaminergic neurotransmission

Efficacy of Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids as a Treatment for Post-traumatic Stress Disorder: A Systematic Review

INTRODUCTION

Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a prevalent health condition among members of the military. Although the efficacy of pharmacological and psychiatric interventions for PTSD has been well studied, there are limited data on the effects of omega-3 (n-3) polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) interventions on PTSD. The use of PUFAs shows promise because of their neuroprotective effects. Thus, this systematic review will synthesize the current state of the evidence regarding the effectiveness of PUFA treatment for PTSD.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Using the PubMed, PsychINFO, Embase, and CINAHL databases, a search of the literature was conducted using the search terms "posttraumatic-stress-disorder, combat disorders, trauma-related-stress-disorder, omega-3, fatty acid, and polyunsaturated fatty acids" to identify articles published from January 1, 2008, to January 1, 2024, that focused on PUFA interventions for PTSD. A total of 281 articles were identified. Following exclusions and quality assessments using the Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development, and Evaluation (GRADE) criteria proposed by Cochrane, 6 randomized controlled trials (RCTs) and preclinical studies were chosen for inclusion, and data were then extracted into a data matrix for final synthesis and analysis.

RESULTS

The RCTs (n = 3) showed no significant effect of PUFAs in the prevention of PTSD symptom onset. Among preclinical studies (n = 3), PUFAs resulted in a significant decrease in anxiety-like behavior and fear memory and an increase in spatial learning and memory. The quality of evidence among the 6 RCTs and preclinical studies using the Cochrane GRADE criteria ranged from low to high.

CONCLUSIONS

The results from this systematic review suggest that more evidence is needed before making any recommendations for the clinical use of dietary PUFAs in the management of PTSD symptoms.

Pathogenesis and treatment of depression: Role of diet in prevention and therapy

In recent years, there has been a significant increase in depression, which is related to, among other things, the COVID-19 pandemic. Depression can be fatal if not treated or if treated inappropriately. Depression is the leading cause of suicide attempts. The disease is multifactorial, and pharmacotherapy often fails to bring satisfactory results. Therefore, increasingly more importance is attached to the natural healing substances and nutrients in food, which can significantly affect the therapy process and prevention of depressive disorders. A proper diet is vital to preventing depression and can be a valuable addition to psychological and pharmacologic treatment. An inadequate diet may reduce the effectiveness of antidepressants or increase their side effects, leading to life-threatening symptoms. This study aimed to review the literature on the pathogenesis of the development and treatment of depression, with particular emphasis on dietary supplements and the role of nutrition in the prevention and treatment of depressive disorders.

How fish consumption prevents the development of Major Depressive Disorder? A comprehensive review of the interplay between n-3 PUFAs, LTP and BDNF

MDD (major depressive disorder) is a highly prevalent mental disorder with a complex etiology involving behavioral and neurochemical factors as well as environmental stress. The interindividual variability in response to stress stimuli may be explained by processes such as long-term potentiation (LTP) and long-term depression (LTD). LTP can be described as the strengthening of synaptic transmission, which translates into more efficient cognitive performance and is regulated by brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), a protein responsible for promoting neural growth. It is found in high concentrations in the hippocampus, a part of the limbic system which is far less active in people with MDD. Omega-3 fatty acids like eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) not only contribute to structural and antioxidative functions but are essential for the maintenance of LTP and stable BDNF levels. This review explores the mechanisms and potential roles of omega-3 fatty acids in the prevention of MDD.

Dietary Supplementation with Milk Lipids Leads to Suppression of Developmental and Behavioral Phenotypes of Hyperexcitable Drosophila Mutants

Dietary modifications often have a profound impact on the penetrance and expressivity of neurological phenotypes that are caused by genetic defects. Our previous studies in Drosophila melanogaster revealed that seizure-like phenotypes of gain-of-function voltage-gated sodium (Nav) channel mutants (paraShu, parabss1, and paraGEFS+), as well as other seizure-prone "bang-sensitive" mutants (eas and sda), were drastically suppressed by supplementation of a standard diet with milk whey. In the current study we sought to determine which components of milk whey are responsible for the diet-dependent suppression of their hyperexcitable phenotypes. Our systematic analysis reveals that supplementing the diet with a modest amount of milk lipids (0.26% w/v) mimics the effects of milk whey. We further found that a minor milk lipid component, α-linolenic acid, contributed to the diet-dependent suppression of adult paraShu phenotypes. Given that lipid supplementation during the larval stages effectively suppressed adult paraShu phenotypes, dietary lipids likely modify neural development to compensate for the defects caused by the mutations. Consistent with this notion, lipid feeding fully rescued abnormal dendrite development of class IV sensory neurons in paraShu larvae. Overall, our findings demonstrate that milk lipids are sufficient to ameliorate hyperexcitable phenotypes in Drosophila mutants, providing a foundation for future investigation of the molecular and cellular mechanisms by which dietary lipids modify genetically induced abnormalities in neural development, physiology, and behavior.

The Fish Oil to Reduce Tobacco Use iN Expectant mothers (FORTUNE) feasibility trial

BACKGROUND

Three small clinical trials have suggested that supplementation with n-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid) found in fish oils may reduce nicotine cravings and at higher doses reduce cigarette consumption. Pregnant women who smoke have fewer pharmacologic options to aid them with smoking cessation. Although n-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation has been studied in pregnancy, few studies have evaluated doses of ≥4 g per day, and no previous studies have selectively enrolled pregnant women who smoke. High-dose n-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids may aid cessation but could be poorly tolerated in pregnant women who smoke because of gastrointestinal side effects.

OBJECTIVE

We conducted a feasibility trial to determine the tolerability of high-dose n-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation in pregnant women who smoked. We hypothesized that n-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid doses of 4.2 g a day would be well-tolerated relative to an olive oil placebo. We assessed red blood cell phospholipid membrane concentrations at baseline and end of therapy (4 weeks) and piloted outcomes for a future efficacy trial of n-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation for smoking cessation in pregnancy.

STUDY DESIGN

We recruited 28 pregnant women between the gestational ages of 6 and 36 weeks who reported daily cigarette smoking and were motivated to quit to participate in a double-blind placebo-controlled randomized feasibility trial of 4.2 g per day of n-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation. Participants reported cigarettes per day, completed the Fagerström Test for Cigarette Dependence, and provided blood, urine, and exhaled CO samples. We used repeated-measures analysis of variance to pilot analyses of changes in cigarettes per day and Fagerström Test for Cigarette Dependence scores.

RESULTS

At baseline, red blood cell membrane eicosapentaenoic acid concentrations were negatively correlated with cigarettes per day (r=-0.44; P=.04). By 4 weeks, circulating n-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid levels increased by 18% in the n-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation arm vs a decrease of 3% in the placebo arm. Occurrence of gastrointestinal side effects such as burping, heartburn, diarrhea, abdominal pain, or nausea did not differ statistically between study arms. At 4 weeks, participants allocated to the n-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids arm reported a median of 3 cigarettes per day (interquartile range, 1-8) vs 7 cigarettes per day (interquartile range, 1-14) in the placebo arm, which was not statistically significant (P=.99). Participants allocated to the n-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids arm had a decrease of 1 (interquartile range, 0-1) on the Fagerström Test for Cigarette Dependence score vs 0 (interquartile range, 0-0) for placebo (P=.46).

