Update on the pathogenesis of diabetic neuropathy

The role of SLC7A11 in diabetic wound healing: novel insights and new therapeutic strategies

Diabetic wounds are a severe complication of diabetes, characterized by persistent, non-healing ulcers due to disrupted wound-healing mechanisms in a hyperglycemic environment. Key factors in the pathogenesis of these chronic wounds include unresolved inflammation and antioxidant defense imbalances. The cystine/glutamate antiporter SLC7A11 (xCT) is crucial for cystine import, glutathione production, and antioxidant protection, positioning it as a vital regulator of diabetic wound healing. Recent studies underscore the role of SLC7A11 in modulating immune responses and oxidative stress in diabetic wounds. Moreover, SLC7A11 influences critical processes such as insulin secretion and the mTOR signaling pathway, both of which are implicated in delayed wound healing. This review explores the mechanisms regulating SLC7A11 and its impact on immune response, antioxidant defenses, insulin secretion, and mTOR pathways in diabetic wounds. Additionally, we highlight the current advancements in targeting SLC7A11 for treating related diseases and conceptualize its potential applications and value in diabetic wound treatment strategies, along with the challenges encountered in this context.

Neuroprotective Effects of Sodium-Glucose Cotransporter-2 (SGLT2) Inhibitors (Gliflozins) on Diabetes-Induced Neurodegeneration and Neurotoxicity: A Graphical Review

Diabetes is a chronic endocrine disorder that negatively affects various body systems, including the nervous system. Diabetes can cause or exacerbate various neurological disorders, and diabetes-induced neurodegeneration can involve several mechanisms such as mitochondrial dysfunction, activation of oxidative stress, neuronal inflammation, and cell death. In recent years, the management of diabetes-induced neurodegeneration has relied on several types of drugs, including sodium-glucose cotransporter-2 (SGLT2) inhibitors, also called gliflozins. In addition to exerting powerful effects in reducing blood glucose, gliflozins have strong anti-neuro-inflammatory characteristics that function by inhibiting oxidative stress and cell death in the nervous system in diabetic subjects. This review presents the molecular pathways involved in diabetes-induced neurodegeneration and evaluates the clinical and laboratory studies investigating the neuroprotective effects of gliflozins against diabetes-induced neurodegeneration, with discussion about the contributing roles of diverse molecular pathways, such as mitochondrial dysfunction, oxidative stress, neuro-inflammation, and cell death. Several databases-including Web of Science, Scopus, PubMed, Google Scholar, and various publishers, such as Springer, Wiley, and Elsevier-were searched for keywords regarding the neuroprotective effects of gliflozins against diabetes-triggered neurodegenerative events. Additionally, anti-neuro-inflammatory, anti-oxidative stress, and anti-cell death keywords were applied to evaluate potential neuronal protection mechanisms of gliflozins in diabetes subjects. The search period considered valid peer-reviewed studies published from January 2000 to July 2023. The current body of literature suggests that gliflozins can exert neuroprotective effects against diabetes-induced neurodegenerative events and neuronal dysfunction, and these effects are mediated via activation of mitochondrial function and prevention of cell death processes, oxidative stress, and inflammation in neurons affected by diabetes. Gliflozins can confer neuroprotective properties in diabetes-triggered neurodegeneration, and these effects are mediated by inhibiting oxidative stress, inflammation, and cell death.

Phytoconstituents as modulators of NF-κB signalling: Investigating therapeutic potential for diabetic wound healing

The NF-κB pathway plays a pivotal role in impeding the diabetic wound healing process, contributing to prolonged inflammation, diminished angiogenesis, and reduced proliferation. In contrast to modern synthetic therapies, naturally occurring phytoconstituents are well-studied inhibitors of the NF-κB pathway that are now attracting increased attention in the context of diabetic wound healing because of lower toxicity, better safety and efficacy, and cost-effectiveness. This study explores recent research on phytoconstituent-based therapies and delve into their action mechanisms targeting the NF-κB pathway and potential for assisting effective healing of diabetic wounds. For this purpose, we have carried out surveys of recent literature and analyzed studies from prominent databases such as Science Direct, Scopus, PubMed, Google Scholar, EMBASE, and Web of Science. The classification of phytoconstituents into various categorie such as: alkaloids, triterpenoids, phenolics, polyphenols, flavonoids, monoterpene glycosides, naphthoquinones and tocopherols. Noteworthy phytoconstituents, including Neferine, Plumbagin, Boswellic acid, Genistein, Luteolin, Kirenol, Rutin, Vicenin-2, Gamma-tocopherol, Icariin, Resveratrol, Mangiferin, Betulinic acid, Berberine, Syringic acid, Gallocatechin, Curcumin, Loureirin-A, Loureirin-B, Lupeol, Paeoniflorin, and Puerarin emerge from these studies as promising agents for diabetic wound healing through the inhibition of the NF-κB pathway. Extensive research on various phytoconstituents has revealed how they modulate signalling pathways, including NF-κB, studies that demonstrate the potential for development of therapeutic phytoconstituents to assist healing of chronic diabetic wounds.

Factors Influencing Wound Healing in Diabetic Foot Patients

Background and objectives: Diabetic foot stands out as one of the most consequential and devastating complications of diabetes. Many factors, including VIPS (Vascular management, Infection management, Pressure relief, and Source of healing), influence the prognosis and treatment of diabetic foot patients. There are many studies on VIPS, but relatively few studies on "sources of healing". Nutrients that affect wound healing are known, but objective data in diabetic foot patients are insufficient. We hypothesized that "sources of healing" would have many effects on wound healing. The purpose of this study is to know the affecting factors related to the source of healing for diabetic foot patients. Materials and Methods: A retrospective review identified 46 consecutive patients who were admitted for diabetic foot management from July 2019 to April 2021 at our department. Several laboratory tests were performed for influencing factor evaluation. We checked serum levels of total protein, albumin, vitamin B, iron, zinc, magnesium, copper, Hb, HbA1c, HDL cholesterol, and LDL cholesterol. These values of diabetic foot patients were compared with normal values. Patients were divided into two groups based on wound healing rate, age, length of hospital stay, and sex, and the test values between the groups were compared. Results: Levels of albumin (37%) and Hb (89%) were low in the diabetic foot patients. As for trace elements, levels of iron (97%) and zinc (95%) were low in the patients, but levels of magnesium and copper were usually normal or high. There were no differences in demographic characteristics based on wound healing rate. However, when compared to normal adult values, diabetic foot patients in our data exhibited significantly lower levels of hemoglobin, total protein, albumin, iron, zinc, copper, and HDL cholesterol. When compared based on age and length of hospital stay, hemoglobin levels were significantly lower in both the older age group and the group with longer hospital stays. Conclusions: Serum levels of albumin, Hb, iron, and zinc were very low in most diabetic foot patients. These low values may have a negative relationship with wound healing. Nutrient replacements are necessary for wound healing in diabetic foot patients.

Antioxidant peptides, the guardian of life from oxidative stress

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are produced during oxidative metabolism in aerobic organisms. Under normal conditions, ROS production and elimination are in a relatively balanced state. However, under internal or external environmental stress, such as high glucose levels or UV radiation, ROS production can increase significantly, leading to oxidative stress. Excess ROS production not only damages biomolecules but is also closely associated with the pathogenesis of many diseases, such as skin photoaging, diabetes, and cancer. Antioxidant peptides (AOPs) are naturally occurring or artificially designed peptides that can reduce the levels of ROS and other pro-oxidants, thus showing great potential in the treatment of oxidative stress-related diseases. In this review, we discussed ROS production and its role in inducing oxidative stress-related diseases in humans. Additionally, we discussed the sources, mechanism of action, and evaluation methods of AOPs and provided directions for future studies on AOPs.

