Dietary Perilla Oil Inhibits Proinflammatory Cytokine Production in the Bronchoalveolar Lavage Fluid of Ovalbumin-Challenged Mice

A comprehensive review of the botany, ethnopharmacology, phytochemistry, pharmacology, toxicity and quality control of Perillae Fructus

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Perilla frutescens (Linnaeus) Britton, Mem. Torrey Bot. Club 5: 277. 1894., is famous as a worldwide plant with multiple medical parts, including leaves, stems, fruits, etc. Perillae Fructus, the desiccative ripe fruit of P. frutescens, is locally called Zisuzi in Chinese Pharmacopoeia. It is a popularly used herb for relieving cough and asthma, dissipating phlegm and treating constipation in some Asian countries, such as China, Japan, India, South Korea, etc. Various chemical compounds were isolated and identified from Perillae Fructus.

THE AIM OF THE REVIEW

This review aims to summarize the botany, ethnopharmacological applications, phytochemistry, pharmacology, toxicity and quality control of Perillae Fructus to provide scientific evidence for development and utilization Perillae Fructus.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Relevant information about Perillae Fructus was collected from ScienceDirect, PubMed, Web of science, CNKI, WanFang data, ancient classics and clinical reports. Some electronic databases were also retrieved.

RESULTS

Perillae Fructus was exerted to treat cough and asthma in traditional application. It also had the effect on moistening intestine to relieve constipation for tremendous lipid substances. Up to now, 193 compounds have been isolated and identified from Perillae Fructus, mainly including fatty acids, flavonoids, phenolic acids, phytosterols, triterpenoids and volatile oils. As for its pharmacological activities, prevalent traditional applications of Perillae Fructus have been supported by modern pharmacological experiments in vivo or in vitro, such as anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidant effects. Besides, Perillae Fructus also has hypolipidemic, anti-tumor, antibacterial effects, etc. This review will provide a scientific basis for further studies and rational applications of Perillae Fructus in the future.

CONCLUSIONS

According to its traditional applications, phytochemicals and pharmacological activities, Perillae Fructus was regarded as a valuable herb for application in medicine and food fields. Although some ingredients have been confirmed to have multiple pharmacological activities, their mechanisms of action are still unclear. Further studies on the material basis and mechanism of action are clearly warranted.

Menthone supplementation protects from allergic inflammation in the lungs of asthmatic mice

To screen potent terpenoid compounds against allergic inflammation in vitro and in vivo, five terpenoid compounds including menthone, farnesol, oridonin, β-escin and lupeol, were first selected to compare their anti-allergic inflammation potential using mouse lung mast cells in vitro. Among five selected terpenoid compounds, just menthone treatment decreased TNF-α/IL-10 secretion ratios in lipopolysaccharide -stimulated mast cells in vitro. As a result, menthone was further chosen to treat ovalbumin (OVA)-sensitized and challenged BALB/c mice by gavage for 5 weeks. There were six groups including dietary control (DC group, 0 mg menthone/kg b.w./day), 8 (ML group), 40 (MM group) as well as 200 mg menthone/kg b.w./day (MH group) by gavage, positive control (PC group, 3 mg dexamethasone/kg b.w. by gavage before OVA challenge) and non-treatment control (NTC group, normal mice without treatment) in the experiment. Changes of inflammatory mediators, cell distribution, Th1/Th2 and pro-/anti-inflammatory cytokines secretion as well as relative gene expression amounts of six receptors related to allergic inflammation in the lungs and airways were measured. The results showed that middle menthone supplementation (40 mg menthone/kg b.w./day) in vivo decreased protein and eotaxin, but increased Th1 cytokine levels in the bronchoalveolar lavage fluid. Menthone supplementation inhibited eosinophilia, mast cell degranulation, chemokine (C-C motif) receptor 3 (CC receptor 3) and chemokine (C-X-C motif) receptor 1 (CXC receptor 1) gene expression amounts in the lungs, but restored the percentage of monocytes/macrophages. Our results suggest that menthone supplementation may alleviate allergic asthma through regulating airway allergic inflammation, protein overproduction, eosinophils infiltration, Th1/Th2 immune balance, CC receptor 3 and CXC receptor 1 gene expression amounts in the lungs but restoring the percentage of monocytes/macrophages in allergic asthmatic mice.