CONCLUSION

High-dose n-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids may be tolerated in pregnant women who smoke; however, there was a high level of participant dropout, with more participants allocated to the fish oil arm becoming lost to follow-up. These results will inform the design of a future large-scale randomized controlled trial to test the impact of fish oil supplements on smoking cessation in pregnancy.

Impact of health and lifestyle food supplements on periodontal tissues and health

According to the new classification, periodontitis is defined as a chronic multifactorial inflammatory disease associated with dysbiotic biofilms and characterized by progressive destruction of the tooth-supporting apparatus. This definition, based on the current scientific evidence, clearly indicates and emphasizes, beside the microbial component dental biofilm, the importance of the inflammatory reaction in the progressive destruction of periodontal tissues. The idea to modulate this inflammatory reaction in order to decrease or even cease the progressive destruction was, therefore, a logical consequence. Attempts to achieve this goal involve various kinds of anti-inflammatory drugs or medications. However, there is also an increasing effort in using food supplements or so-called natural food ingredients to modulate patients' immune responses and maybe even improve the healing of periodontal tissues. The aim of this chapter of Periodontology 2000 is to review the evidence of various food supplements and ingredients regarding their possible effects on periodontal inflammation and wound healing. This review may help researchers and clinicians to evaluate the current evidence and to stimulate further research in this area.

Mediterranean Diet on Sleep: A Health Alliance

The Mediterranean diet is a plant-based, antioxidant-rich, unsaturated fat dietary pattern that has been consistently associated with lower rates of noncommunicable diseases and total mortality, so that it is considered one of the healthiest dietary patterns. Clinical trials and mechanistic studies have demonstrated that the Mediterranean diet and its peculiar foods and nutrients exert beneficial effects against inflammation, oxidative stress, dysmetabolism, vascular dysfunction, adiposity, senescence, cognitive decline, neurodegeneration, and tumorigenesis, thus preventing age-associated chronic diseases and improving wellbeing and health. Nocturnal sleep is an essential physiological function, whose alteration is associated with health outcomes and chronic diseases. Scientific evidence suggests that diet and sleep are related in a bidirectional relationship, and the understanding of this association is important given their role in disease prevention. In this review, we surveyed the literature concerning the current state of evidence from epidemiological studies on the impact of the Mediterranean diet on nighttime sleep quantity and quality. The available studies indicate that greater adherence to the Mediterranean diet is associated with adequate sleep duration and with several indicators of better sleep quality. Potential mechanisms mediating the effect of the Mediterranean diet and its foods and nutrients on sleep are described, and gap-in-knowledge and new research agenda to corroborate findings are discussed.

A Revision on the Effectiveness of Omega-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids as Monotherapy in the Treatment of Major Depressive Disorder

BACKGROUND

Insufficient effectiveness and a difficult tolerability profile of antidepressant drugs for the treatment of major depressive disorder (MDD) have been reported, and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) have been posited as reliable therapeutic alternatives. The present study investigated the efficacy of omega-3 PUFAs as monotherapy for MDD.

METHODS

Two well-trained reviewers independently looked at the most significant randomized clinical trials (RCTs) from the PubMed database regarding PUFAs' employment in MDD compared to placebo; "major depressive disorder" and "omega-3 fatty acids," or "omega-6 fatty acids," or "polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA)," or "n - 3 polyunsaturated fatty acids," or "eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA)," or "docosahexaenoic acid (DHA)" were used as the medical subject keywords.

RESULTS

Of the initial 96 potential RCTs based on titles and abstracts, 82 studies did not meet the inclusion criteria and were excluded. Six studies were excluded from the remaining 14 after full text revision. Eight RCTs met all the inclusion/exclusion criteria without reporting clear evidence of PUFAs' effectiveness in the treatment of MDD.

CONCLUSION

At present, there is no opportunity to recommend the use of omega-3 PUFAs monotherapy for the treatment of MDD, although their supplementation may be useful in some specific populations.

Investigating N-3 Fatty Acids to prevent Neonatal Tobacco-related outcomeS (INFANTS): study protocol for a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled parallel clinical trial of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in pregnant smokers

BACKGROUND

Tobacco use during pregnancy is the most important modifiable risk factor associated with adverse pregnancy outcomes, increasing the risk of preterm birth, intrauterine growth restriction and sudden infant death syndrome. Fewer than half of pregnant smokers can quit on their own. Identifying safe and effective therapies to prevent tobacco-related adverse pregnancy outcomes and/or increase smoking cessation in pregnant women would have a substantial public health impact. Cigarette smoking is associated with a relative deficiency in circulating n-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid (n-3 LCPUFA) levels. A recent analysis found that smokers taking n-3 LCPUFAs during pregnancy had a reduction in preterm labor risk when compared to non-smokers. Studies have shown that supplemental n-3 LCPUFAs may also reduce nicotine cravings and daily cigarette use. Thus, smokers may benefit from supplemental n-3 LCPUFAs by lowering the risk of preterm labor and/or increased smoking cessation. To address important remaining knowledge gaps, we propose the Investigating N-3 Fatty Acids to prevent Neonatal Tobacco related outcomeS (INFANTS).

METHODS

The INFANTS study is a multicenter, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study that will randomize 400 pregnant smokers to either supplemental n-3 LCPUFAs or placebo. Participants will be enrolled between 12 and 24 weeks' gestation and followed until 6 weeks after delivery. We will recruit from clinical centers throughout Middle Tennessee. We will assess smoking behavior after 12 weeks of supplementation using self-report and validated biomarkers of tobacco exposure. We will measure response to supplementation using biological markers of n-3 LCPUFA status. Our primary endpoint will be preterm labor as reflected by gestational age at delivery. Our secondary endpoint will be change from baseline in cigarettes per day at 12 weeks.

DISCUSSION

This study tests the hypothesis that smoking-induced n-3 LCPUFA deficiencies contribute to tobacco-related adverse pregnancy outcomes and that supplementation of n-3 LCPUFAs in pregnant smokers may prevent these complications. If our study demonstrates that supplemental n-3 LCPUFAs are effective at reducing the risk of tobacco-related adverse neonatal outcomes and/or reducing tobacco use during pregnancy, our results could have an immediate and major impact on pregnancy care and neonatal outcomes.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

ClinicalTrials.gov NCT04417595. Registered on April 21, 2020.

Perinatal Dietary Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids in Brain Development, Role in Neurodevelopmental Disorders

n-3 and n-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) are essential fatty acids that are provided by dietary intake. Growing evidence suggests that n-3 and n-6 PUFAs are paramount for brain functions. They constitute crucial elements of cellular membranes, especially in the brain. They are the precursors of several metabolites with different effects on inflammation and neuron outgrowth. Overall, long-chain PUFAs accumulate in the offspring brain during the embryonic and post-natal periods. In this review, we discuss how they accumulate in the developing brain, considering the maternal dietary supply, the polymorphisms of genes involved in their metabolism, and the differences linked to gender. We also report the mechanisms linking their bioavailability in the developing brain, their transfer from the mother to the embryo through the placenta, and their role in brain development. In addition, data on the potential role of altered bioavailability of long-chain n-3 PUFAs in the etiologies of neurodevelopmental diseases, such as autism, attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder, and schizophrenia, are reviewed.

