Critical Care Management of Stress-Induced Hyperglycemia

Effect of stress hyperglycaemia on acute kidney injury in non-diabetic critically ill patients?

BACKGROUND

Stress hyperglycaemia (SH) and acute kidney injury (AKI) occur frequently in critically ill patients, and particularly non-diabetics are associated with adverse outcome. Data is scarce on the effect of SH on AKI. We assessed whether SH (i) preceded AKI, (ii) was a risk factor of subsequent AKI, and (iii) how SH and tubular injury interacted in AKI development in critically ill, non-diabetics.

METHODS

Case-control study of 82 patients each with and without SH matched by propensity score for multiple demographic characteristics. AKI was defined by KDIGO criteria, SH either as blood glucose (BG) > 140 mg/dl (BG140), > 200 mg/dl (BG200), or stress hyperglycemia rate (SHR) ≥ 1.47 (SHR1.47) as measured 2 days before AKI. Urinary cystatin C and neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin (NGAL) indicated tubular injury.

RESULTS

In AKI, SH rates were frequent using all 3 definitions applied, but highest when BG140 was applied. SH by all 3 definitions was consistently associated with AKI. This was independent of established risk factors of AKI such as sepsis and shock. Increments of BG, urinary NGAL or cystatin C, and its products, were independently associated with the likelihood of subsequent AKI, demonstrating their reciprocal potentiating effects on AKI development.

CONCLUSIONS

SH is frequent in critically ill, non-diabetics with AKI. SH was identified as an independent risk factor of AKI. Higher BG combined with tubular injury may potentiate their adverse effects on AKI.

Incidence and Risk Factors of Hyperglycemia in Severe Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome in Children: A Retrospective Case-Control Study

Objective Multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children (MIS-C) patients might be at risk for hyperglycemia and associated complications. Herein, we aimed to determine the incidence of hyperglycemia, understanding the underlying risk factors in MIS-C patients.

Methods All MIS-C patients were retrospectively evaluated and compared according to the presence of hyperglycemia and the need of insulin. Inflammatory markers and body mass index Z-scores were also compared.

Results The median age of the patients with hyperglycemia was higher than those without (p = 0.001). Disease severity scores of patients with hyperglycemia were higher. Procalcitonin levels of patients with hyperglycemia were higher, while ferritin, CRP, and interleukin-6 levels were not. BMIs of patients with hyperglycemia were higher (p = 0.01) but BMI Z-scores were similar (p = 0.055). There was a positive correlation between BMIs and CRP (r: 0.31, p = 0.015). There was a positive correlation between procalcitonin (r: 0.431, p = 0.001) and CRP (r: 0.279, p = 0.029) and maximum PG.

Conclusion Hyperglycemia is a common feature of MIS-C patients and is associated with the severity of the inflammation. As a novel finding, high CRP and procalcitonin should be considered as predictive markers for impaired glucose homeostasis in MIS-C patients.

Association of Blood Glucose Level and Glycemic Variability With Mortality in Sepsis Patients During ICU Hospitalization

Background

There was considerable debate regarding the effect of mean blood glucose (MBG) and glycemic variability (GV) on the mortality of septic patients. This retrospective cohort study aimed to assess the association between MBG and GV with ICU mortality of sepsis patients and to explore the optimal MBG range.

Methods

Sepsis patients were enrolled from the Medical Information Mart for Intensive Care IV database (MIMIC-IV). MBG and glycemic coefficient of variation (GluCV) were, respectively, calculated to represent the overall glycemic status and GV during ICU stay. The associations between MBG, GluCV, and ICU mortality of the septic patients were assessed by using multivariate logistic regression in different subgroups and the severity of sepsis. Restricted cubic splines evaluated the optimal MBG target.

Results

A total of 7,104 adult sepsis patients were included. The multivariate logistic regression results showed that increased MBG and GluCV were significantly correlated with ICU mortality. The adjusted odds ratios were 1.14 (95% CI 1.09-1.20) and 1.05 (95% CI 1.00-1.12). However, there was no association between hyperglycemia and ICU mortality among diabetes, liver disease, immunosuppression, and hypoglycemia patients. And the impact of high GluCV on ICU mortality was not observed in those with diabetes, immunosuppression, liver disease, and non-septic shock. The ICU mortality risk of severe hyperglycemia (≧200 mg/dl) and high GluCV (>31.429%), respectively, elevated 2.30, 3.15, 3.06, and 2.37, 2.79, 3.14-folds in mild (SOFA ≦ 3), middle (SOFA 3-7), and severe group (SOFA ≧ 7). The MBG level was associated with the lowest risk of ICU mortality and hypoglycemia between 120 and 140 mg/dl in the subgroup without diabetes. For the diabetic subset, the incidence of hypoglycemia was significantly reduced when the MBG was 140-190 mg/dl, but a glycemic control target effectively reducing ICU mortality was not observed.