Pomegranate Oil’s Potential as an Anti-Obesity Ingredient

In recent years, pomegranate oil has obtained more attention due to its content of conjugated linolenic acids and possible application in the prevention of many diseases. The purpose of this work was to evaluate the potential ability of pomegranate oil to modulate obesity-related metabolism and immune response using in vitro models. In this regard, pomegranate oil was characterized in terms of fatty acids profile, tocopherols and phytosterols, and antioxidant capacity. After evaluation of the safety profile, pomegranate oil’s capacity to modulate obesity-related metabolism was evaluated through adipolysis and adipokines secretion quantification in 3T3-L1 differentiated adipocytes and hepatic lipid accumulation assay in Hep G2 hepatocytes. The immunomodulatory activity was evaluated in Caco-2 cells by quantification of pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-6, IL-8, and TNF-α. This oil showed high antioxidant capacity and was mainly composed of conjugated fatty acid, namely punicic acid. Its chemical composition was responsible for its capacity to reduce the lipid accumulation in Hep G2 cells and 3T3-L1 differentiated adipocytes. In short, pomegranate oil shows great potential for the development of functional foods and nutraceuticals targeting obesity.

Menthone Inhalation Alleviates Local and Systemic Allergic Inflammation in Ovalbumin-Sensitized and Challenged Asthmatic Mice

Menthone is rich in Mentha × Piperita L. essential oil and it has anti-inflammatory properties; research shows that it is useful, via percutaneous absorption, in treating inflammation-related diseases. However, anti-allergic inflammatory effects of volatile menthone have not yet been used to treat allergic asthma, in vivo. We hypothesized that menthone inhalation may have anti-inflammatory and anti-allergic effects in patients with allergic asthma. Therefore, in our study, menthone inhalation was used to treat ovalbumin (OVA)-sensitized and challenged asthmatic mice. Allergic inflammation mediator changes in the lungs and airways, sera, splenocytes, and peritoneal macrophages of the mice were measured. Relative expression amounts of six receptor genes related to allergic inflammation of the lungs and airways were quantitated using a two-step real time quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR). Results showed that menthone inhalation increased serum OVA-specific IgG2a/IgG1 and IgG2a/IgE ratios, increased Th1-type cytokine production in the bronchoalveolar lavage fluid, and decreased nitric oxide, protein, and eotaxin levels. Menthone inhalation inhibited mast cell and eosinophil degranulation, and chemokine (C-C motif) receptor 3 (Ccr3) gene expression amounts, but (relatively) increased Th1 cytokine secretion by splenocytes. Our results evidence that menthone inhalation alleviates local and systemic allergic inflammation in asthmatic mice.

Molecular Mechanism of Antioxidant and Anti-Inflammatory Effects of Omega-3 Fatty Acids in Perilla Seed Oil and Rosmarinic Acid Rich Fraction Extracted from Perilla Seed Meal on TNF-α Induced A549 Lung Adenocarcinoma Cells

Industrially, after the removal of oil from perilla seeds (PS) by screw-type compression, the large quantities of residual perilla seed meal (PSM) becomes non-valuable waste. Therefore, to increase the health value and price of PS and PSM, we focused on the biological effects of perilla seed oil (PSO) and rosmarinic acid-rich fraction (RA-RF) extracted from PSM for their role in preventing oxidative stress and inflammation caused by TNF-α exposure in an A549 lung adenocarcinoma culture model. The A549 cells were pretreated with PSO or RA-RF and followed by TNF-α treatment. We found that PSO and RA-RF were not toxic to TNF-α-induced A549 cells. Both extracts significantly decreased the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in this cell line. The mRNA expression levels of IL-1β, IL-6, IL-8, TNF-α, and COX-2 were significantly decreased by the treatment of PSO and RA-RF. The Western blot indicated that the expression of MnSOD, FOXO1, and NF-κB and phosphorylation of JNK were also significantly diminished by PSO and RA-RF treatment. The results demonstrated that PSO and RA-RF act as antioxidants to scavenge TNF-α induced ROS levels, resulting in decreased the expression of MnSOD, FOXO1, NF-κB and JNK signaling pathway in a human lung cell culture exposed to TNF-α.