Visit to Visit Hemoglobin A1c Variation and Long-term Risk of Major Adverse Limb Events in Patients With Type 2 Diabetes

CONTEXT

Glycemic variation had been demonstrated to be associated with several complications of diabetes.

OBJECTIVE

Investigation of the association between visit to visit hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) variation and the long-term risk of major adverse limb events (MALEs).

METHODS

Retrospective database study. Average real variability was used to represent glycemic variations with all the HbA1c measurements during the 4 following years after the initial diagnosis of type 2 diabetes. Participants were followed from the beginning of the fifth year until death or the end of the follow-up. The association between HbA1c variations and MALEs was evaluated after adjusting for mean HbA1c and baseline characteristics. Included were 56 872 patients at the referral center with a first diagnosis of type 2 diabetes, no lower extremity arterial disease, and at least 1 HbA1c measurement in each of the 4 following years were identified from a multicenter database. The main outcome measure was incidence of a MALE, which was defined as the composite of revascularization, foot ulcers, and lower limb amputations.

RESULTS

The average number of HbA1c measurements was 12.6. The mean follow-up time was 6.1 years. The cumulative incidence of MALEs was 9.25 per 1000 person-years. Visit to visit HbA1c variations were significantly associated with MALEs and lower limb amputation after multivariate adjustment. People in the highest quartile of variations had increased risks for MALEs (HR 1.25, 95% CI 1.10-1.41) and lower limb amputation (HR 3.05, 95% CI 1.97-4.74).

CONCLUSION

HbA1c variation was independently associated with a long-term risk of MALEs and lower limb amputations in patients with type 2 diabetes.

Is metformin neuroprotective against diabetes mellitus-induced neurodegeneration? An updated graphical review of molecular basis

Diabetes mellitus (DM) is a metabolic disease that activates several molecular pathways involved in neurodegenerative disorders. Metformin, an anti-hyperglycemic drug used for treating DM, has the potential to exert a significant neuroprotective role against the detrimental effects of DM. This review discusses recent clinical and laboratory studies investigating the neuroprotective properties of metformin against DM-induced neurodegeneration and the roles of various molecular pathways, including mitochondrial dysfunction, oxidative stress, inflammation, apoptosis, and its related cascades. A literature search was conducted from January 2000 to December 2022 using multiple databases including Web of Science, Wiley, Springer, PubMed, Elsevier Science Direct, Google Scholar, the Core Collection, Scopus, and the Cochrane Library to collect and evaluate peer-reviewed literature regarding the neuroprotective role of metformin against DM-induced neurodegenerative events. The literature search supports the conclusion that metformin is neuroprotective against DM-induced neuronal cell degeneration in both peripheral and central nervous systems, and this effect is likely mediated via modulation of oxidative stress, inflammation, and cell death pathways.

Nanoformulations of flavonoids for diabetes and microvascular diabetic complications

Diabetes is a chronic metabolic disease characterized by an excess of glucose in the blood. If the constant sugar level is not managed correctly in diabetic patients, it may lead to microvascular complications such as diabetic retinopathy, neuropathy, and nephropathy. There are several synthetic drugs for the management of diabetes; however, these drugs produce immense adverse effects in long-term use. Flavonoids are naturally occurring substances categorized in various classes. They are known for their diverse pharmacological actions, and one of them is prominent antihyperglycemic action and their activities in diabetic complications. In the last few decades, many research studies emphasized the potential of flavonoids in diabetes management. Nevertheless, most flavonoids are insoluble in water and cannot produce desired therapeutic action when administered in conventional dosage forms. To overcome this issue, flavonoids were formulated into different nanoformulations to enhance solubility, absorption, and therapeutic efficacy. This review article focuses on flavonoid nanoformulations and in vitro and in vivo studies reported to overcome diabetes mellitus and its complications.

Evolving spectrum of diabetic wound: Mechanistic insights and therapeutic targets

Diabetes mellitus is a chronic metabolic disorder resulting in an increased blood glucose level and prolonged hyperglycemia, causes long term health conse-quences. Chronic wound is frequently occurring in diabetes patients due to compromised wound healing capability. Management of wounds in diabetic patients remains a clinical challenge despite many advancements in the field of science and technology. Increasing evidence indicates that alteration of the biochemical milieu resulting from alteration in inflammatory cytokines and matrix metalloproteinase, decrease in fibroblast and keratinocyte functioning, neuropathy, altered leukocyte functioning, infection, etc., plays a significant role in impaired wound healing in diabetic people. Apart from the current pharmacotherapy, different other approaches like the use of conventional drugs, antidiabetic medication, antibiotics, debridement, offloading, platelet-rich plasma, growth factor, oxygen therapy, negative pressure wound therapy, low-level laser, extracorporeal shock wave bioengineered substitute can be considered in the management of diabetic wounds. Drugs/therapeutic strategy that induce angiogenesis and collagen synthesis, inhibition of MMPs, reduction of oxidative stress, controlling hyperglycemia, increase growth factors, regulate inflammatory cytokines, cause NO induction, induce fibroblast and keratinocyte proliferation, control microbial infections are considered important in controlling diabetic wound. Further, medicinal plants and/or phytoconstituents also offer a viable alternative in the treatment of diabetic wound. The focus of the present review is to highlight the molecular and cellular mechanisms, and discuss the drug targets and treatment strategies involved in the diabetic wound.

The Role of Saponins in the Treatment of Neuropathic Pain

Neuropathic pain is a chronic pain caused by tissue injury or disease involving the somatosensory nervous system, which seriously affects the patient's body function and quality of life. At present, most clinical medications for the treatment of neuropathic pain, including antidepressants, antiepileptic drugs, or analgesics, often have limited efficacy and non-negligible side effects. As a bioactive and therapeutic component extracted from Chinese herbal medicine, the role of the effective compounds in the prevention and treatment of neuropathic pain have gradually become a research focus to explore new analgesics. Notably, saponins have shown analgesic effects in a large number of animal models. In this review, we summarized the most updated information of saponins, related to their analgesic effects in neuropathic pain, and the recent progress on the research of therapeutic targets and the potential mechanisms. Furthermore, we put up with some perspectives on future investigation to reveal the precise role of saponins in neuropathic pain.

Diabetic Wound-Healing Science

Diabetes mellitus is an increasingly prevalent chronic metabolic disease characterized by prolonged hyperglycemia that leads to long-term health consequences. It is estimated that impaired healing of diabetic wounds affects approximately 25% of all patients with diabetes mellitus, often resulting in lower limb amputation, with subsequent high economic and psychosocial costs. The hyperglycemic environment promotes the formation of biofilms and makes diabetic wounds difficult to treat. In this review, we present updates regarding recent advances in our understanding of the pathophysiology of diabetic wounds focusing on impaired angiogenesis, neuropathy, sub-optimal chronic inflammatory response, barrier disruption, and subsequent polymicrobial infection, followed by current and future treatment strategies designed to tackle the various pathologies associated with diabetic wounds. Given the alarming increase in the prevalence of diabetes, and subsequently diabetic wounds, it is imperative that future treatment strategies target multiple causes of impaired healing in diabetic wounds.