Conclusion

MBG and GluCV during the ICU stay were associated with all-cause ICU mortality in sepsis patients; however, their harms are not apparent in some particular subgroups. The impact of hyperglycemia and high GV on death increased with the severity of sepsis. The risk of ICU mortality and hypoglycemia in those with no pre-existing diabetes was lower when maintaining the MBG in the range of 120-140 mg/dl.

Hyperglycemia and Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme 2 in Pulmonary Function in the Context of SARS-CoV-2 Infection

Since the appearance of the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV) in 2003 in China, diabetes mellitus (DM) and hyperglycemia in patients infected with SARS-CoV, represent independent predictors of mortality. Therefore, metabolic control has played a major role in the prognosis of these patients. In the current pandemic of coronavirus disease 19 (COVID-19), multiple studies have shown that DM is one of the main comorbidities associated with COVID-19 and higher risk of complications and death. The incidence and prevalence of COVID-19 complications and death related with hyperglycemia in patients with or without DM are high. There are many hypotheses related with worse prognosis and death related to COVID-19 and/or hyperglycemia. However, the information about the interplay between hyperglycemia and angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2), the critical receptor for severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), in the context of SARS-CoV-2 infection, is almost null, but there is enough information to consider the possible participation of hyperglycemia in the glycation of this protein, unleashing a pool of reactions leading to acute respiratory distress syndrome and death in patients with COVID-19. In this document we investigated the current evidence related with ACE2 as a key element within the pathophysiological mechanism related with hyperglycemia extrapolating it to context of SARS-CoV-2 infection and its relationship with worse prognosis and death for COVID-19.

Endogenous Glucose Production in Critical Illness

Regulation of endogenous glucose production (EGP) by hormonal, neuronal, and metabolic signaling pathways contributes to the maintenance of euglycemia under normal physiologic conditions. EGP is defined by the generation of glucose from substrates through glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis, usually in fasted states, for local and systemic use. Abnormal increases in EGP are noted in patients with diabetes mellitus type 2, and elevated EGP may also impact the pathogenesis of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease and congestive heart failure. In this narrative review, we performed a literature search in PubMed to identify recently published English language articles characterizing EGP in critical illness. Evidence from preclinical and clinical studies demonstrates that critical illness can disrupt EGP through multiple mechanisms including increased systemic inflammation, counterregulatory hormone and catecholamine release, alterations in the hypothalamic-pituitary axis, insulin resistance, lactic acidosis, and iatrogenic insults such as vasopressors and glucocorticoids administered as part of clinical care. EGP contributes to hyperglycemia in critical illness when abnormally elevated and to hypoglycemia when abnormally depressed, each of which has been independently associated with increased mortality. Increased EGP may also promote protein catabolism that could worsen critical illness myopathy and impede recovery. Better understanding of the mechanisms and factors contributing to dysregulated EGP in critical illness may help in the development of therapeutic strategies that promote euglycemia, reduce intensive care unit-associated catabolism, and improve patient outcomes.

The stress hyperglycaemia ratio is associated with left ventricular remodelling after first acute ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction

BACKGROUND

Left ventricular negative remodelling after ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI) is considered as the major cause for the poor prognosis. But the predisposing factors and potential mechanisms of left ventricular negative remodelling after STEMI remain not fully understood. The present research mainly assessed the association between the stress hyperglycaemia ratio (SHR) and left ventricular negative remodelling.

METHODS

We recruited 127 first-time, anterior, and acute STEMI patients in the present study. All enrolled patients were divided into 2 subgroups equally according to the median value of SHR level (1.191). Echocardiography was conducted within 24 h after admission and 6 months post-STEMI to measure left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF), left ventricular end-diastolic diameter (LVEDD), and left ventricular end-systolic diameter (LVESD). Changes in echocardiography parameters (δLVEF, δLVEDD, δLVESD) were calculated as LVEF, LVEDD, and LVESD at 6 months after infarction minus baseline LVEF, LVEDD and LVESD, respectively.