Prediction of drug efficacy from transcriptional profiles with deep learning

Drug discovery focused on target proteins has been a successful strategy, but many diseases and biological processes lack obvious targets to enable such approaches. Here, to overcome this challenge, we describe a deep learning-based efficacy prediction system (DLEPS) that identifies drug candidates using a change in the gene expression profile in the diseased state as input. DLEPS was trained using chemically induced changes in transcriptional profiles from the L1000 project. We found that the changes in transcriptional profiles for previously unexamined molecules were predicted with a Pearson correlation coefficient of 0.74. We examined three disorders and experimentally tested the top drug candidates in mouse disease models. Validation showed that perillen, chikusetsusaponin IV and trametinib confer disease-relevant impacts against obesity, hyperuricemia and nonalcoholic steatohepatitis, respectively. DLEPS can generate insights into pathogenic mechanisms, and we demonstrate that the MEK-ERK signaling pathway is a target for developing agents against nonalcoholic steatohepatitis. Our findings suggest that DLEPS is an effective tool for drug repurposing and discovery.

Essential sufficiency of zinc, ω-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids, vitamin D and magnesium for prevention and treatment of COVID-19, diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, lung diseases and cancer

Despite the development of a number of vaccines for COVID-19, there remains a need for prevention and treatment of the virus SARS-CoV-2 and the ensuing disease COVID-19. This report discusses the key elements of SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19 that can be readily treated: viral entry, the immune system and inflammation, and the cytokine storm. It is shown that the essential nutrients zinc, ω-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), vitamin D and magnesium provide the ideal combination for prevention and treatment of COVID-19: prevention of SARS-CoV-2 entry to host cells, prevention of proliferation of SARS-CoV-2, inhibition of excessive inflammation, improved control of the regulation of the immune system, inhibition of the cytokine storm, and reduction in the effects of acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) and associated non-communicable diseases. It is emphasized that the non-communicable diseases associated with COVID-19 are inherently more prevalent in the elderly than the young, and that the maintenance of sufficiency of zinc, ω-3 PUFAs, vitamin D and magnesium is essential for the elderly to prevent the occurrence of non-communicable diseases such as diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, lung diseases and cancer. Annual checking of levels of these essential nutrients is recommended for those over 65 years of age, together with appropriate adjustments in their intake, with these services and supplies being at government cost. The cost:benefit ratio would be huge as the cost of the nutrients and the testing of their levels would be very small compared with the cost savings of specialists and hospitalization.

Analgesic, anti-inflammatory and anti-ulcer properties of Thai Perilla frutescence fruit oil in animals

Perilla frutescens fruit oil (PFO) is rich in α-linolenic acid (ALA) and exhibits biological activities. We aimed to investigate analgesic, anti-inflammatory and anti-ulcer activities of PFO and PFO-supplemented soybean milk (PFO-SM) in animal models. Analgesic activity was assessed in acetic acid-induced writhing in mice, while anti-inflammatory activity was performed in ethyl phenylpropiolate (EPP)-induced ear edema and carrageenan-induced hind paw edema in rats. Anti-ulcer effects were conducted in water immersion stress, HCl/ethanol and indomethacin-induced gastric ulcer in rats. Distinctly, PFO, containing 6.96 mg ALA and 2.61 mg LA equivalence/g, did not induce acute toxicity (LD50 > 10 mL/kg) in mice. PFO (2.5 and 5 mL/kg) and PFO-SM (0.05 mL PFO equivalence/kg) inhibited incidences of writhing (16.8, 18.0 and 32.3%, respectively) in acetic acid-induced mice. In addition, topical applications of PFO (0.1 and 1 mL/ear) significantly inhibited EPP-induced ear edema (59.3 and 65.7%, respectively) in rats, while PFO-SM slightly inhibited ear edema (25.9%). However, PFO and PFO-SM did not inhibit carrageenan-induced hind paw edema in rats. Indeed, PFO (2.5 and 5 mL/kg) significantly inhibited gastric ulcers in rats that induced by water immersion stress (92.4 and 96.6%, respectively), HCl/ethanol (74.8 and 73.3%, respectively) and indomethacin (68.8 and 88.9%, respectively), while PFO-SM did not. PFO displayed potent analgesic, anti-inflammatory and anti-ulcer properties, while PFO-SM exerted only analgesic properties. Thus, Thai PFO and its functional drink offer potential benefits in treatment of analgesic, inflammatory diseases and gastric ulcer.

α-Linolenic acid attenuates pseudo-allergic reactions by inhibiting Lyn kinase activity

BACKGROUND

Pseudo-allergic reactions are potentially fatal hypersensitivity responses caused by mast cell activation. α-linolenic acid (ALA) is known for its anti-allergic properties. However, its potential anti-pseudo-allergic effects were not much investigated.