The Type of Fat in the Diet Influences the Behavior and the Relationship Between Cystinyl and Alanyl Aminopeptidase Activities in Frontal Cortex, Liver, and Plasma

Insulin-regulated aminopeptidase (IRAP, cystinyl aminopeptidase, CysAP) and aminopeptidase M (alanyl aminopeptidase, AlaAP) are closely related enzymes involved in cognitive, metabolic, and cardiovascular functions. These functions may be modulated by the type of fat used in the diet. In order to analyze a possible coordinated response of both enzymes we determined simultaneously their activities in frontal cortex, liver, and plasma of adult male rats fed diets enriched with fats differing in their percentages of saturated, mono or polyunsaturated fatty acids such as sesame, sunflower, fish, olive, Iberian lard, and coconut. The systolic blood pressure, food intake, body and liver weight as well as glucose and total cholesterol levels in plasma were measured. The type of fat in the diet influences the enzymatic activities depending on the enzyme and its location. These results suggest cognitive improvement properties for diets with predominance of polyunsaturated fatty acids. Physiological parameters such as systolic blood pressure, food intake, and biochemical factors such as cholesterol and glucose in plasma were also modified depending on the type of diet, supporting beneficial properties for diets rich in mono and polyunsaturated fatty acids. Inter-tissue correlations between the analyzed parameters were also modified depending on the type of diet. If the type of fat used in the diet modifies the behavior and relationship between CysAP and AlaAP in and between frontal cortex, liver and plasma, the functions in which they are involved could also be modified.

Prebiotics and phytogenics functional additives in low fish meal and fish oil based diets for European sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax): Effects on stress and immune responses

The use of terrestrial raw materials to replace fish meal (FM) and fish oil (FO) in marine fish diets may affect fish growth performance and health. In the last years functional additives have been profiled as good candidates to reduce the effects on health and disease resistance derived from this replacement, via reinforcement of the fish immune system. In the present study, three isoenergetic and isonitrogenous diets with low FM and FO (10% and 6% respectively) were tested based on supplementation either with 0.5% galactomannanoligosaccharides (GMOS diet) or 0.02% of a mixture of essential oils (PHYTO diet), a non-supplemented diet was defined as a control diet. Fish were fed the experimental diets in triplicate for 9 weeks and then they were subjected to a stress by confinement as a single challenge (C treatment) or combined with an experimental intestinal infection with Vibrio anguillarum (CI treatment). Along the challenge test, selected stress and immunological parameters were evaluated at 2, 24 and 168h after C or CI challenges. As stress indicators, circulating plasma cortisol and glucose concentrations were analyzed as well as the relative gene expression of cyp11b hydroxylase, hypoxia inducible factor, steroidogenic acute regulatory protein, heat shock protein 70 and heat shock protein 90 (cyp11b, hif-1α, StAR, hsp70 and hsp90). As immune markers, serum and skin mucus lysozyme, bactericidal and peroxidase activities were measured, as well as gene expression of Caspase-3 (casp-3) and interleukin 1β (il-1ß). The use of functional additives induced a significant (p < 0.05) reduction of circulating plasma cortisol concentration when confinement was the unique challenge test applied. Supplementation of PHYTO induced a down-regulation of cyp11b, hif-1α, casp-3 and il-1β gene expression 2h after stress test, whereas StAR expression was significantly (p < 0.05) up-regulated. However, when combination of confinement stress and infection was applied (CI treatment), the use of PHYTO significantly (p < 0.05) down-regulated StAR and casp-3 gene expression 2h after challenge test, denoting that PHYTO diet reinforced fish capacity of stress response via protection of head kidney leucocytes from stress-related apoptotic processes, with lower caspase-3 gene expression and a higher il-1β gene expression when an infection occurs. Additionally, dietary supplementation with GMOS and PHYTO compounds increased fish serum lysozyme after infection. Both functional additives entailed a better capability of the animals to cope with infection in European sea bass when fed low FM and FO diets.

Increased isoprostanoid levels in brain from murine model of Krabbe disease - Relevance of isoprostanes, dihomo-isoprostanes and neuroprostanes to disease severity

Krabbe disease (KD) is a rare and devastating pediatric leukodystrophy caused by mutations in the galactocerebrosidase (GALC) gene. The disease leads to impaired myelin formation and extensive myelin damage in the brain. Oxidative stress is implicated in the pathogenesis of KD but insofar few information is available. The gray and white matter of the brain are rich in docosahexaenoic acid and adrenic acid respectively and under non-enzymatic oxidative stress, release isoprostanoids, i.e. F₄-neuroprostanes (F₄-NeuroPs) and F₂-dihomo-isoprostanes (F₂-dihomo-IsoPs). In this study, the formation of isoprostanoids in brain tissue was investigated in a well-established KD mouse model (twitcher) that recapitulates the human pathology. According to the genotype determinations, three groups of mice were selected: wild-type control mice (n = 13), heterozygotes mice (carriers of GALC mutations, n = 14) and homozygous twitcher mice (n = 13). Measurement of F₂-dihomo-IsoP and F₄-NeuroP levels were performed on whole brain tissue obtained at day 15 and day 35 of the life cycle. Brain isoprostanoid levels were significantly higher in the twitcher mice compared to the heterozygous and wild-type control mice. However, F₂-dihomo-IsoP and F₄-NeuroP levels did not differ in brain of day 15 compared to day 35 of the heterozygote mice. Interestingly, isoprostanoid levels were proportionally enhanced with disease severity (F₂-dihomo-IsoPs, rho = 0.54; F₄-NeuroPs, rho = 0.581; P values ≤ 0.05; n = 13). Our findings are the first to show the key role of polyunsaturated fatty acid oxidative damage to brain grey and white matter in the pathogenesis and progression of KD. This shed new insights on the biochemical indexes of KD progression, and potentially provide information for novel therapeutic targets.

The emerging role of omega-3 fatty acids as a therapeutic option in neuropsychiatric disorders

The prevalence of neurologic and psychiatric diseases has been increasing for decades and, given the moderate therapeutic efficacy and safety profile of existing pharmacological treatments, there is an urgent need for new therapeutic approaches. Nutrition has recently been recognized as an important factor for the prevention and treatment of neuropsychiatric disorders. The omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-3 PUFAs) eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) play critical roles in neuronal cell function and neurotransmission as well as inflammatory and immune reactions that are involved in neuropsychiatric disease states. A large number of experimental and epidemiological studies provide a strong basis for interventional clinical trials that assessed the clinical efficacy of n-3 PUFAs in various neurological and psychiatric disorders. Most of these trials found beneficial effects of dietary supplementation with EPA and DHA, and no serious safety concerns have emerged. This review gives an introduction to recent findings on the clinical efficacy of n-3 PUFAs in various neuropsychiatric disorders and the underlying biochemical mechanisms. In addition, the reader will be enabled to identify common methodological weaknesses of clinical studies on n-3 PUFAs, and suggestions for the design of future studies are given.