Stellenwert klinischer, funktioneller und bildgebender Diagnostik zur Früherkennung, Differenzialdiagnose und Verlaufskontrolle diabetischer Neuropathien

Von weltweit mehr als 400 Mio. Menschen mit Diabetes mellitus entwickeln bis zu 50% im Laufe ihrer Erkrankung eine Neuropathie. Trotz oder gerade wegen dieser Häufigkeit darf jedoch nicht jede Neuropathie, die in Koinzidenz mit einem Diabetes mellitus auftritt, unkritisch als diabetische Neuropathie diagnostiziert werden. Eine präzise Ausschluss- und Ausmaßdiagnostik ist entscheidend, um andere behandelbare Erkrankungen wie z. B. die Chronisch Inflammatorische Demyelinisierende Polyradikuloneuropathie oder die hereditäre Transthyretin-Amyloidose nicht zu übersehen. Einfache, nicht-invasive, preiswerte und allzeit verfügbare Screeningmethoden stellen Anamnese und klinische Untersuchung dar. Ergänzend ist in frühen Erkrankungsstadien die Quantitativ Sensorische Testung hilfreich zur Eingrenzung einer Small Fiber-Dysfunktion. Sind, typischerweise im Verlauf, große Nervenfasern geschädigt, so ist das charakteristische elektrophysiologische Bild das einer längenabhängigen, axonalen, sensibel betonten oder sensomotorischen Neuropathie. Die Nervensonografie kann zur Unterscheidung von autoimmun-demyelinisierenden Neuropathien hilfreich sein. Moderne Untersuchungsverfahren wie die MR-Neurografie können auch proximale Nervenabschnitte bis auf Faszikelebene darstellen, sind allerdings nur an wenigen Zentren verfügbar. Haut- und Nervenbiopsien sind v. a. bei untypischen Verläufen zur Abgrenzung von Differenzialdiagnosen hilfreich. Diabetische Neuropathien können zu einer erheblichen Reduktion von Lebensqualität und Lebensdauer führen. Zur frühest- und bestmöglichen ursächlichen und symptomatischen Therapieeinleitung ist eine präzise Diagnostik essentiell.

The Role of Oxidative Stress and Antioxidants in Diabetic Wound Healing

Foot ulcers are one of the most common and severe complication of diabetes mellitus with significant resultant morbidity and mortality. Multiple factors impair wound healing include skin injury, diabetic neuropathy, ischemia, infection, inadequate glycemic control, poor nutritional status, and severe morbidity. It is currently believed that oxidative stress plays a vital role in diabetic wound healing. An imbalance of free radicals and antioxidants in the body results in overproduction of reactive oxygen species which lead to cell, tissue damage, and delayed wound healing. Therefore, decreasing ROS levels through antioxidative systems may reduce oxidative stress-induced damage to improve healing. In this context, we provide an update on the role of oxidative stress and antioxidants in diabetic wound healing through following four perspectives. We then discuss several therapeutic strategies especially dietary bioactive compounds by targeting oxidative stress to improve wounds healing.

Effects of rosmarinic acid on nervous system disorders: an updated review

Nowadays, the worldwide interest is growing to use medicinal plants and their active constituents to develop new potent medicines with fewer side effects. Precise dietary compounds have prospective beneficial applications for various neurodegenerative ailments. Rosmarinic acid is a polyphenol and is detectable most primarily in many Lamiaceae families, for instance, Rosmarinus officinalis also called rosemary. This review prepared a broad and updated literature review on rosmarinic acid elucidating its biological activities on some nervous system disorders. Rosmarinic acid has significant antinociceptive, neuroprotective, and neuroregenerative effects. In this regard, we classified and discussed our findings in different nervous system disorders including Alzheimer's disease, epilepsy, depression, Huntington's disease, familial amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, Parkinson's disease, cerebral ischemia/reperfusion injury, spinal cord injury, stress, anxiety, and pain.

Effects of nanoparticles of hydroxy-aluminum phthalocyanine on markers of liver injury and glucose metabolism in diabetic mice

Photodynamic therapy, by reducing pain and inflammation and promoting the proliferation of healthy cells, can be used to treat recurrent lesions, such as diabetic foot ulcers. Studies using the photosensitizer phthalocyanine, together with the nanostructured copolymeric matrix of Pluronic® and Carbopol® for the treatment of diabetic foot ulcers and leishmaniosis lesions, are showing promising outcomes. Despite their topical or subcutaneous administration, these molecules are absorbed and their systemic effects are unknown. Therefore, we investigated the effect of the subcutaneous administration of the hydroxy-aluminum phthalocyanine hydrogel without illumination on systemic parameters, markers of liver injury, and liver energy metabolism in type 1 diabetic Swiss mice. Both the hydrogel and the different doses of phthalocyanine changed the levels of injury markers and the liver glucose release, sometimes aggravating the alterations caused by the diabetic condition itself. However, the dose of 2.23 µg/mL caused less marked plasmatic and metabolic changes and did not change glucose tolerance or insulin sensitivity of the diabetic mice. These results are indicative that the use of hydroxy-aluminum phthalocyanine hydrogel for the treatment of cutaneous ulcers in diabetic patients is systemically safe.

The Role of Oxidative Stress in Diabetic Neuropathy: Generation of Free Radical Species in the Glycation Reaction and Gene Polymorphisms Encoding Antioxidant Enzymes to Genetic Susceptibility to Diabetic Neuropathy in Population of Type I Diabetic Patients

Diabetic neuropathy (DN) represents the main cause of morbidity and mortality among diabetic patients. Clinical data support the conclusion that the severity of DN is related to the frequency and duration of hyperglycemic periods. The presented experimental and clinical evidences propose that changes in cellular function resulting in oxidative stress act as a leading factor in the development and progression of DN. Hyperglycemia- and dyslipidemia-driven oxidative stress is a major contributor, enhanced by advanced glycation end product (AGE) formation and polyol pathway activation. There are several polymorphous pathways that lead to oxidative stress in the peripheral nervous system in chronic hyperglycemia. This article demonstrates the origin of oxidative stress derived from glycation reactions and genetic variations within the antioxidant genes which could be implicated in the pathogenesis of DN. In the diabetic state, unchecked superoxide accumulation and resultant increases in polyol pathway activity, AGEs accumulation, protein kinase C activity, and hexosamine flux trigger a feed-forward system of progressive cellular dysfunction. In nerve, this confluence of metabolic and vascular disturbances leads to impaired neural function and loss of neurotrophic support, and over the long term, can mediate apoptosis of neurons and Schwann cells, the glial cells of the peripheral nervous system. In this article, we consider AGE-mediated reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation as a pathogenesis factor in the development of DN. It is likely that oxidative modification of proteins and other biomolecules might be the consequence of local generation of superoxide on the interaction of the residues of L-lysine (and probably other amino acids) with α-ketoaldehydes. This phenomenon of non-enzymatic superoxide generation might be an element of autocatalytic intensification of pathophysiological action of carbonyl stress. Glyoxal and methylglyoxal formed during metabolic pathway are detoxified by the glyoxalase system with reduced glutathione as co-factor. The concentration of reduced glutathione may be decreased by oxidative stress and by decreased in situ glutathione reductase activity in diabetes mellitus. Genetic variations within the antioxidant genes therefore could be implicated in the pathogenesis of DN. In this work, the supporting data about the association between the -262T > C polymorphism of the catalase (CAT) gene and DN were shown. The -262TT genotype of the CAT gene was significantly associated with higher erythrocyte catalase activity in blood of DN patients compared to the -262CC genotype (17.8 ± 2.7 × 10(4) IU/g Hb vs. 13.5 ± 3.2 × 10(4) IU/g Hb, P = 0.0022). The role of these factors in the development of diabetic complications and the prospective prevention of DN by supplementation in formulations of transglycating imidazole-containing peptide-based antioxidants (non-hydrolyzed carnosine, carcinine, n-acetylcarcinine) scavenging ROS in the glycation reaction, modifying the activity of enzymic and non-enzymic antioxidant defenses that participate in metabolic processes with ability of controlling at transcriptional levels the differential expression of several genes encoding antioxidant enzymes inherent to DN in Type I Diabetic patients, now deserve investigation.