PURPOSE

To investigate the inhibitory effects of ALA on IgE-independent allergy in vitro, and in vivo, as well as the mechanism underlying its effects.

METHODS/STUDY DESIGNS

The anti-anaphylactoid activity of ALA was evaluated in passive cutaneous anaphylaxis reaction (PCA) and systemic anaphylaxis models. Calcium imaging was used to assess intracellular Ca2+ mobilization. The release of cytokines and chemokines was measured using enzyme immunoassay kits. Western blot analysis was conducted to investigate the molecules of Lyn-PLCγ-IP3R-Ca2+ and Lyn-p38/NF-κB signaling pathway.

RESULTS

ALA (0, 1.0, 2.0, and 4.0 mg/kg) dose-dependently reduced serum histamine, chemokine release, vasodilation, eosinophil infiltration, and the percentage of degranulated mast cells in C57BL/6 mice. In addition, ALA (0, 50, 100, and 200 μM) reduced Compound 48/80 (C48/80) (30 μg/ml)-or Substance P (SP) (4 μg/ml)-induced calcium influx, mast cell degranulation and cytokines and chemokine release in Laboratory of Allergic Disease 2 (LAD2) cells via Lyn-PLCγ-IP3R-Ca2+ and Lyn-p38/NF-κB signaling pathway. Moreover, ALA (0, 50, 100, and 200 μM) inhibited C48/80 (30 μg/ml)- and SP (4 μg/ml)-induced calcium influx in Mas-related G-protein coupled receptor member X2 (MrgX2)-HEK293 cells and in vitro kinase assays confirmed that ALA inhibited the activity of Lyn kinase. In response to 200 μM of ALA, the activity of Lyn kinase by (7.296 ± 0.03751) × 10-5 units/μl and decreased compared with C48/80 (30 μg/ml) by (8.572 ± 0.1365) ×10-5 units/μl.

CONCLUSION

Our results demonstrate that ALA might be a potential Lyn kinase inhibitor, which could be used to treat pseudo-allergic reaction-related diseases such as urticaria.

Essential oils and its bioactive compounds modulating cytokines: A systematic review on anti-asthmatic and immunomodulatory properties

BACKGROUND

Asthma, the main inflammatory chronic condition affecting the respiratory system, is characterized by hyperresponsiveness and reversible airway obstruction, recruitment of inflammatory cells and excessive production of mucus. Cytokines as biochemical messengers of immune cells, play an important role in the regulation of allergic inflammatory and infectious airway processes. Essential oils of plant origin are complex mixtures of volatile and semi volatile organic compounds that determine the specific aroma of plants and are categorized by their biological activities.

PURPOSE

We reviewed whether essential oils and their bioactive compounds of plant origin could modulate cytokines' immune responses and improve asthma therapy in experimental systems in vitro and in vivo.

METHODS

Electronic and manual search of articles in English available from inception up to November 2018 reporting the immunomodulatory activity of essential oils and their bioactive compounds for the management of asthma. We used PubMed, EMBASE, Scopus and Web of Science. Publications reporting preclinical experiments where cytokines were examined to evaluate the consequence of anti-asthmatic therapy were included.

RESULTS

914 publications were identified and 13 were included in the systematic review. Four articles described the role of essential oils and their bioactive compounds on bronchial asthma using cell lines; nine in vivo studies evaluated the anti-inflammatory efficacy and immunomodulating effects of essential oil and their secondary metabolites on cytokines production and inflammatory responses. The most important immunopharmacological mechanisms reported were the regulation of cytokine production, inhibition of reactive oxygen species accumulation, inactivation of eosinophil migration and remodeling of the airways and lung tissue, modulation of FOXP3 gene expression, regulation of inflammatory cells in the airways and decreasing inflammatory mediator expression levels.

CONCLUSION

Plant derived essential oils and related active compounds have potential therapeutic activity for the treatment of asthma by modulating the release of pro-inflammatory (TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-8), Th17 (IL-17), anti-inflammatory (IL-10), Th1 (IFN-γ, IL-2, IL-12) and Th2 (IL-4, IL-5, IL-6, IL-13) cytokines and the suppression of inflammatory cell accumulation.

A Review on Nutritional Value, Functional Properties and Pharmacological Application of Perilla (Perilla Frutescens L.)