RESULTS

In the present study, the mean SHR was 1.22 ± 0.25 and there was significant difference in SHR between the 2 subgroups (1.05 (0.95, 1.11) vs 1.39 (1.28, 1.50), p < 0.0001). The global LVEF at 6 months post-STEMI was significantly higher in the low SHR group than the high SHR group (59.37 ± 7.33 vs 54.03 ± 9.64, p  = 0.001). Additionally, the global LVEDD (49.84 ± 5.10 vs 51.81 ± 5.60, p  = 0.040) and LVESD (33.27 ± 5.03 vs 35.38 ± 6.05, p  = 0.035) at 6 months after STEMI were lower in the low SHR group. Most importantly, after adjusting through multivariable linear regression analysis, SHR remained associated with δLVEF (beta = -9.825, 95% CI -15.168 to -4.481, p  < 0.0001), δLVEDD (beta = 4.879, 95% CI 1.725 to 8.069, p  = 0.003), and δLVESD (beta = 5.079, 95% CI 1.421 to 8.738, p  = 0.007).

CONCLUSIONS

In the present research, we demonstrated for the first time that SHR is significantly correlated with left ventricular negative remodelling after STEMI.

Critical illness myopathy precedes hyperglycaemia and high glucose variability

BACKGROUND

Critical Illness Myopathy (CIM) is a serious ICU complication, and dysglycaemia is widely regarded as a risk factor. Although glucose variability (GV) has been independently linked to ICU mortality, an association with CIM has not been investigated. This study examines the relationship between CIM and GV.

METHODS

Retrospective investigation including ICU patients with SOFA ≥8, mechanical ventilation, and CIM diagnostics. Glucose readings were collected every 6 h throughout the first week of treatment, when CIM is thought to develop. GV was measured using standard deviation (SD), coefficient of variability (CV), mean absolute glucose (MAG), mean amplitude of glycaemic excursions (MAGE), and mean of daily difference (MODD).

RESULTS

74 patients were included, and 50 (67.6%) developed CIM. Time on glycaemic target (70-179 mg/dL), caloric and insulin intakes, mean, maximum and minimum blood glucose values were similar for all patients until the 5th day, after which CIM patients exhibited higher mean and maximum glucose levels. Significantly higher GV in CIM patients were observed on day 5 (SD, CV, MAG, MAGE), day 6 (MODD), and day 7 (SD, CV, MAG).

CONCLUSIONS

CIM patients developed transient increases in GV and hyperglycaemia only late in the first week, suggesting that myopathy precedes dysglycaemia.

Insulin sensitivity in critically ill patients: are women more insulin resistant?

Background

Glycaemic control (GC) in intensive care unit is challenging due to significant inter- and intra-patient variability, leading to increased risk of hypoglycaemia. Recent work showed higher insulin resistance in female preterm neonates. This study aims to determine if there are differences in inter- and intra-patient metabolic variability between sexes in adults, to gain in insight into any differences in metabolic response to injury. Any significant difference would suggest GC and randomised trial design should consider sex differences to personalise care.

Methods

Insulin sensitivity (SI) levels and variability are identified from retrospective clinical data for men and women. Data are divided using 6-h blocks to capture metabolic evolution over time. In total, 91 male and 54 female patient GC episodes of minimum 24 h are analysed. Hypothesis testing is used to determine whether differences are significant (P < 0.05), and equivalence testing is used to assess whether these differences can be considered equivalent at a clinical level. Data are assessed for the raw cohort and in 100 Monte Carlo simulations analyses where the number of men and women are equal.

Results

Demographic data between females and males were all similar, including GC outcomes (safety from hypoglycaemia and high (> 50%) time in target band). Females had consistently significantly lower SI levels than males, and this difference was not clinically equivalent. However, metabolic variability between sexes was never significantly different and always clinically equivalent. Thus, inter-patient variability was significantly different between males and females, but intra-patient variability was equivalent.

Conclusion

Given equivalent intra-patient variability and significantly greater insulin resistance, females can receive the same benefit from safe, effective GC as males, but may require higher insulin doses to achieve the same glycaemia. Clinical trials should consider sex differences in protocol design and outcome analyses.

Insulin sensitivity in critically ill patients: are women more insulin resistant?

BACKGROUND

Glycaemic control (GC) in intensive care unit is challenging due to significant inter- and intra-patient variability, leading to increased risk of hypoglycaemia. Recent work showed higher insulin resistance in female preterm neonates. This study aims to determine if there are differences in inter- and intra-patient metabolic variability between sexes in adults, to gain in insight into any differences in metabolic response to injury. Any significant difference would suggest GC and randomised trial design should consider sex differences to personalise care.