Can Diabetic Neuropathy Be Modeled In Vitro?

Diabetic neuropathy is a common secondary complication of diabetes that impacts on patient's health and well-being. Distal axon degeneration is a key feature of diabetic neuropathy, but the pathological changes which underlie axonal die-back are incompletely understood; despite decades of research a treatment has not yet been identified. Basic research must focus on understanding the complex mechanisms underlying changes that occur in the nervous system during diabetes. To this end, tissue culture techniques are invaluable as they enable researchers to examine the intricate mechanistic responses of cells to high glucose or other factors in order to better understand the pathogenesis of nerve dysfunction. This chapter describes the use of in vitro models to study a wide range of specific cellular effects pertaining to diabetic neuropathy including apoptosis, neurite outgrowth, neurodegeneration, activity, and bioenergetics. We consider problems associated with in vitro modeling and future refinement such as use of induced pluripotent stem cells and microfluidic technology.

Effect of diet-induced obesity or type 1 or type 2 diabetes on corneal nerves and peripheral neuropathy in C57Bl/6J mice

We determined the impact diet-induced obesity (DIO) and types 1 and 2 diabetes have on peripheral neuropathy with emphasis on corneal nerve structural changes in C57Bl/6J mice. Endpoints examined included nerve conduction velocity, response to thermal and mechanical stimuli and innervation of the skin and cornea. DIO mice and to a greater extent type 2 diabetic mice were insulin resistant. DIO and both types 1 and 2 diabetic mice developed motor and sensory nerve conduction deficits. In the cornea of DIO and type 2 diabetic mice there was a decrease in sub-epithelial corneal nerves, innervation of the corneal epithelium, and corneal sensitivity. Type 1 diabetic mice did not present with any significant changes in corneal nerve structure until after 20 weeks of hyperglycemia. DIO and type 2 diabetic mice developed corneal structural damage more rapidly than type 1 diabetic mice although hemoglobin A1 C values were significantly higher in type 1 diabetic mice. This suggests that DIO with or without hyperglycemia contributes to development and progression of peripheral neuropathy and nerve structural damage in the cornea.

Effect of glycemic control on corneal nerves and peripheral neuropathy in streptozotocin-induced diabetic C57Bl/6J mice

We sought to determine the impact that duration of hyperglycemia and control has on corneal nerve fiber density in relation to standard diabetic neuropathy endpoints. Control and streptozotocin-diabetic C57Bl/6J mice were analyzed after 4, 8, 12, and 20 weeks. For the 20-week time point, five groups of mice were compared: control, untreated diabetic, and diabetic treated with insulin designated as having either poor glycemic control, good glycemic control, or poor glycemic control switched to good glycemic control. Hyperglycemia was regulated by use of insulin-releasing pellets. Loss of corneal nerves in the sub-epithelial nerve plexus or corneal epithelium progressed slowly in diabetic mice requiring 20 weeks to reach statistical significance. In comparison, slowing of motor and sensory nerve conduction velocity developed rapidly with significant difference compared with control mice observed after 4 and 8 weeks of hyperglycemia, respectively. In diabetic mice with good glycemic control, average blood glucose levels over the 20-week experimental period were lowered from 589 ± 2 to 251 ± 9 mg/dl. All diabetic neuropathy endpoints examined were improved in diabetic mice with good glycemic control compared with untreated diabetic mice. However, good control of blood glucose was not totally sufficient in preventing diabetic neuropathy.

Significance of functional GRP78 polymorphisms in predicting the onset of type 2 diabetic peripheral neuropathy in Chinese population

OBJECTIVE

The objective of this study is to investigate the significance of functional GRP78 polymorphisms in predicting the risk of type 2 diabetic peripheral neuropathy in Chinese population.

METHODS

Between the years of 2006 and 2010, a total of 295 definitely diagnosed type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) patients were included into our study cohort and followed for 3 years. At baseline and annual re-examinations, the patients underwent physical examinations, laboratory tests and evaluation of Michigan diabetic neuropathy score (MDNS). Age, gender, disease course, waist-hip circumference ratio (WHR), body mass index (BMI), triglycerine (TG), total cholesterol (Tch), low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C), high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C), glycosylated haemoglobin (HbA1c), uric acid elimination rate (UAER) and uric acid (UA) were recorded and GRP78 polymorphisms were tested by direct sequencing. The prognostic significance of GRP78 polymorphisms were analysed using monovariate and multivariate logistic regression.

RESULTS

Three years after baseline, 32.9% (97/295) of the T2DM patients had suffered the development of diabetic peripheral neuropathy and GRP78 rs391957 promoter polymorphism is a significant risk factor for the onset of type 2 diabetic peripheral neuropathy. In monovariate regression model, the OR values of GRP78 rs391957 promoter polymorphism were 2.233 (C/T) and 2.734 (T/T). As for the model calibrated with demographic and laboratory indexes, the OR values were, respectively, 2.124 (C/T) and 2.423 (T/T).

CONCLUSION

Our study suggested that the GRP78 rs391957 promoter polymorphism is a potential risk factor for type 2 diabetic peripheral neuropathy.

Antinociceptive and antihyperglycemic effects of Melissa officinalis essential oil in an experimental model of diabetes

OBJECTIVE

The efficacy of oral administration of Melissa officinalis essential oil (MOEO) on hyperalgesia was investigated using the formalin test in streptozotocin (STZ)-induced diabetic rats.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Animals were divided into control, MOEO-treated control (0.01, 0.02 and 0.04 mg/day), diabetic and MOEO-treated diabetic (0.01, 0.02 and 0.04 mg/day) groups. Nociceptive testing was performed on male adult Wistar rats 4 weeks after the onset of hyperglycemia. At the end of the experiment, all rats were weighed and plasma glucose measurements were performed.

RESULTS

Diabetes was associated with significant hyperalgesia during both phases of the formalin test. MOEO (0.04 mg/day) completely reversed hyperalgesia in diabetic rats, while MOEO (0.02 and 0.04 mg/day) caused less intensive nociceptive behaviors during both phases of the test in control rats. MOEO at both high doses restored euglycemia and reduced the body weight of treated diabetic animals compared to untreated diabetic animals. The 0.01-mg dose of MOEO did not alter pain responses in the control or diabetic groups compared to their respective controls.

CONCLUSIONS

This study shows that chronic administration of MOEO displays efficacy in an experimental model of diabetic hyperalgesia. MOEO may therefore show promise as a treatment for painful diabetic neuropathy.

Effects of rosmarinic acid on an experimental model of painful diabetic neuropathy in rats

CONTEXT

Diabetic neuropathic (DN) pain is one of the diabetes complications. Rosmarinic acid (RA), a natural phenol antioxidant, shows some biological activities, including anti-inflammatory, analgesic, and anti-diabetic effects.

OBJECTIVES

We investigated the efficacy of RA administration (10 and 30 mg/kg) on streptozotocin (STZ)-induced neuropathy in rats.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The animals received saline or RA (10 and 30 mg/kg, p.o.; once daily) for 8 weeks. DN was evaluated by the tail flick (TF) method, formalin test, and tactile allodynia. At the end, all rats were weighed and underwent plasma glucose measurement.

RESULTS

There was an increase in licking time during both formalin test phases in diabetic animals (138.5 ± 10.7 and 448.7 ± 2.6 s) that was decreased by RA10 mg/kg (103.5 ± 7.5 and 284.4 ± 19 s) and RA 30 mg/kg (81.8 ± 11 and 192.7 ± 14 s). RA 30 mg/kg caused anti-nociception during the early phase in treated controls (52.1 ± 6 s) than untreated controls (99.4 ± 5.9 s). The TF latency in diabetics (2.9 ± 0.1 s) was increased in RA10 and 30 mg/kg treated diabetics (5.3 ± 0.4 and 6 ± 0.86 s). The paw withdrawal threshold (PWT) of the diabetics (3.6 ± 0.7 g) was increased after RA 10 and 30 mg/kg (13.8 ± 0.3 and 14 ± 0.4 g) treatment. RA did not induce a significant change in body weight and plasma glucose of rats.