Perilla frutescens is an annual herb belonging to the mint family (Lamiaceae). It is majorly produced in countries like China, Japan, India, Thailand and Korea. Recently, Perilla plant is gaining more attention because of its medicinal benefits and phytochemical contents. The major phytochemical compounds reported in this species are phenolic compounds (Rosmarinic acid, caffeic acid, ferulic acid), flavonoids (luteolin, apigenin), Phytosterols, Tocopherols, Policosanols and Fatty acid. Perilla seed oil is also a rich source of essential fatty acid such as α-linolenic acid (54-64%) and linoleic acid (14%). Perilla seeds and its oils have been widely used in traditional nutritional and medicinal formulations. Biological analysis of Perilla seeds revealed that it showed anticancer, ant-diabetic, antiasthma, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant and cardioprotective effect. The aim of this review is to provide an update on the nutritional composition, phytochemical profile and pharmacological research of Perilla seed.

The 17,18-epoxyeicosatetraenoic acid-G protein-coupled receptor 40 axis ameliorates contact hypersensitivity by inhibiting neutrophil mobility in mice and cynomolgus macaques

BACKGROUND

Metabolites of eicosapentaenoic acid exert various physiologic actions. 17,18-Epoxyeicosatetraenoic acid (17,18-EpETE) is a recently identified new class of antiallergic and anti-inflammatory lipid metabolite of eicosapentaenoic acid, but its effects on skin inflammation and the underlying mechanisms remain to be investigated.

OBJECTIVE

We evaluated the effectiveness of 17,18-EpETE for control of contact hypersensitivity in mice and cynomolgus macaques. We further sought to reveal underlying mechanisms by identifying the responsible receptor and cellular target of 17,18-EpETE.

METHODS

Contact hypersensitivity was induced by topical application of 2,4-dinitrofluorobenzene. Skin inflammation and immune cell populations were analyzed by using flow cytometric, immunohistologic, and quantitative RT-PCR analyses. Neutrophil mobility was examined by means of imaging analysis in vivo and neutrophil culture in vitro. The receptor for 17,18-EpETE was identified by using the TGF-α shedding assay, and the receptor's involvement in the anti-inflammatory effects of 17,18-EpETE was examined by using KO mice and specific inhibitor treatment.

RESULTS

We found that preventive or therapeutic treatment with 17,18-EpETE ameliorated contact hypersensitivity by inhibiting neutrophil mobility in mice and cynomolgus macaques. 17,18-EpETE was recognized by G protein-coupled receptor (GPR) 40 (also known as free fatty acid receptor 1) and inhibited chemoattractant-induced Rac activation and pseudopod formation in neutrophils. Indeed, the antiallergic inflammatory effect of 17,18-EpETE was abolished in the absence or inhibition of GPR40.

CONCLUSION

17,18-EpETE inhibits neutrophil mobility through GPR40 activation, which is a potential therapeutic target to control allergic inflammatory diseases.

Dietary Black Raspberry Seed Oil Ameliorates Inflammatory Activities in db/db Mice

The objective of this study was to evaluate the status of the markers related to inflammation in db/db mice fed black raspberry seed (BRS) oil, which is rich in α-linolenic acid. Mice were divided into four groups: (1) C57BL/6 mice fed 16 % calories from soybean oil (normal CON); (2) C57BL/KsJ-db/db mice fed 16 % calories from soybean oil (CON); (3) C57BL/KsJ-db/db mice fed 8 % calories from soybean and 8 % calories from BRS oil (BRS 50 %); and (4) C57BL/KsJ-db/db mice fed 16 % calories from BRS oil (BRS 100 %). After 10 weeks, n-6/n-3 fatty acid ratios were significantly (P < 0.05) lower in the livers and epididymal adipose tissues of the BRS 50 % and BRS 100 % mice than in the CON. Serum TNFα and IL-6 were significantly (P < 0.05) lower in the BRS 50 % and BRS 100 % than in the CON. Serum IL-10 was significantly (P < 0.05) higher in the BRS 100 % than the CON. In the liver and epididymal adipose tissue, mRNA levels of pro-inflammatory markers in the BRS 50 % and BRS 100 % were lower than in the CON. Anti-inflammatory markers were higher in the epididymal adipose tissues of the BRS 50 % and BRS 100 % than in the CON. In the epididymal adipose tissue, macrophage infiltration markers (F4/80 and CD68) and leptin mRNA were significantly (P < 0.05) lower in the BRS 50 % and BRS 100 % than in the CON. Results of this study suggest that BRS oil may have anti-inflammatory effects in obese diabetic mice by ameliorating inflammatory responses.