METHODS

Insulin sensitivity (SI) levels and variability are identified from retrospective clinical data for men and women. Data are divided using 6-h blocks to capture metabolic evolution over time. In total, 91 male and 54 female patient GC episodes of minimum 24 h are analysed. Hypothesis testing is used to determine whether differences are significant (P < 0.05), and equivalence testing is used to assess whether these differences can be considered equivalent at a clinical level. Data are assessed for the raw cohort and in 100 Monte Carlo simulations analyses where the number of men and women are equal.

RESULTS

Demographic data between females and males were all similar, including GC outcomes (safety from hypoglycaemia and high (> 50%) time in target band). Females had consistently significantly lower SI levels than males, and this difference was not clinically equivalent. However, metabolic variability between sexes was never significantly different and always clinically equivalent. Thus, inter-patient variability was significantly different between males and females, but intra-patient variability was equivalent.

CONCLUSION

Given equivalent intra-patient variability and significantly greater insulin resistance, females can receive the same benefit from safe, effective GC as males, but may require higher insulin doses to achieve the same glycaemia. Clinical trials should consider sex differences in protocol design and outcome analyses.

Effects on Outcomes of Hyperglycemia in the Hyperacute Stage after Acute Traumatic Spinal Cord Injury

Hyperglycemia has adverse effects on neuronal recovery after brain injury, but its effects after spinal cord injury (SCI) are understudied. This retrospective cohort study examined the potential effects on outcomes of hyperglycemia in the hyperacute stage after acute traumatic SCI. This study included all individuals enrolled in the National Acute Spinal Cord Injury Study 3 (NASCIS-3). Glycemic levels at 24 h, at 48 h, and at day 7 after acute SCI were examined as potential determinants of survival, neurological outcomes (using NASCIS motor, sensory, and pain scores), and functional outcome (using the Functional Independence Measure [FIM]) within the first year post-SCI. Hyperglycemia was defined using two thresholds (140 mg/dL and 180 mg/dL). Study subjects were 76 females and 423 males with an overall mean age of 36 years who sustained mostly cervical SCI due to motor vehicle accidents or falls. Hyperglycemia diagnosed at day 7 post-injury was associated with significantly greater mortality rates post-SCI. Among the survivors, hyperglycemia during the hyperacute stage was not significantly correlated with neurological recovery post-SCI. Hyperglycemia persistent until day 7 was significantly correlated with lower functional scores post-SCI. These results suggest that hyperglycemia at day 7 is correlated with greater mortality rates within the first year post-SCI. Although hyperglycemia during the hyperacute stage was not associated with neurological recovery, hyperglycemia at day 7 may adversely affect functional recovery within the first year post-SCI. Future investigations are needed to determine the optimal glycemic target in the management of patients with SCI.

Adipocyte lipolysis drives acute stress-induced insulin resistance

Stress hyperglycemia and insulin resistance are evolutionarily conserved metabolic adaptations to severe injury including major trauma, burns, or hemorrhagic shock (HS). In response to injury, the neuroendocrine system increases secretion of counterregulatory hormones that promote rapid mobilization of nutrient stores, impair insulin action, and ultimately cause hyperglycemia, a condition known to impair recovery from injury in the clinical setting. We investigated the contributions of adipocyte lipolysis to the metabolic response to acute stress. Both surgical injury with HS and counterregulatory hormone (epinephrine) infusion profoundly stimulated adipocyte lipolysis and simultaneously triggered insulin resistance and hyperglycemia. When lipolysis was inhibited, the stress-induced insulin resistance and hyperglycemia were largely abolished demonstrating an essential requirement for adipocyte lipolysis in promoting stress-induced insulin resistance. Interestingly, circulating non-esterified fatty acid levels did not increase with lipolysis or correlate with insulin resistance during acute stress. Instead, we show that impaired insulin sensitivity correlated with circulating levels of the adipokine resistin in a lipolysis-dependent manner. Our findings demonstrate the central importance of adipocyte lipolysis in the metabolic response to injury. This insight suggests new approaches to prevent insulin resistance and stress hyperglycemia in trauma and surgery patients and thereby improve outcomes.