CONCLUSION

RA showed efficacy in amelioration of some aspects of DN. Therefore, RA makes a good candidate for DN treatment in clinical studies.

Dioscorea Extract (DA-9801) Modulates Markers of Peripheral Neuropathy in Type 2 Diabetic db/db Mice

The purpose of this study was to investigate the therapeutic effects of DA-9801, an optimized extract of Dioscorea species, on diabetic peripheral neuropathy in a type 2 diabetic animal model. In this study, db/db mice were treated with DA-9801 (30 and 100 mg/kg, daily, p.o.) for 12 weeks. DA-9801 reduced the blood glucose levels and increased the withdrawal latencies in hot plate tests. Moreover, it prevented nerve damage based on increased nerve conduction velocity and ultrastructural changes. Decrease of nerve growth factor (NGF) may have a detrimental effect on diabetic neuropathy. We previously reported NGF regulatory properties of the Dioscorea genus. In this study, DA-9801 induced NGF production in rat primary astrocytes. In addition, it increased NGF levels in the sciatic nerve and the plasma of type 2 diabetic animals. DA-9801 also increased neurite outgrowth and mRNA expression of Tieg1/Klf10, an NGF target gene, in PC12 cells. These results demonstrated the attenuation of diabetic peripheral neuropathy by oral treatment with DA-9801 via NGF regulation. DA-9801 is currently being evaluated in a phase II clinical study.

Minocycline improves peripheral and autonomic neuropathy in type 2 diabetes: MIND study

Diabetic peripheral neuropathy and diabetic autonomic neuropathy are serious and common complications of diabetes associated with increased risk of mortality and cardiovascular disease. We sought to evaluate the safety and efficacy of minocycline in type 2 diabetic patients with diabetic peripheral and autonomic neuropathy. In a randomized placebo controlled study, 50 outpatients were randomly assigned to receive 100 mg minocycline or placebo. Outcome measures included the vibration perception threshold (VPT), Leeds assessment of neuropathic symptoms and signs (LANSS), Pain Disability Index (PDI), Visual Analog Scale (VAS), beck depression inventory (BDI), health assessment questionnaire (HAQ) and autonomic neuropathy, assessed by cardiovascular reflex tests according to Ewing and peripheral sympathetic autonomic function was assessed by FDA approved Sudoscan. At baseline there were no significant differences between demographic variables and the neuropathy variables in the minocycline and placebo groups. After treatment, VPT significantly improved in the minocycline group as compared to the placebo group. Mean posttreatment scores on the LANSS, PDI and HAQ were significantly lower in the minocycline group compared with the placebo group. However, BDI and VAS significantly (p = 0.01) improved in both minocycline and placebo groups (Table 2). After treatment with minocycline, heart rate (HR) response to standing significantly improved, while there was a borderline significance toward a reduction in HR response to deep breath. These finding indicate that 6-week oral treatment with minocycline is safe, well tolerated and significantly improves peripheral and autonomic neuropathy in type 2 diabetic patients.

Na+/H+ exchanger 1 inhibition reverses manifestation of peripheral diabetic neuropathy in type 1 diabetic rats

Evidence for an important role for Na(+)/H(+) exchangers in diabetic complications is emerging. The aim of this study was to evaluate whether Na(+)/H(+) exchanger 1 inhibition reverses experimental peripheral diabetic neuropathy. Control and streptozotocin-diabetic rats were treated with the specific Na(+)/H(+) exchanger 1 inhibitor cariporide for 4 wk after 12 wk without treatment. Neuropathy end points included sciatic motor and sensory nerve conduction velocities, endoneurial nutritive blood flow, vascular reactivity of epineurial arterioles, thermal nociception, tactile allodynia, and intraepidermal nerve fiber density. Advanced glycation end product and markers of oxidative stress, including nitrated protein levels in sciatic nerve, were evaluated by Western blot. Rats with 12-wk duration of diabetes developed motor and sensory nerve conduction deficits, thermal hypoalgesia, tactile allodynia, and intraepidermal nerve fiber loss. All these changes, including impairment of nerve blood flow and vascular reactivity of epineurial arterioles, were partially reversed by 4 wk of cariporide treatment. Na(+)/H(+) exchanger 1 inhibition was also associated with reduction of diabetes-induced accumulation of advanced glycation endproduct, oxidative stress, and nitrated proteins in sciatic nerve. In conclusion, these findings support an important role for Na(+)/H(+) exchanger 1 in functional, structural, and biochemical manifestations of peripheral diabetic neuropathy and provide the rationale for development of Na(+)/H(+) exchanger 1 inhibitors for treatment of diabetic vascular and neural complications.

[Update on diabetic macroangiopathy]

Current findings from the literature on the multifactorial genesis of macroangiopathy of diabetes mellitus (DM) were compiled using the PubMed database. The primary aim was to find an explanation for the morphological, immunohistochemical and molecular characteristics of this form of atherosclerosis. The roles of advanced glycation end products (AGE), defective signal transduction and imbalance of matrix metalloproteinases in the increased progression of atherosclerosis in coronary and cerebral arteries as well as peripheral vascular disease are discussed. The restricted formation of collateral arteries (arteriogenesis) in diabetic patients with postischemic lesions is also a focus of attention. The increased level of prothrombotic factors and the role of diabetic neuropathy in DM are also taken into account. Therapeutic influences of AGE-RAGE (receptor of AGE) interactions on the vascular wall and the effects of endothelial progenitor cells in the repair of diabetic vascular lesions are additionally highlighted.

Chronic treatment of silymarin improves hyperalgesia and motor nerve conduction velocity in diabetic neuropathic rat

The effect of chronic silymarin (SM) treatment on hyperalgesia, sciatic motor nerve conduction velocity (MNCV) and oxidative stress in streptozotocin (STZ)-diabetic neuropathic rat was evaluated. Rats were divided into control, diabetic, SM-treated control and diabetic, and sodium salisylate (SS)-treated control and diabetic. SM was administered daily at a dose of 100 mg/kg for two months. Finally, hyperalgesia and sciatic MNCV and oxidative stress markers were assessed. Diabetic rats showed a significant deficit in MNCV and markedly exhibited chemical and thermal hyperalgesia, indicating development of diabetic neuropathy. Antioxidant enzyme superoxide dismutase (SOD) level significantly reduced and malondialdehyde (MDA) level significantly increased in diabetic rats compared to control rats; SM treatment significantly ameliorated the alteration in MNCV, hyperalgesia, MDA level and antioxidant enzyme SOD in diabetic rats. These results clearly suggest the potential effect of SM in prevention and treatment of diabetic neuropathy.

Deoxysphingoid bases as plasma markers in diabetes mellitus

Background

Sphingoid bases are formed from the precursors L-serine and palmitoyl-CoA-a reaction which is catalyzed by the serine-palmitoyltransferase (SPT). SPT metabolizes, besides palmitoyl-CoA also other acyl-CoAs but shows also variability towards the use of other amino acid substrates. The enzyme is also able to metabolize alanine, which results in the formation of an atypical deoxy-sphingoid base (DSB). This promiscuous activity is greatly increased in the case of the sensory neuropathy HSAN1, and pathologically elevated DSB levels have been identified as the cause of this disease. Clinically, HSAN1 shows a pronounced similarity to the diabetic sensory neuropathy (DSN), which is the most common chronic complication of diabetes mellitus. Since serine and alanine metabolism is functionally linked to carbohydrate metabolism by their precursors 3-phosphoglycerate and pyruvate, we were interested to see whether the levels of certain sphingoid base metabolites are altered in patients with diabetes.