Farnesol, a sesquiterpene alcohol in essential oils, ameliorates serum allergic antibody titres and lipid profiles in ovalbumin-challenged mice

BACKGROUND

Farnesol, a natural sesquiterpene alcohol in essential oils, was found to have potential for alleviating massive inflammation, oxidative stress and lung injury. However, effects of farnesol supplementation on allergic asthma remain unclear.

OBJECTIVES

To clarify the puzzle, this work investigates the effects of farnesol on allergic asthma using an ovalbumin (OVA)-sensitised and challenged mouse model.

METHODS

Farnesol was administered to OVA-sensitised and challenged mice for 5 weeks. Three farnesol doses, namely 5, 25 and 100mg farnesol/kg BW/day, non-sensitised control, dietary control, and positive control (dexamethasone 3mg/kg BW by gavage) were included. Sera and bronchoalveolar lavage fluids from the experimental mice were collected to measure farnesol concentrations, serum lipid profiles, antibody titres, differential cell counts or Th1/Th2 cytokines levels.

RESULTS

The results showed that farnesol supplementation increased serum farnesol concentration dose-dependently, significantly increased (P<0.05) OVA-specific IgG2a/IgE antibody titre ratios, but decreased total IgE levels. Farnesol supplementation markedly reversed the aberrated LDL-c/HDL-c and HDL-c/TC ratios in the sera of asthmatic mice, suggesting that farnesol supplementation might ameliorate serum lipid profiles in the OVA-sensitised and challenged mice.

CONCLUSION

Our results evidenced that farnesol supplementation might improve serum allergic antibody titres and lipid profiles in asthmatic mice.

Omega-3 fatty acids suppress Th2-associated cytokine gene expressions and GATA transcription factors in mast cells

Because the interaction between omega-3 fatty acids and mast cells has remained largely unknown in allergies, we investigated whether omega-3 fatty acids affect the activation of mast cells by examining Th2-associated cytokine production and possible molecular mechanisms. Alpha-linolenic acid and its metabolites including eicosapentaenoic acid and decosahexaenoic acid induced a dramatic decrease in the production of interleukin (IL)-4, IL-5 and IL-13 in a dose-dependent manner, as well as mRNA expression of their genes, in activated MC/9 mast cells and bone marrow-derived mast cells. The effects were comparable to those of cyclosporin A (1 μM), a well-known immunosuppressive agent. Nuclear expression of GATA binding protein-1 (GATA-1) and GATA binding protein-2 (GATA-2), essential transcription factors for mast cell activation, was also greatly suppressed. However, their mRNA expressions were not affected. In P815 mast cells, which do not express GATA-1, the suppressive effects on cytokines were abolished. On the contrary, omega-3 fatty acids had less significant effects on IL-4 and IL-5 and resulted in a slight decrease in IL-13 production in EL-4 T cells. Finally, oral administration of fish oil containing high level of omega-3 fatty acids significantly reduced the severity of dermatitis and the thickening of epidermis/dermis in a NC/Nga murine atopic model. The number of cells expressing CD117(+) and FcεRIα(+) was greatly decreased and GATA-1 expression in the cells was also diminished. Taken together, omega-3 fatty acids might target mast cells to a greater extent than T cells to suppress Th2 cytokine expression by inhibiting GATAs for alleviation of allergic disease.

Isolation, identification, and biological evaluation of Nrf2-ARE activator from the leaves of green perilla (Perilla frutescens var. crispa f. viridis)

The nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2)-antioxidant response element (ARE) pathway is a cellular defense system against oxidative stress. Activation of this pathway increases expression of antioxidant enzymes. Epidemiological studies have demonstrated that the consumption of fruits and vegetables is associated with reduced risk of contracting a variety of human diseases. The aim of this study is to find Nrf2-ARE activators in dietary fruits and vegetables. We first attempted to compare the potency of ARE activation in six fruit and six vegetables extracts. Green perilla (Perilla frutescens var. crispa f. viridis) extract exhibited high ARE activity. We isolated the active fraction from green perilla extract through bioactivity-guided fractionation. Based on nuclear magnetic resonance and mass spectrometric analysis, the active ingredient responsible for the ARE activity was identified as 2',3'-dihydroxy-4',6'-dimethoxychalcone (DDC). DDC induced the expression of antioxidant enzymes, such as γ-glutamylcysteine synthetase (γ-GCS), NAD(P)H: quinone oxidoreductase-1 (NQO1), and heme oxygenase-1. DDC inhibited the formation of intracellular reactive oxygen species and the cytotoxicity induced by 6-hydroxydopamine. Inhibition of the p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway abolished ARE activation, the induction of γ-GCS and NQO1, and the cytoprotective effect brought about by DDC. Thus, this study demonstrated that DDC contained in green perilla enhanced cellular resistance to oxidative damage through activation of the Nrf2-ARE pathway.