DHA supplementation during prenatal ethanol exposure alters the expression of fetal rat liver genes involved in oxidative stress regulation

Prenatal ethanol (EtOH) exposure is known to induce adverse effects on fetal brain development. Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) has been shown to alleviate these effects by up-regulating antioxidant mechanisms in the brain. The liver is the first organ to receive enriched blood after placental transport. Therefore, it could be negatively affected by EtOH, but no studies have assessed the effects of DHA on fetal liver. This study examined the effects of maternal DHA intake on DHA status and gene expression of key enzymes of the glutathione antioxidant system in the fetal liver after prenatal EtOH exposure. Pregnant Sprague-Dawley dams were intubated with EtOH for the first 10 days of pregnancy, while being fed a control or DHA-supplemented diet. Fetal livers were collected at gestational day 20, and free fatty acids and phospholipid profile, as well as glutathione reductase (GR) and glutathione peroxidase-1 (GPx1) gene expressions, were assessed. Prenatal EtOH exposure increased fetal liver weight, whereas maternal DHA supplementation decreased fetal liver weight. DHA supplementation increased fetal liver free fatty acid and phospholipid DHA independently of EtOH. GR and GPx1 messenger RNA (mRNA) expressions were significantly increased and decreased, respectively, in the EtOH-exposed group compared with all other groups. Providing DHA normalized GR and GPx1 mRNA expression to control levels. This study shows that maternal DHA supplementation alters the expression of fetal liver genes involved in the glutathione antioxidative system during prenatal EtOH exposure. The fetal liver may play an important role in mitigating the signs and symptoms of fetal alcohol spectrum disorders in affected offspring.

Influence of vegetable diets on physiological and immune responses to thermal stress in Senegalese sole (Solea senegalensis)

The substitution of fish resources as ingredients for aquafeeds by those based on vegetable sources is needed to ensure aquaculture sustainability in the future. It is known that Senegalese sole (Solea senegalensis) accepts high dietary content of plant ingredients without altering growth or flesh quality parameters. However, scarce information is available regarding the long-term impact of vegetable diets (combining the inclusion of both vegetable protein and oils) on the stress response and immunity of this fish species. This study aims to evaluate the concomitant effect of the extended use of vegetable protein-based diets with fish oil (FO) replacement (0, 50 or 100%) by vegetable oils (VO), on the response to acute (10 min) or prolonged (4 days) stress, induced by thermal shock. Plasma levels of cortisol, glucose and lactate as well as hepatic levels of glucose, glycogen and lactate were evaluated as primary and secondary responses to stress, 6 and 18 months after feeding the experimental diets (6 and 18 MAF). The brain monoaminergic activity in telencephalon and hypothalamus, and non-specific immune parameters were also evaluated. As expected, thermal shock induced an increase in values of plasma parameters related to stress, which was more evident in acute than in prolonged stress. Stress also affected lactate levels in the liver and the values of the alternative complement pathway-ACH50 in the plasma. Dietary substitution of FO induced an effect per se on some parameters such as decreased hepatic glucose and glycogen levels and peroxidase activity in plasma as well enhanced serotonergic activity in brain of non-stressed fish. The results obtained in some parameters indicate that there is an interaction between the use of vegetable diets with the physiological response to thermal stress, as is the case of the hepatic lactate, serotonergic neurotransmission in brain, and the activity of ACH50 in plasma. These results suggest that the inclusion of VO in plant protein based diets point to a slightly inhibited stress response, more evident for an acute than a prolonged stress.

Neurovegetative disorders of perimenopausal women treated with docosahexaenoic acid (DHA, 625 mg)

The study evaluated the effect of DHA 625 mg in women who experience menopausal symptoms, on sexuality and quality of life (QoL), and on the auditory brainstem response (ABR). Forty-two perimenopausal women were enrolled. The Kupperman Index (KI) was used to evaluate menopause symptoms. The Short Form-36 (SF-36), Female Sexual Function Index (FSFI), and the Female Sexual Distress Scale (FSDS) were used to assess QoL, sexual function, and sexual distress, respectively. Auditory evoked potentials to measure the ABR. The study had one follow-up at 6 months. The women reported an improvement in the KI total score (p < .001). Moreover, women reported QoL improvements in all the psychological categories (p < .001), but not in physical categories (p = NS). FSFI and FSDS total scores increased (p < .01) and the FSDS score decreased (p < .01), mainly due to arousal (p < .03) and lubrication (p < .05) sexual aspects. The ABR wave latencies were lower than the baseline values (p < .05). DHA could be effective in modulating some perimenopausal symptoms in women and, consequently could contribute to improve their QoL and sexual life. Finally, DHA seems to have a direct activity on the neuronal conduction time into the audiological system.

Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids in Perinatal Depression: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Omega-3 (or n-3) polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) are promising antidepressant treatments for perinatal depression (PND) because of supporting evidence from clinical trials, the advantage in safety, and their anti-inflammatory and neuroplastic effects. Although several observational studies have shown n-3 PUFA deficits in women with PND, the results of individual PUFAs from different studies were inconsistent.

METHODS

This systematic review and meta-analysis aims to compare the levels of PUFA indices, including eicosapentaenoic acid, docosahexaenoic acid, arachidonic acid, total n-3, total n-6, and the n-6/n-3 ratio between women with PND and healthy control subjects. The meta-analysis included 12 eligible studies available as of December 2016. The effect sizes were synthesized by using a random effects model. In addition, we performed subgroup analysis for the PUFA levels in patients with prenatal and postnatal depression, both of which were compared with healthy control subjects.

RESULTS

There were significantly lower levels of total n-3 PUFAs and docosahexaenoic acid and significantly increased n-6/n-3 ratios in PND patients. In the subgroup analyses, there were significantly lower levels of n-3 PUFAs, eicosapentaenoic acid, and docosahexaenoic acid in women with prenatal depression. The n-6/n-3 ratio was significantly increased in both prenatal and postnatal depression subgroups.

CONCLUSIONS

Our meta-analysis consolidates the important role of n-3 PUFAs in PND. Nutritional medicine is an important strategy to improve the effectiveness of treatment for depression, and our findings provide the strong rationale to conduct clinical trials to test the therapeutic and prophylactic effects of n-3 PUFAs in PND.

Serum dihomo-γ-linolenic acid level is inversely associated with the risk of depression. A 21-year follow-up study in general population men

BACKGROUND

Depression is a major public health challenge worldwide, and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), especially n-3 PUFAs, have been found to inversely associate with the risk of depression. However, only few cross-sectional studies have investigated the association between dihomo-γ-linolenic acid (DGLA), an n-6 PUFA with anti-inflammatory effects, and depression. The aims of the present study were to examine an association between serum DGLA and the risk of depression, and to study whether the potential association is mediated via inflammation.

METHODS

A 20-year prospective Kuopio Ischaemic Heart Disease Risk Factor (KIHD) follow-up study was conducted from 1984 to 1989 with 2179 middle-aged and older Finnish men (42-60 years old at baseline). The baseline concentrations of serum fatty acids, including DGLA, were determined. A hospital discharge diagnosis of depression was used as the main outcome and obtained from linkage to National Hospital Discharge Register. Serum C-reactive protein (CRP) levels were measured to assess inflammation.