Results

In a case-control study we compared plasma sphingoid base levels between healthy and diabetic individuals. DSB levels were higher in the diabetic group whereas C16 and C18 sphingoid bases were not significantly different. Plasma serine, but not alanine levels were lower in the diabetic group. A subsequent lipoprotein fractionation showed that the DSBs are primarily present in the LDL and VLDL fraction.

Conclusion

Our results suggest that DSBs are a novel category of plasma biomarkers in diabetes which reflect functional impairments of carbohydrate metabolism. Furthermore, elevated DSB levels as we see them in diabetic patients might also contribute to the progression of the diabetic sensory neuropathy, the most frequent complication of diabetes.

Diabetic cataracts: mechanisms and management

Diabetes mellitus is associated with a 5-fold higher prevalence of cataracts, which remains a major cause of blindness in the world. Typical diabetic cataracts contain cortical and/or posterior subcapsular opacities. Adult onset diabetic cataracts also often contain nuclear opacities. Mechanisms of diabetic cataractogenesis have been studied in less detail than those of other diabetic complications. Both animal and human studies support important contribution of increased aldose reductase activity. Surgical extraction is the only cure of diabetic cataract today. An improved understanding of pathogenetic mechanisms, together with finding effective therapeutic agents, remain highest priority for diabetic cataract-related research and pharmaceutical development.

URB597, an inhibitor of fatty acid amide hydrolase, reduces hyperalgesia in diabetic rats

Diabetic rats display increased pain responses after injection of formalin into the paw or thermal stimulation of the tail, suggesting the presence of hyperalgesia. In this study, we investigated the efficacy of URB597 (0.1, 0.3, and 0.5 mg/kg, i.p.), an inhibitor of endocannabinoids metabolism, on 2 models of experimental hyperalgesia in streptozotocin (STZ)-induced diabetic rats. Animals were divided into control, URB597-treated control (0.1, 0.3, and 0.5 mg/kg), diabetic, and URB597-treated diabetic (0.1, 0.3, and 0.5 mg/kg) groups. Formalin and tail-flick tests were performed 4 and 8 weeks after the onset of hyperglycemia, respectively. Diabetes caused significant hyperalgesia during these tests. URB597 (0.3 and 0.5 mg/kg) reversed chemical and thermal hyperalgesia in diabetic rats. Administration of URB597 at a dose of 0.1 mg/kg did not alter pain-related behaviors in control and diabetic groups compared with those of the respective control groups. URB597 treatment did not affect body weight or plasma glucose level of treated animals compared with nontreated animals. This study shows that increasing endocannabinoid neurotransmission with URB597 displays efficacy in chemical and thermal models of diabetic hyperalgesia. It also suggests that URB597 is a promising tool for treatment of painful diabetic neuropathy.

Effects of the endocannabinoid transport inhibitors AM404 and UCM707 on diabetic neuropathy in rats

1. Diabetic rats display increased pain responses following injection of formalin into the paw, suggesting the presence of hyperalgesia. In the present study, we investigated the efficacy of the systemic administration of the endocannabinoid transport inhibitors UCM707 and AM404 (1, 10 and 50 mg/kg, i.p.) on hyperalgesia during the formalin test in streptozocin (STZ)-induced diabetic rats. 2. Nociceptive testing was performed in male adult Wistar rats 4 weeks after the onset of hyperglycaemia. At the end of the experiment, all rats were weighed and then underwent plasma glucose measurements. 3. Diabetes caused significant hyperalgesia during both phases of the formalin test. At 10 and 50 mg/kg, both UCM707 and AM404 reversed chemical hyperalgesia in diabetic rats. UCM707 (10 and 50 mg/kg) caused less intensive nociceptive behaviour during both phases of the test, whereas AM404 (10 and 50 mg/kg) only affected pain scores during Phase 1 of the formalin test. At 1 mg, neither drug had any effect on pain behaviour in control and diabetic groups compared with their respective controls. Neither UCM707 nor AM404 had any effect on bodyweight or plasma glucose levels of treated compared with non-treated rats at any of the doses tested. 4. The results of the present study indicate that systemic administration of UCM707 and AM404 is effective in ameliorating chemical hyperalgesia in STZ-diabetic rats. Thus, endocannabinoid transport inhibitors may have potential in the treatment of painful diabetic neuropathy.

Pyritinol reduces nociception and oxidative stress in diabetic rats

The purpose of this study was to assess the antinociceptive and antiallodynic effect of pyritinol as well as its possible mechanism of action in diabetic rats. Streptozotocin (50 mg/kg) injection caused hyperglycemia within 1 week. Formalin-evoked flinching was increased in diabetic rats as compared to non-diabetic rats. Oral acute administration of pyritinol (50-200 mg/kg) dose-dependently reduced flinching behavior in diabetic rats. Moreover, prolonged administration of pyritinol (12.5-50 mg/kg, every 2 days for 2 weeks) reduced formalin-induced nociception. 1H-[1,2,4]-oxadiazolo [4,3-a] quinoxalin-1-one (ODQ, a guanylyl cyclase inhibitor, 2 mg/kg, i.p.), but not naltrexone (a non-selective opioid receptor antagonist, 1 mg/kg, s.c.) or indomethacin (a non-selective cycloxygenase inhibitor, 5 mg/kg, i.p.), blocked the pyritinol-induced antinociception in diabetic rats. Given alone ODQ, naltrexone or indomethacin did not modify formalin-induced nociception in diabetic rats. Oral acute (200 mg/kg) or prolonged (25 mg/kg, every 2 days for 2 weeks) administration of pyritinol significantly reduced streptozotocin-induced changes in free carbonyls, dityrosine, malondialdehyde and advanced oxidative protein products. Four to 8 weeks after diabetes induction, tactile allodynia was observed in the streptozotocin-injected rats. On this condition, oral administration of pyritinol (50-200 mg/kg) reduced tactile allodynia in diabetic rats. Results indicate that pyritinol is able to reduce formalin-induced nociception and tactile allodynia in streptozotocin-injected rats. In addition, data suggest that activation of guanylyl cyclase and the scavenger properties of pyritinol, but not improvement in glucose levels, play an important role in these effects.

Endothelial and neural regulation of skin microvascular blood flow in patients with diabetic peripheral neuropathy: effect of treatment with the isoform-specific protein kinase C beta inhibitor, ruboxistaurin

PURPOSE

This article aims to study the effects of ruboxistaurin (RBX) on skin microvascular blood flow (SkBF) and evaluate the relationship between endothelial and neural control of SkBF in patients with diabetic peripheral neuropathy (DPN).

METHODS

We studied 11 placebo- and 9 RBX (32 mg/day)-treated patients who participated in a 1-year, double-masked, randomized, Phase 3 study of RBX for treatment of DPN sensory symptoms. Patients had type 1 or type 2 diabetes, a detectable sural sensory nerve action potential, and Neuropathy Total Symptom Score-6 (NTSS-6) >6 points. SkBF was measured by laser Doppler velocimetry, combined with iontophoresis of acetylcholine and sodium nitroprusside, at baseline, 3 months, and 1 year. Sensory symptoms and electrophysiology were also evaluated during the study. The relationship between endothelial and neural control of SkBF at baseline was assessed using linear regression.