Propofol Improved Glucose Tolerance Associated with Increased FGF-21 and GLP-1 Production in Male Sprague-Dawley Rats

Anesthetics, particularly volatile anesthetics, have been shown to impair glucose metabolism and cause hyperglycemia, closely linking them with mortality and morbidity as related to surgery. Beyond being an anesthetic used for general anesthesia and sedation, intravenous hypnotic propofol displays an effect on glucose metabolism. To extend the scope of propofol studies, its effects on glucose metabolism were evaluated in male Sprague-Dawley rats of various ages. Unlike chloral hydrate and isoflurane, propofol had little effect on basal glucose levels in rats at 2 months of age, although it did reduce chloral hydrate- and isoflurane-induced hyperglycemia. Propofol reduced postload glucose levels after either intraperitoneal or oral administration of glucose in both 7- and 12-month-old rats, but not those at 2 months of age. These improved effects regarding propofol on glucose metabolism were accompanied by an increase in insulin, fibroblast growth factor-21 (FGF-21), and glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) secretion. Additionally, an increase in hepatic FGF-21 expression, GLP-1 signaling, and FGF-21 signaling, along with a decrease in endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress, were noted in propofol-treated rats at 7 months of age. Current findings imply that propofol may turn into insulin-sensitizing molecules during situations of existing insulin resistance, which involve FGF-21, GLP-1, and ER stress.

Liraglutide for perioperative management of hyperglycaemia in cardiac surgery patients: a multicentre randomized superiority trial

AIMS

Most cardiac surgery patients, with or without diabetes, develop perioperative hyperglycaemia, for which intravenous insulin is the only therapeutic option. This is labour-intensive and carries a risk of hypoglycaemia. We hypothesized that preoperative administration of the glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonist liraglutide reduces the number of patients requiring insulin for glycaemic control during cardiac surgery.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

In this randomized, blinded, placebo-controlled, parallel-group, balanced (1:1), multicentre randomized, superiority trial, adult patients undergoing cardiac surgery in four Dutch tertiary hospitals were randomized to receive 0.6 mg subcutaneous liraglutide on the evening before surgery and 1.2 mg after induction of anaesthesia or matching placebo. Blood glucose was measured hourly and controlled using an insulin-bolus algorithm. The primary outcome was insulin administration for blood glucose >8.0 mmol/L in the operating theatre. Research pharmacists used centralized, stratified, variable-block, randomization software. Patients, care providers and study personnel were blinded to treatment allocation.

RESULTS

Between June 2017 and August 2018, 278 patients were randomized to liraglutide (139) or placebo (139). All patients receiving at least one study drug injection were included in the intention-to-treat analyses (129 in the liraglutide group, 132 in the placebo group). In the liraglutide group, 55 (43%) patients required additional insulin compared with 80 (61%) in the placebo group and absolute difference 18% (95% confidence interval 5.9-30.0, P = 0.003). Dose and number of insulin injections and mean blood glucose were all significantly lower in the liraglutide group. We observed no difference in the incidence of hypoglycaemia, nausea and vomiting, mortality or postoperative complications.

CONCLUSIONS

Preoperative liraglutide, compared with placebo, reduces insulin requirements while improving perioperative glycaemic control during cardiac surgery.

Dynamic properties of glucose complexity during the course of critical illness: a pilot study

Methods to control the blood glucose (BG) levels of patients in intensive care units (ICU) improve the outcomes. The development of continuous BG levels monitoring devices has also permitted to optimize these processes. Recently it was shown that a complexity loss of the BG signal is linked to poor clinical outcomes. Thus, it becomes essential to decipher this relation to design efficient BG level control methods. In previous studies the BG signal complexity was calculated as a single index for the whole ICU stay. Although, these approaches did not grasp the potential variability of the BG signal complexity. Therefore, we setup this pilot study using a continuous monitoring of central venous BG levels in ten critically ill patients (EIRUS platform, Maquet Critical CARE AB, Solna, Sweden). Data were processed and the complexity was assessed by the detrended fluctuation analysis and multiscale entropy (MSE) methods. Finally, recordings were split into 24 h overlapping intervals and a MSE analysis was applied to each of them. The MSE analysis on time intervals revealed an entropy variation and allowed periodic BG signal complexity assessments. To highlight differences of MSE between each time interval we calculated the MSE complexity index defined as the area under the curve. This new approach could pave the way to future studies exploring new strategies aimed at restoring blood glucose complexity during the ICU stay.