RESULTS

An inverse association between serum DGLA concentration and incidence of depression was found after adjustment for several potential confounders (Hazard ratio HR 0.53, CI 0.36-0.79, P=0.002). The association between DGLA and depression was not dependent on inflammation (P-interaction=0.618).

LIMITATIONS

Our findings may not be generalizable to individuals below middle-age or women. Moreover, we were unable to consider cases with mild depression in the longitudinal setting.

CONCLUSIONS

Higher serum DGLA concentrations may predict lower risk of develop depression in elderly men. Further studies are warranted to address potential mechanisms as mechanism behind this association remains unclear.

Serum x03C9;-3 and x03C9;-6 Fatty Acids Are Not Associated with Personality Traits in Healthy Japanese Young People

BACKGROUND

Recent studies have reported that polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) are associated with mood and behaviors including depression and suicide risk. The aim of this study was to examine the relationship between PUFAs and personality traits in healthy subjects.

METHODS

A total of 279 subjects completed the Temperament and Character Inventory and Beck Depression Inventory. Serum levels of the PUFAs eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), the x03C9;-6 fatty acid arachidonic acid (AA), and dihomo-x03B3;-linolenic acid were measured.

RESULTS

Pearson's correlation analysis showed a positive correlation between DHA and cooperativeness scores. In the multiple regression analysis, harm avoidance scores were positively associated with AA, and a negative association was found between the EPA/AA ratio and reward dependence scores. However, these associations were nonsignificant after a Bonferroni correction.

CONCLUSION

The results of the present study suggest that the blood levels of PUFAs are not likely to be associated with personality traits.

Smoking and red blood cell phospholipid membrane fatty acids

Smoking is associated with lower n-3 long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LCPUFA) concentrations; however, limited studies have accounted for dietary PUFA intake or whether tobacco dose or smoking duration influences this association. We measured red blood cell phospholipid (RBC) membrane concentrations of fatty acids in 126 current smokers, 311 former smokers, and 461 never smokers using gas liquid chromatography and tandem mass spectrometry. Smokers had lower RBC membrane percentages of total n-3 LCPUFAs compared to former smokers or never smokers (median percent: 5.46, [interquartile range (IQR) 4.52, 6.28] versus 6.39; [IQR: 5.18, 7.85] versus 6.59; [IQR 5.34, 8.01]) (p<0.001) and this association remained after adjusting for dietary PUFA intake. Duration of smoking and cigarettes per day were not associated with RBC membrane n-3 LCPUFA differences. Smoking is associated with lower n-3 LCPUFA RBC membrane percentages and this association was not influenced by diet or smoking dose or duration.

The importance of n-6/n-3 fatty acids ratio in the major depressive disorder

This review aims to clarify the relation between the ratio of omega-6 to omega-3 fatty acids and the development of depression. It is explained how these fatty acids are involved in the production of eicosanoids and how these fatty acids can affect the membrane fluidity, by their incorporation into membrane phospholipids. In addition, it is described how omega-3 derivatives are shown to regulate gene transcription. In view of the pathophysiology of depression, the mechanisms of how an altered ratio of omega-6 to omega-3 could be involved in depression are discussed. Possible mechanisms could include an increased production of pro-inflammatory cytokines, which can activate the HPA axis and a changed membrane fluidity, which potentially affects membrane bound enzymes, ion channels, receptor activity and neurotransmitter binding. In view of clinical trials, it is also discussed whether omega-3 supplementation could have a beneficial effect in the treatment of depressive patient. There are strong indications that an increased ratio of membrane omega-6 to omega-3 is involved in the pathogenesis of depression and so far, omega-3 supplementation has shown positive effects in clinical trials.

Relationship between Erythrocyte Fatty Acid Composition and Psychopathology in the Vienna Omega-3 Study

This study investigated the relationship between erythrocyte membrane fatty acid (FA) levels and the severity of symptoms of individuals at ultra-high risk (UHR) for psychosis. Subjects of the present study consisted of 80 neuroleptic-naïve UHR patients. Partial correlation coefficients were calculated between baseline erythrocyte membrane FA levels, measured by gas chromatography, and scores on the Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale (PANSS), Global Assessment of Functioning Scale, and Montgomery–Asberg Depression Rating Scale (MADRS) after controlling for age, sex, smoking and cannabis use. Subjects were divided into three groups according to the predominance of positive or negative symptoms based on PANSS subscale scores; membrane FA levels in the three groups were then compared. More severe negative symptoms measured by PANSS were negatively correlated with two saturated FAs (myristic and margaric acids), one ω-9 monounsaturated FA (MUFA; nervonic acid), and one ω-3 polyunsaturated FA (PUFA; docosapentaenoic acid), and were positively correlated with two ω-9 MUFAs (eicosenoic and erucic acids) and two ω-6 PUFAs (γ-linolenic and docosadienoic acids). More severe positive symptoms measured by PANSS were correlated only with nervonic acid. No associations were observed between FAs and MADRS scores. In subjects with predominant negative symptoms, the sum of the ω-9 MUFAs and the ω-6:ω-3 FA ratio were both significantly higher than in those with predominant positive symptoms, whereas the sum of ω-3 PUFAs was significantly lower. In conclusion, abnormalities in FA metabolism may contribute to the neurobiology of psychopathology in UHR individuals. In particular, membrane FA alterations may play a role in negative symptoms, which are primary psychopathological manifestations of schizophrenia-related disability.

Omega-3 Fatty Acids in Modern Parenteral Nutrition: A Review of the Current Evidence

Intravenous lipid emulsions are an essential component of parenteral nutrition regimens. Originally employed as an efficient non-glucose energy source to reduce the adverse effects of high glucose intake and provide essential fatty acids, lipid emulsions have assumed a larger therapeutic role due to research demonstrating the effects of omega-3 and omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) on key metabolic functions, including inflammatory and immune response, coagulation, and cell signaling. Indeed, emerging evidence suggests that the effects of omega-3 PUFA on inflammation and immune response result in meaningful therapeutic benefits in surgical, cancer, and critically ill patients as well as patients requiring long-term parenteral nutrition. The present review provides an overview of the mechanisms of action through which omega-3 and omega-6 PUFA modulate the immune-inflammatory response and summarizes the current body of evidence regarding the clinical and pharmacoeconomic benefits of intravenous n-3 fatty acid-containing lipid emulsions in patients requiring parenteral nutrition.