RESULTS

No significant differences (RBX vs. placebo) were demonstrable for post-iontophoresis SkBF [fold increase from basal state (1 year): endothelium-dependent, 3.6 vs. 8.6; endothelium-independent, 3.7 vs. 2.0; C fiber-mediated, 1.7 vs. 2.0; P>.05] or sensory symptoms [NTSS-6 total score (1 year): 7.7 vs. 6.0 points; P=.4]. There were also no significant between-group differences in nerve conduction parameters, except for placebo peroneal nerve conduction velocity, which demonstrated a statistically significant improvement of unknown clinical importance (Z=2.1; P=.034). At baseline, C fiber-mediated vasodilatation correlated well with endothelium-dependent vasodilation (r=.7, P<.01) but not with endothelium-independent vasodilatation (r=-.1, P=.7).

CONCLUSIONS

RBX demonstrated no effect on SkBF or sensory symptoms after 1 year in this cohort. The correlation between C fiber-mediated and endothelium-dependent SkBF at baseline suggests that improving endothelial function could affect the microcirculation not only locally but also via the neurovascular arcade.

Preventive and curative effect of edaravone on nerve functions and oxidative stress in experimental diabetic neuropathy

Oxidative stress is implicated as a final common pathway in the development of diabetic neuropathy and pharmacological interventions targeted at inhibiting free radical production have shown beneficial effects. In the present study, we have investigated the effects of edaravone (3 mg/kg; 3-Methyl-1-phenyl-2-pyrazolin-5-one), a free radical scavenger (relatively selective to hydroxyl radicals) in streptozotocin (50 mg/kg i.p.) induced diabetic neuropathy in male Sprague-Dawley rats. Significant reduction (18%) in motor nerve conduction velocity, nerve blood flow (55%) and tail flick latency in cold (53%) and hot (50%) immersion test was observed in diabetic rats compared to age matched non-diabetic rats. Preventive (8 week) and curative (2 week) treatment of edaravone significantly improved the nerve conduction velocity and nociception but not nerve blood flow in diabetic rats. The changes in lipid peroxidation status and anti-oxidant enzymes (Superoxide dismutase and Catalase) levels observed in diabetic rats were significantly restored by edaravone treatment. Increase in blood pressure and vascular resistance was also significantly attenuated by edaravone treatment. This study provides experimental evidence to preventive and curative effect of edaravone on nerve function and oxidative stress in animal model of diabetic neuropathy. Hence edaravone may be tried clinically for the treatment of diabetic neuropathy since it is clinically used in stroke patients.

Nitrosative stress and peripheral diabetic neuropathy in leptin-deficient (ob/ob) mice

Nitrosative stress contributes to nerve conduction slowing, thermal hypoalgesia, and impaired nitrergic innervation in animal models of Type 1 diabetes. The role for reactive nitrogen species in Type 2 diabetes-associated neuropathy remains unexplored. This study evaluated the role for nitrosative stress in functional and structural neuropathic changes in ob/ob mice, a model of Type 2 diabetes with mild hyperglycemia and obesity. Two structurally diverse peroxynitrite decomposition catalysts, Fe(III) tetrakis-2-(N-triethylene glycol monomethyl ether)-pyridyl porphyrin (FP15) and Fe(III) tetra-mesitylporphyrin octasulfonate (FeTMPS), were administered to control and 8-week-old ob/ob mice for 3 weeks at the doses of 5 mg kg(-1) day(-1) (FP15) and 5 and 10 mg kg(-1) day(-1) (FeTMPS). The 11-week-old ob/ob mice developed motor nerve conduction velocity (MNCV) and hind-limb digital sensory nerve conduction velocity (SNCV) deficits, thermal hypoalgesia, tactile allodynia, and a remarkable ( approximately 78%) loss of intraepidermal nerve fibers. They also had increased nitrotyrosine and poly(ADP-ribose) immunofluorescence in the sciatic nerve, spinal cord, and dorsal root ganglion neurons. Treatment with two structurally diverse peroxynitrite decomposition catalysts was associated with restoration of normal MNCV and SNCV, and alleviation of thermal hypoalgesia. Tactile response thresholds increased in response to peroxynitrite decomposition catalyst treatment, but still remained approximately 2.7- to 3.2-fold lower compared with non-diabetic controls. Intraepidermal nerve fiber loss was not alleviated by either FP15 or FeTMPS. Nitrotyrosine and poly(ADP-ribose) immunofluorescence in sciatic nerve, spinal cord, and dorsal root ganglia of peroxynitrite decomposition catalyst-treated ob/ob mice were essentially normal. In conclusion, nitrosative stress plays an important role in functional abnormalities associated with large motor, large sensory, and small sensory fiber neuropathy, but not in small sensory nerve fiber degeneration, in this animal model. Peroxynitrite decomposition catalysts alleviate Type 2 diabetes-associated sensory nerve dysfunction, likely by mechanism(s) not involving arrest of degenerative changes or enhanced regeneration of small sensory nerve fibers.

Effects of trolox on nerve dysfunction, thermal hyperalgesia and oxidative stress in experimental diabetic neuropathy

1. Diabetic neuropathy is one of the most common complications of diabetes and oxidative stress has been implicated to play a major role in its pathophysiology. 2. In the present study, we targeted oxidative stress using trolox, an anti-oxidant, in streptozotocin-induced diabetic neuropathy in rats. 3. Compared with control rats, diabetic rats showed significant deficits in motor nerve conduction velocity (MNCV; 49.91 +/- 1.94 vs 42.77 +/- 1.39 m/s, respectively) and nerve blood flow (NBF; 107.98 +/- 8.22 vs 38.9 +/- 2.7 arbitarary perfusion units, respectively) after 8 weeks of diabetes. Tail flick latencies for cold and hot immersion tests were also significantly reduced in diabetic rats, indicating thermal hyperalgesia. These observations indicate development of diabetic neuropathy. 4. A significant decrease in the activity of anti-oxidant enzymes (superoxide dismutase and catalase) and an increase in lipid peroxidation were observed in sciatic nerves from diabetic rats compared with age-matched control rats. Alterations in the activity of anti-oxidant enzymes and lipid peroxidation in diabetic rats indicate oxidative stress in diabetic neuropathy. 5. Two weeks treatment with trolox (10 and 30 mg/kg, i.p.) started on completion of the 6th week of diabetes significantly improved MNCV, NBF and inhibited thermal hyperalgesia. Trolox treatment also improved the activity of anti-oxidant enzymes and inhibited lipid peroxidation in sciatic nerves of diabetic rats. 6. The results of the present study suggest the beneficial effects of trolox in experimental diabetic neuropathy.

Oral magnesium administration prevents thermal hyperalgesia induced by diabetes in rats

BACKGROUND

Peripheral neuropathy is a common complication of diabetes mellitus. It has been shown that hyperglycemia may contribute to its development but the exact pathophysiology underlying this complication is not fully understood. Since oral magnesium supplementation can normalize hyperglycemia induced by diabetes in rats, this study was designed to examine the effect of oral magnesium administration on thermal hyperalgesia in streptozocin-induced diabetic rats.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Twenty-four male adult wistar rats were divided equally into control, magnesium-treated control, diabetic and magnesium-treated diabetic groups. In magnesium-treated diabetic rats, magnesium sulfate (10g/l) was added into the drinking water once diabetes was established (10 days after STZ injection) and continued for 8 weeks. Mg-treated control animals received magnesium sulfate in the same dose and over the same time period. The other two groups; control and diabetic animals, only received tap water. At the end of the 8 weeks, thermal pain threshold was assessed by tail flick test and magnesium and glucose plasma levels were measured in all groups.