Association between potassium concentrations, variability and supplementation, and in-hospital mortality in ICU patients: a retrospective analysis

BACKGROUND

Serum potassium concentrations are commonly between 3.5 and 5.0 mmol/l. Standardised protocols for potassium range and supplementation in the ICU are lacking. The purpose of this retrospective analysis of ICU patients was to investigate potassium concentrations, variability and supplementation, and their association with in-hospital mortality.

METHODS

ICU patients ≥ 18 years, with ≥ 2 serum potassium values, treated at the Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin between 2006 and 2018 were eligible for inclusion. We categorised into groups of mean potassium concentrations: < 3.0, 3.0-3.5, > 3.5-4.0, > 4.0-4.5, > 4.5-5.0, > 5.0-5.5, > 5.5 mmol/l and potassium variability: 1st, 2nd and ≥ 3rd standard deviation (SD). We analysed the association between the particular groups and in-hospital mortality and performed binary logistic regression analysis. Survival curves were performed according to Kaplan-Meier and tested by Log-Rank. In a subanalysis, the association between potassium supplementation and in-hospital mortality was investigated.

RESULTS

In 53,248 ICU patients with 1,337,742 potassium values, the lowest mortality (3.7%) was observed in patients with mean potassium concentrations between > 3.5 and 4.0 mmol/l and a low potassium variability within the 1st SD. Binary logistic regression confirmed these results. In a subanalysis of 22,406 ICU patients (ICU admission: 2013-2018), 12,892 (57.5%) received oral and/or intravenous potassium supplementation. Potassium supplementation was associated with an increase in in-hospital mortality in potassium categories from > 3.5 to 4.5 mmol/l and in the 1st, 2nd and ≥ 3rd SD (p < 0.001 each).

CONCLUSIONS

ICU patients may benefit from a target range between 3.5 and 4.0 mmol/l and a minimal potassium variability. Clear potassium target ranges have to be determined. Criteria for widely applied potassium supplementation should be critically discussed. Trial registration German Clinical Trials Register, DRKS00016411. Retrospectively registered 11 January 2019, http://www.drks.de/DRKS00016411.

PTEN in propofol-induced insulin resistance in mouse primary hepatocytes

Propofol is the most common intravenous anesthetic agent used in clinical practice. Propofol can induce insulin resistance in mouse primary hepatocytes, however the molecular mechanism through which propofol acts remains largely unknown. Based on previous studies, it was hypothesized that phosphatase and tensin homolog (PTEN) is involved in propofol-mediated insulin resistance. The aim of the present study was to investigate the biological function of PTEN and its molecular mechanism in propofol-induced insulin resistance in mouse primary hepatocytes. Mouse primary hepatocytes were treated with propofol and transfected with small interfering RNA (siRNA)-996 to silence the endogenous expression of PTEN. The current study assessed the effects of propofol and PTEN knockdown on the expression of PTEN and several key enzymes of the phosphoinositide 3-kinase/protein kinase B/glycogen synthase kinase-3β signaling pathway, as well as the glycogen content in mouse primary hepatocytes. Treatment with propofol significantly increased protein and mRNA PTEN expression in mouse primary hepatocytes. In addition, knockdown of PTEN reversed propofol-induced insulin resistance in mouse primary hepatocytes. The present study indicated that PTEN serves a role in the physiological process of propofol-induced insulin resistance in mouse primary hepatocytes, and PTEN inhibition may be a potential target for therapeutic intervention against propofol-induced adverse effects.

Non-Diabetic Hyperglycemia in the Pediatric Age: Why, How, and When to Treat?

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Non-diabetic hyperglycemia (NDHY) is a pathological condition that is not yet well known. The aim of this review is to examine approaches for management of this condition.

RECENT FINDINGS

While it is well known that persistent hyperglycemia in diabetes affects immune response and risk for diabetes-related micro- and macrovascular complications, little is known about the biological effects of transient NDHY, particularly in the pediatric age group. Stress HY (SHY) is typically defined as blood glucose > 8.33 mmol/L (150 mg/dL) during physical stress, resolving spontaneously after dissipation of acute illness in patients without known diabetes. Based on the literature and clinical practice, two situations can be classified: (1) SHY1, which occurs during severe and prolonged illness and under serious life-threatening conditions, mainly in emergency situations and in resuscitation areas; and (2) SHY2, which occurs during acute illness, mainly in non-life-threatening conditions. Furthermore, (NDHY) among pediatric patients can be induced by drugs; the most frequent conditions are secondary to (1) steroid therapy and (2) antineoplastic/immunosuppressive therapy.