The Deleterious Effects of Oxidative and Nitrosative Stress on Palmitoylation, Membrane Lipid Rafts and Lipid-Based Cellular Signalling: New Drug Targets in Neuroimmune Disorders

Oxidative and nitrosative stress (O&NS) is causatively implicated in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's and Parkinson's disease, multiple sclerosis, chronic fatigue syndrome, schizophrenia and depression. Many of the consequences stemming from O&NS, including damage to proteins, lipids and DNA, are well known, whereas the effects of O&NS on lipoprotein-based cellular signalling involving palmitoylation and plasma membrane lipid rafts are less well documented. The aim of this narrative review is to discuss the mechanisms involved in lipid-based signalling, including palmitoylation, membrane/lipid raft (MLR) and n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) functions, the effects of O&NS processes on these processes and their role in the abovementioned diseases. S-palmitoylation is a post-translational modification, which regulates protein trafficking and association with the plasma membrane, protein subcellular location and functions. Palmitoylation and MRLs play a key role in neuronal functions, including glutamatergic neurotransmission, and immune-inflammatory responses. Palmitoylation, MLRs and n-3 PUFAs are vulnerable to the corruptive effects of O&NS. Chronic O&NS inhibits palmitoylation and causes profound changes in lipid membrane composition, e.g. n-3 PUFA depletion, increased membrane permeability and reduced fluidity, which together lead to disorders in intracellular signal transduction, receptor dysfunction and increased neurotoxicity. Disruption of lipid-based signalling is a source of the neuroimmune disorders involved in the pathophysiology of the abovementioned diseases. n-3 PUFA supplementation is a rational therapeutic approach targeting disruptions in lipid-based signalling.

Omega-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids in Prevention of Mood and Anxiety Disorders

Psychiatric disorders in general, and major depression and anxiety disorders in particular, account for a large burden of disability, morbidity and premature mortality worldwide. Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) have a range of neurobiological activities in modulation of neurotransmitters, anti-inflammation, anti-oxidation and neuroplasticity, which could contribute to psychotropic effects. Here we reviewed recent research on the benefits of omega-3 PUFA supplements in prevention against major depression, bipolar disorders, interferon-α-induced depression patients with chronic hepatitis C viral infection, and posttraumatic stress disorder. The biological mechanisms underlying omega-3 PUFAs'psychotropic effects are proposed and reviewed. Nutrition is a modifiable environmental factor that might be important in prevention medicine, which have been applied for many years in the secondary prevention of heart disease with omega-3 PUFAs. This review extends the notion that nutrition in psychiatry is a modifiable environmental factor and calls for more researches on prospective clinical studies to justify the preventive application of omega-3 PUFAs in daily practice.

Effects of fucoidan on insulin stimulation and pancreatic protection via the cAMP signaling pathway in vivo and in vitro

Diabetes is a global disease, in which pancreatic dysfunction is an important pathological process. In previous years, interest in the biological activities of seaweed has increased. Fucoidan is an extract of the seaweed Fucus vesiculosus, which has been widely investigated. The present study aimed to determine the effects of fucoidan on insulin stimulation and pancreatic protection in vivo and in vitro. Goto‑Kakizaki (GK) rats were provided with free access to standard food, with or without fucoidan, for 13 weeks, following which the body weights, and blood glucose and serum insulin levels of the rats were measured. Wistar rats were used as a control. In addition, the RIN‑5F rat insulin‑secreting cell line was treated with fucoidan in high glucose conditions, following which the dose‑dependent and time‑dependent effects of fucoidan were determined, and the concentration of insulin was measured. Glybenclamide was used as a positive control. In vivo, the body weight and serum insulin levels decreased, whereas blood glucose levels increased significantly in the GK rats, compared with the Wistar control rats. Although, fucoidan did not improve changes in body weight, the increased blood glucose levels were reduced and the decreased serum insulin levels were increased in the GK rats following oral administration of fucoidan. In vitro, fucoidan did not exhibit significant cytotoxicity towards the RIN‑5F cells, and the insulin secretion increased significantly in a dose‑ and time‑dependent manner. Treatment with amylin, an islet amyloid polypeptide and glybenclamide inhibitor, did not inhibit the stimulatory activity of fucoidan. The results of the present study also demonstrated that the concentration of cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) was significantly increased in the fucoidan‑treated RIN‑5F cells, and this increase was dose‑ and time‑dependent. In addition, treatment with a phosphodiesterase inhibitor, which decreases the degradation of cAMP, significantly increased fucoidan‑induced insulin secretion, whereas treatment with an adenylyl cyclase inhibitor, which decreases the generation of cAMP, significantly decreased fucoidan‑induced insulin secretion. In conclusion, these data indicated that fucoidan may stimulate insulin secretion and provide pancreatic protection via the cAMP signaling pathway, in vivo and in vitro.

A possible association between elevated serum levels of brain-specific auto-antibodies and reduced plasma levels of docosahexaenoic acid in autistic children

Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) are not only essential for energy production, but they also exhibit a range of immunomodulatory properties that progress through T cell mediated events. Autoimmunity may have a pathogenic role in a subgroup of autistic children. This study is the first to investigate the relationship between serum levels of anti-myelin basic protein (anti-MBP) brain-specific auto-antibodies and reduced plasma levels of PUFAs in autistic children. Plasma levels of PUFAs (including linoleic, alphalinolenic, arachidonic "AA" and docosahexaenoic "DHA" acids) and serum anti-MBP were measured in 80 autistic children, aged between 4 and 12 years, and 80 healthy-matched children. Autistic patients had significantly lower plasma levels of PUFAs than healthy children. On the other hand, ω6/ω3 ratio (AA/DHA) was significantly higher in autistic patients than healthy children. Low plasma DHA, AA, linolenic and linoleic acids were found in 67.5%, 50%, 40% and 35%, respectively of autistic children. On the other hand, 70% of autistic patients had elevated ω6/ω3 ratio. Autistic patients with increased serum levels of anti-MBP auto-antibodies (75%) had significantly lower plasma DHA (P<0.5) and significantly higher ω6/ω3 ratio (P<0.5) than patients who were seronegative for these antibodies. In conclusions, some autistic children have a significant positive association between reduced levels of plasma DHA and increased serum levels of anti-MBP brain-specific auto-antibodies. However, replication studies of larger samples are recommended to validate whether reduced levels of plasma PUFAs are a mere association or have a role in the induction of the production of anti-MBP in some autistic children.

Effects of low doses of polyunsaturated Fatty acids on the attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder of children: a systematic review

Since attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) presents high prevalence among children, science has been researching alternative forms of treatment that do not involve medication. Objective: To evaluate the effects of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) on attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Methods: We reviewed the articles published between 1980 and 2012 indexed in the databases PubMed, APA psychNET, Scopus and Web of Knowledge. Results: Initially 231 articles were selected, out of which 12 met the inclusion criteria. The articles selected reported a modest cognitive and behavioral improvement of the patients after treatment with low doses of PUFAs. Those results might be associated with the evaluation methodology, the doses of PUFAs administered or the duration of treatment.

Marine Ο-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids induce sex-specific changes in reinforcer-controlled behaviour and neurotransmitter metabolism in a spontaneously hypertensive rat model of ADHD

Background

Previous reports suggest that omega-3 (n-3) polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) supplements may reduce ADHD-like behaviour. Our aim was to investigate potential effects of n-3 PUFA supplementation in an animal model of ADHD.

Methods

We used spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR). SHR dams were given n-3 PUFA (EPA and DHA)-enriched feed (n-6/n-3 of 1:2.7) during pregnancy, with their offspring continuing on this diet until sacrificed. The SHR controls and Wistar Kyoto (WKY) control rats were given control-feed (n-6/n-3 of 7:1). During postnatal days (PND) 25–50, offspring were tested for reinforcement-dependent attention, impulsivity and hyperactivity as well as spontaneous locomotion. The animals were then sacrificed at PND 55–60 and their neostriata were analysed for monoamine and amino acid neurotransmitters with high performance liquid chromatography.