RESULT

A significant decrease (p<0.001) in thermal pain threshold and plasma magnesium levels and an increase in plasma glucose levels (p<0.001) were seen in diabetic rats 8 weeks after diabetes induction. After 8 weeks of oral magnesium, thermal hyperalgesia was normalized and plasma magnesium and glucose levels were restored towards normal.

CONCLUSION

It is concluded that oral magnesium administration given at the time of diabetes induction may be able to restore thermal hyperalgesia, magnesium deficiency and hyperglycemia and in diabetic rats.

Poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase inhibition alleviates experimental diabetic sensory neuropathy

Poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) activation is emerging as a fundamental mechanism in the pathogenesis of diabetes complications including diabetic neuropathy. This study evaluated the role of PARP in diabetic sensory neuropathy. The experiments were performed in control and streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats treated with or without the PARP inhibitor 1,5-isoquinolinediol (ISO; 3 mg x kg(-1) x day(-1) i.p.) for 2 weeks after 2 weeks without treatment. Diabetic rats developed thermal hyperalgesia (assessed by paw-withdrawal and tail-flick tests), mechanical hyperalgesia (von Frey anesthesiometer/rigid filaments and Randall-Sellito tests), tactile allodynia (flexible von Frey filaments), and increased flinching behavior in phases 1 and 2 of the 2% formalin pain test. They also had clearly manifest increase in nitrotyrosine and poly(ADP-ribose) immunoreactivities in the sciatic nerve and increased superoxide formation (hydroxyethidine method) and nitrotyrosine immunoreactivity in vasa nervorum. ISO treatment alleviated abnormal sensory responses, including thermal and mechanical hyperalgesia and tactile allodynia as well as exaggerated formalin flinching behavior in diabetic rats, without affecting the aforementioned variables in the control group. Poly(ADP-ribose) and, to a lesser extent, nitrotyrosine abundance in sciatic nerve, as well as superoxide and nitrotyrosine formation in vasa nervorum, were markedly reduced by ISO therapy. Apoptosis in dorsal root ganglion neurons (transferase-mediated dUTP nick-end labeling assay) was not detected in any of the groups. In conclusion, PARP activation contributes to early diabetic sensory neuropathy by mechanisms that may include oxidative stress but not neuronal apoptosis.

The 262T>C promoter polymorphism of the catalase gene is associated with diabetic neuropathy in type 1 diabetic Russian patients

OBJECTIVE

Oxidative stress plays an important role in the development of diabetic neuropathy (DN). Antioxidant enzymes reduce enhanced oxidative stress in the peripheral nerve. Genetic variations within the antioxidant genes therefore could be implicated in the pathogenesis of DN.

METHODS

Using a PCR-RFLP assay, a total of 216 Russian type 1 diabetic (T1D) patients with DN and 250 T1D individuals without DN have been tested to verify whether the -262T > C and 1167C > T polymorphisms of the catalase (CAT), 197Pro > Leu amino acid substitution of the glutathione peroxidase 1 (GPX1) and +/null polymorphism of the glutathione S-transferase M1 (GSTM1) and T1 (GSTT1) genes contribute to susceptibility to DN.

RESULTS

Association between the -262T > C polymorphism of the CAT gene and DN was shown. The -262TT genotype of the CAT gene was significantly associated with higher erythrocyte catalase activity in blood of DN patients compared to the -262CC genotype (17.8 +/- 2.7 x 104 IU/g Hb vs. 13.5 +/- 3.2 x 104 IU/g Hb, P = 0.0022).

CONCLUSIONS

These data suggest a protective role of the -262T allele of the CAT gene against the rapid development of DN in T1D (Odds Ratio = 0.7 [95% confidence interval 0.54-0.9], P = 0.002).

Effects of U83836E on nerve functions, hyperalgesia and oxidative stress in experimental diabetic neuropathy

Oxidative stress has been implicated to play an important role in the pathogenesis of diabetic neuropathy, which is the most common complication of diabetes mellitus affecting more than 50% of diabetic patients. In the present study, we have investigated the effect of U83836E [(-)-2-((4-(2,6-Di-1-pyrrolidinyl-4-pyrimidinyl)-1-piperazinyl)methyl)-3,4-dihydro-2,3,7,8-tetramethyl-2H-1-benzopyran-6-ol, 2HCl], a potent free radical scavenger in streptozotocin (STZ)-induced diabetic neuropathy in rats. STZ-induced diabetic rats showed significant deficit in motor nerve conduction velocity (MNCV), nerve blood flow (NBF) and thermal hyperalgesia after 8 weeks of diabetes induction, indicating development of diabetic neuropathy. Antioxidant enzyme (superoxide dismutase and catalase) levels were reduced and malondialdehyde (MDA) levels were significantly increased in diabetic rats as compared to the age-matched control rats, this indicates the involvement of oxidative stress in diabetic neuropathy. The 2-week treatment with U83836E (3 and 9 mg/kg, i.p.) started 6 weeks after diabetes induction significantly ameliorated the alterations in MNCV, NBF, hyperalgesia, MDA levels and antioxidant enzymes in diabetic rats. Results of the present study suggest the potential of U83836E in treatment of diabetic neuropathy.

Role of poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase-1 activation in the pathogenesis of diabetic complications: endothelial dysfunction, as a common underlying theme

Hyperglycemia-induced overproduction of superoxide by mitochondrial electron-transport chain triggers several pathways of injury involved in the pathogenesis of diabetic complications [protein kinase C (PKC), hexosamine and polyol pathway fluxes, advanced glycation end product (AGE) formation] by inhibiting glyceraldehyde- 3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH) activity. Increased oxidative and nitrosative stress activates the nuclear enzyme, poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase-1 (PARP). PARP activation, on the one hand, depletes its substrate, NAD+, slowing the rate of glycolysis, electron transport, and ATP formation. On the other hand, it inhibits GAPDH by poly(ADP-ribosy)lation. These processes result in acute endothelial dysfunction in diabetic blood vessels, which importantly contributes to the development of various diabetic complications. Accordingly, hyperglycemia-induced activation of PKC isoforms, hexosaminase pathway flux, and AGE formation is prevented by blocking PARP activity. Furthermore, inhibition of PARP protects against diabetic cardiovascular dysfunction in preclinical models. PARP activation is present in microvasculature of human diabetic subjects. The oxidative/nitrosative stress-PARP pathway leads to diabetes-induced endothelial dysfunction, which may be an important underlying mechanism for the pathogenesis of other diabetic complications (cardiomyopathy, nephropathy, neuropathy, and retinopathy). This review focuses on the role of PARP in diabetic complications and the unique therapeutic potential of PARP inhibition in the prevention or reversal of diabetic complications.

Increased sorbitol pathway activity generates oxidative stress in tissue sites for diabetic complications

Chronic diabetic complications, in particular, nephropathy, peripheral and autonomic neuropathy, "diabetic foot," retinopathy, and cardiovascular disease, remain the major cause of morbidity and mortality in patients with diabetes mellitus. Growing evidence indicates that both increased activity of the sorbitol pathway of glucose metabolism and enhanced oxidative stress are the leading factors in the pathogenesis of diabetic complications. The relation between the two mechanisms remains the area of controversy. One group has reported that increased sorbitol pathway activity has a protective rather than detrimental role in complication-prone tissues because the pathway detoxifies toxic lipid peroxidation products. Others put forward a so-called "unifying hypothesis" suggesting that activation of several major pathways implicated in diabetic complications (e.g., sorbitol pathway) occurs due to increased production of superoxide anion radicals in mitochondria and resulting poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase activation. This review (a) presents findings supporting a key role for the sorbitol pathway in oxidative stress and oxidative stress-initiated downstream mechanisms of diabetic complications, and (b) summarizes experimental evidence against a detoxifying role of the sorbitol pathway, as well as the "unifying concept."