The impact of transgenic papaya (TPY10-4) fruit supplementation on immune responses in ovalbumin-sensitised mice

BACKGROUND

A transgenic papaya line (TPY10-4) that is resistant to both papaya ringspot virus (PRSV) and papaya leaf distortion mosaic virus (PLDMV) has been developed in Taiwan. This study investigated the immunomodulatory properties of transgenic TPY10-4 and its native (TCK) papaya fruits using an ovalbumin (OVA)-sensitised mouse model. Both green and ripe papaya fruits at low (0.2 g powder kg(-1) body weight (BW)) and high (1.6 g powder kg(-1) BW) doses were administered to experimental mice by intragastric gavage for 5 weeks. Changes in serum total immunoglobulin A (IgA), IgE, IgG and IgM levels, OVA-specific IgE, IgG1 and IgG2a titres and Th1/Th2 cytokine secretions using splenocytes were determined.

RESULTS

Transgenic TPY10-4 or native TCK papaya fruit supplementation did not significantly affect body, visceral organ and relative tissue weights, total IgE antibody levels, OVA-specific IgE and IgG1 antibody titres or OVA-stimulated interferon-γ (IFN-γ), interleukin-2 (IL-2), IL-4, IL-5 and IL-10 secretions using splenocytes. However, transgenic papaya fruits markedly increased serum total IgM levels.

CONCLUSION

This study suggests that transgenic TPY10-4 papaya fruits do not increase the allergenic potential of OVA by oral administration but may have a protective immunity via increasing the serum total IgM level.

The health promoting properties of the conjugated isomers of α-linolenic acid

The bioactive properties of the conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) isomers have long been recognised and are the subject of a number of excellent reviews. However, despite this prominence the CLA isomers are not the only group of naturally occurring dietary conjugated fatty acids which have shown potent bioactivity. In a large number of in vitro and in vivo studies, conjugated α-linolenic acid (CLNA) isomers have displayed potent anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory, anti-obese and anti-carcinogenic activity, along with the ability to improve biomarkers of cardio-vascular health. CLNA isomers are naturally present in high concentrations in a large variety of seed oils but can also be produced in vitro by strains of lactobacilli and bifidobactena through the activity of the enzyme linoleic acid isomerase on α-linolenic acid. In this review, we will address the possible therapeutic roles that CLNA may play in a number of conditions afflicting Western society and the mechanisms through which this activity is mediated.

Dietary free oleic and linoleic acid enhances neutrophil function and modulates the inflammatory response in rats

The high ingestion of oleic (OLA) and linoleic (LNA) acids by Western populations, the presence of inflammatory diseases in these populations, and the importance of neutrophils in the inflammatory process led us to investigate the effects of oral ingestion of unesterified OLA and LNA on rat neutrophil function. Pure OLA and LNA were administered by gavage over 10 days. The doses used (0.11, 0.22 and 0.44 g/kg of body weight) were based on the Western consumption of OLA and LNA. Neither fatty acid affected food, calorie or water intake. The fatty acids were not toxic to neutrophils as evaluated by cytometry using propidium iodide (membrane integrity and DNA fragmentation). Neutrophil migration in response to intraperitoneal injection of glycogen and in the air pouch assay, was elevated after administration of either OLA or LNA. This effect was associated with enhancement of rolling and increased release of the chemokine CINC-2alphabeta. Both fatty acids elevated L-selectin expression, whereas no effect on beta(2)-integrin expression was observed, as evaluated by flow cytometry. LNA increased the production of proinflammatory cytokines (IL-1beta and CINC-2alphabeta) by neutrophils after 4 h in culture and both fatty acids decreased the release of the same cytokines after 18 h. In conclusion, OLA and LNA modulate several functions of neutrophils and can influence the inflammatory process.