Results

n-3 PUFA supplementation significantly enhanced reinforcement-controlled attention and reduced lever-directed hyperactivity and impulsiveness in SHR males whereas the opposite or no effects were observed in females. Analysis of neostriata from the same animals showed significantly enhanced dopamine and serotonin turnover ratios in the male SHRs, whereas female SHRs showed no change, except for an intermediate increase in serotonin catabolism. In contrast, both male and female SHRs showed n-3 PUFA-induced reduction in non-reinforced spontaneous locomotion, and sex-independent changes in glycine levels and glutamate turnover.

Conclusions

Feeding n-3 PUFAs to the ADHD model rats induced sex-specific changes in reinforcement-motivated behaviour and a sex-independent change in non-reinforcement-associated behaviour, which correlated with changes in presynaptic striatal monoamine and amino acid signalling, respectively. Thus, dietary n-3 PUFAs may partly ameliorate ADHD-like behaviour by reinforcement-induced mechanisms in males and partly via reinforcement-insensitive mechanisms in both sexes.

Treatment for tobacco smoking: a new alternative?

Smoking is a very common addiction and is associated with several kinds of diseases including different forms of cancer. Nicotine is the only substance present in cigarettes that can cause dependence. There are pharmacological treatments available to smoking cessation, but all of them are associated with side effects and low efficacy. Therefore, the development of new strategies and treatments is necessary. A possibility is the supplementation with polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) of the omega 3 series. It is known that low concentration of omega 3 can affect the dopaminergic neurotransmission, resulting in hypofunctioning of the mesocortical system. This system controls the mesolimbic system, associated in rewarding and dependence mechanisms. New perspectives of treatment focus on the reestablishment of the omega 3 levels, having as a result the normalization of the dopaminergic system and the reduction of the negative symptoms of withdrawal.

Increased linoleic acid/α-linolenic acid ratio in Swedish cord blood samples collected between 1985 and 2005

BACKGROUND

Cord serum (CS) phospholipid fatty acid composition is associated with maternal diet during foetal life, and maternal intake of linoleic acid (LA, C18:2ω-6) and α-linolenic acid (LNA, C18:3 ω-3) has been shown to influence the LA and LNA levels in CS. A possible connection between the increased incidence of atopic diseases and increased intake of LA and decreased intake of LNA in the Western world has been proposed.

AIM

The aim of this study was to explore phospholipid fatty acid proportions and total IgE levels in CS from Swedish children, collected from 1985 to 2005, a period with increasing frequency of allergic diseases in Sweden, and reveal possible changes over time.

METHOD

Phospholipid fatty acids and total IgE antibodies were analysed with gas chromatography and UniCAP(®) technology, respectively, in 300 CS samples.

RESULTS

The proportions of LA and LNA decreased significantly from 1985 to 2005 (p < 0.001 for both). However, the LA/LNA ratio did increase (p < 0.001), revealing a relatively larger decrease in LNA than in LA. No correlations were found between ω-6 and ω-3 fatty acids and total IgE antibodies in CS from newborn children.

CONCLUSIONS

The LA/LNA ratio increased (p < 0.001) in cord serum samples collected between 1985 and 2005, and no correlations between fatty acids and total IgE were found.

Greasing the wheels of managing overweight and obesity with omega-3 fatty acids

The epidemic of overweight and obesity around the world and in the US is a major public health challenge, with 1.5 billion overweight and obese adults worldwide, and 68% of US adults and 31% of US children and adolescents overweight or obese. Obesity leads to serious health consequences, including an increased risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus and heart disease. Current preventive and medical treatments include lifestyle modification, medication, and bariatric surgery in extreme cases; however, they are either not very efficacious or are very expensive. Obesity is a complex condition involving the dysregulation of several organ systems and molecular pathways, including adipose tissue, the pancreas, the gastrointestinal tract, and the CNS. The role of the CNS in obesity is receiving more attention as obesity rates rise and treatments continue to fail. While the role of the hypothalamus in regulation of appetite and food intake has long been recognized, the roles of the CNS reward systems are beginning to be examined as the role of environmental influences on energy balance are explored. Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids are essential nutrients that play a beneficial role in several disease processes due to their anti-inflammatory effects, modulation of lipids, and effects on the CNS. Omega-3 fatty acids, specifically EPA and DHA, have shown promising preliminary results in animal and human studies in the prevention and treatment of obesity. Given their effects on many of the pathways involved in obesity, and specifically in the endocannabinoid and mesocorticolimbic pathways, we hypothesize that EPA and DHA supplementation in populations can reduce the reward associated with food, thereby reduce appetite and food intake, and ultimately contribute to the prevention or reduction of obesity. If these fatty acids do harbor such potential, their supplementation in many parts of the world may hold great promise in reducing the global burden of obesity.

Soluble epoxide hydrolase inhibition, epoxygenated fatty acids and nociception

The soluble epoxide hydrolase (sEH) enzyme regulates the levels of endogenous epoxygenated fatty acid (EFA) lipid metabolites by rapidly degrading these molecules. The EFAs have pleiotropic biological activities including the modulation of nociceptive signaling. Recent findings indicate that the EFAs, in particular the arachidonic acid (AA) derived epoxyeicosatrienoic acids (EETs), the docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) derived epoxydocosapentaenoic acids (EpDPEs) and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) derived epoxyeicosatetraenoic acids (EpETEs) are natural signaling molecules. The tight regulation of these metabolites speaks to their importance in regulating biological functions. In the past several years work on EFAs in regard to their activities in the nervous system evolved to demonstrate that these molecules are anti-inflammatory and anti-nociceptive. Here we focus on the recent advances in understanding the effects of sEH inhibition and increased EFAs on the nociceptive system and their ability to reduce pain. Evidence of their role in modulating pain signaling is given by their direct application and by inhibiting their degradation in various models of pain. Moreover, there is mounting evidence of EFAs role in the crosstalk between major nociceptive and anti-nociceptive systems which is reviewed herein. Overall the fundamental knowledge generated within the past decade indicates that orally bioavailable small molecule inhibitors of sEH may find a place in the treatment of a number of diverse painful conditions including inflammatory and neuropathic pain.

The influence of supplemental docosahexaenoic and arachidonic acids during pregnancy and lactation on neurodevelopment at eighteen months

Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and arachidonic acid (AA) are important for neurodevelopment. The effects of DHA (220 mg/day, n=41), DHA+AA (220 mg/day, n=39) or placebo (n=34) during pregnancy and lactation on neurodevelopment at 18 months, and the relations between umbilical cord DHA, AA and Mead acid and neurodevelopment were studied. An age-specific, standardized neurological assessment for the evaluation of minor neurological dysfunction (MND), and the Bayley Scales of Infant Development (BSID) were used. The intervention did not influence any of the outcomes. Umbilical venous (UV) Mead acid was negatively and n-6 fatty acids were weakly positively associated to the BSID mental developmental index. Children with simple MND had lower UV DHA compared to normally classified children. We conclude that relatively short-term maternal DHA or DHA+AA supplementation does not influence neurodevelopment at toddler age, although some parameters of brain development are related to perinatal DHA and AA status.

Plasma fatty acids as diagnostic markers in autistic patients from Saudi Arabia

Backgrounds

Autism is a family of developmental disorders of unknown origin. The disorder is characterized by behavioral, developmental, neuropathological and sensory abnormalities, and is usually diagnosed between the ages of 2 and 10 with peak prevalence rates observed in children aged 5-8 years. Recently, there has been heightened interest in the role of plasma free fatty acids (FA) in the pathology of neurological disorders. The aim of this study is to compare plasma fatty acid profiles of Saudi autistic patients with those of age-matching control subjects in an attempt to clarify the role of FA in the etiology of autism.

Methods

26 autistic patients together with 26-age-matching controls were enrolled in the present study. Methyl esters of FA were extracted with hexane, and the fatty acid composition of the extract was analyzed on a gas chromatography.

Results

The obtained data proved that fatty acids are altered in the plasma of autistic patients, specifically showing an increase in most of the saturated fatty acids except for propionic acid, and a decrease in most of polyunsaturated fatty acids. The altered fatty acid profile was discussed in relation to oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction and the high lead (Pb) concentration previously reported in Saudi autistic patients. Statistical analysis of the obtained data shows that most of the measured fatty acids were significantly different in autistic patients compared to age -matching controls.

Conclusions

Receiver Operating Characteristic (ROC) curve analysis shows satisfactory values of area under the curve (AUC) which could reflect the high degree of specificity and sensitivity of the altered fatty acids as biomarkers in autistic patients from Saudi Arabia.

If waking and dreaming consciousness became de-differentiated, would schizophrenia result?

If both waking and dreaming consciousness are functional, their de-differentiation would be doubly detrimental. Differentiation between waking and dreaming is achieved through neuromodulation. During dreaming, without external sensory data and with mesolimbic dopaminergic input, hyper-cholinergic input almost totally suppresses the aminergic system. During waking, with sensory gates open, aminergic modulation inhibits cholinergic and mesocortical dopaminergic suppresses mesolimbic. These neuromodulatory systems are reciprocally interactive and self-organizing. As a consequence of neuromodulatory reciprocity, phenomenologically, the self and the world that appear during dreaming differ from those that emerge during waking. As a result of self-organizing, the self and the world in both states are integrated. Some loss of self-organization would precipitate a degree of de-differentiation between waking and dreaming, resulting in a hybrid state which would be expressed heterogeneously, both neurobiologically and phenomenologically. As a consequence of progressive de-differentiation, certain identifiable psychiatric disorders may emerge. Ultimately, schizophrenia, a disorganized-fragmented self, may result.

Cognition, dopamine and bioactive lipids in schizophrenia

Schizophrenia is a remarkably complex disorder with a multitude of behavioral and biological perturbations. Cognitive deficits are a core feature of this disorder, and involve abnormalities across multiple domains, including memory, attention, and perception. The complexity of this debilitating illness has led to a view that the key to unraveling its pathophysiology lies in deconstructing the clinically-defined syndrome into pathophysiologically distinct intermediate phenotypes. Accumulating evidence suggests that one of these intermediate phenotypes may involve phospholipid signaling abnormalities, particularly in relation to arachidonic acid (AA). Our data show relationships between levels of AA and performance on tests of cognition for schizophrenia patients, with defects in AA signaling associated with deficits in cognition. Moreover, dopamine may moderate these relationships between AA and cognition. Taken together, cognitive deficits, dopaminergic neurotransmission, and bioactive lipids have emerged as related features of schizophrenia. Existing treatment options for cognitive deficits in schizophrenia do not specifically target lipid-derived signaling pathways; understanding these processes could inform efforts to identify novel targets for treatment innovation.

Long chain omega 3 polyunsaturated fatty acids supplementation in the treatment of elderly depression: effects on depressive symptoms, on phospholipids fatty acids profile and on health-related quality of life

OBJECTIVE

Recent observations showed that long chain omega 3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-3 LCPUFA) could represent a potential treatment for elderly depression. To determine if a n-3 LCPUFA containing supplement improves depressive symptoms, changes phospholipids acids profile and ameliorates Health related quality of life (HRQoL) in depressed elderly patients.

DESIGN

Two-months, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial.

SETTING

Nursing home in Pavia, Italy.

SUBJECTS

Forty-six depressed females, aged 66-95 years.

INTERVENTION

22 depressed females were included in the intervention group (n-3 group, that received 2.5 g/day of n-3 LCPUFA, with 1.67 grams of EPA and 0.83 grams of DHA), and 24 patients in the placebo group. The primary endpoint was the improvement of depressive symptoms as evaluated by Geriatric Depression Scale (GDS). Secondary endpoints were the evaluation of modifications of erythrocyte membrane phospholipids fatty acid profile and of of HRQoL, by using the Short-Form 36-Item Health Survey (SF-36). All parameters were assessed before and after the treatment period of 8 weeks.

RESULTS

The mean GDS at 2 months was significantly lowered only for the n-3 group. SF-36 physical and mental components were significantly increased in the intervention group. Compliance was good, as confirmed by erythrocyte membrane phospholipid FA concentrations, with significant increase of EPA and DHA in the intervention group.

CONCLUSION

The supplementation of n-3 LCPUFA in elderly female patients reduces the occurrence of depressive symptoms, improves phospholipids fatty acids profile and health-related quality of life.

Effect of omega-3 fatty acids supplementation on depressive symptoms and on health-related quality of life in the treatment of elderly women with depression: a double-blind, placebo-controlled, randomized clinical trial

OBJECTIVE

In elderly individuals, depression is one of the most frequently missed diagnoses with negative effects on quality of life. The authors investigated whether a supplement containing long-chain omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-3 LCPUFA) improves depressive symptoms and health-related quality of life (HRQoL) in depressed elderly patients.

DESIGN

Eight-week, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial.

SETTING

Nursing home in Pavia, Italy.

PARTICIPANTS

Forty-six depressed women, aged 66-95 years.

INTERVENTION

Twenty-two depressed women were included in the intervention group (n-3 group, which received 2.5 g/d of n-3 LCPUFA, with 1.67 g of eicosapentaenoic acid [EPA] and 0.83 g of docosahesaenoic acid [DHA]), and 24 patients were included in the placebo group. The primary endpoint was the improvement of depressive symptoms, as evaluated by the Geriatric Depression Scale (GDS). Secondary endpoints were the evaluation of HRQoL, by using the Short-Form 36-Item Health Survey (SF-36), and modifications of erythrocyte membrane phospholipids fatty acid profile. All variables were assessed before and after the treatment period of 8 weeks.

RESULTS

The mean GDS at 8 weeks was significantly lower compared with the n-3 group. The SF-36 physical and mental components were significantly increased in the intervention group. Compliance was good, as confirmed by erythrocyte membrane phospholipid FA concentrations, with a significant increase of EPA and DHA in the intervention group.

CONCLUSION

Supplementation with n-3 LCPUFA is efficacious in the amelioration of depressive symptoms and quality of life in the treatment of depressed elderly female patients.