Metabolomics coupled with pattern recognition and pathway analysis on potential biomarkers in liver injury and hepatoprotective effects of yinchenhao

Plant metabolomics: a new strategy and tool for quality evaluation of Chinese medicinal materials

The present quality control method of Chinese medicinal materials (CMM) has obvious deficiency, which cannot be compatible with the multi-target and multi-component characteristics and production process of CMM. Plant metabolomics with a huge impetus to comprehensively characterize the metabolites and clarify the complexity and integrity of CMM, has been widely used in the research of CMM. This article comprehensively reviewed the application of plant metabolomics in the quality control of CMM. It introduced the concept, technique, and application examples, discussed the prospects, limitations, improvements of plant metabolomics. MS and NMR, as important techniques for plant metabolomics, are mainly highlighted in the case references. The purpose of this article is to clarify the advantage of plants metabolomics for promoting the optimization of the CMM quality control system and proposing a system approach to realize the overall quality control of CMM based on plant metabolomics combined with multidisciplinary method.

Chinmedomics Strategy for Elucidating the Pharmacological Effects and Discovering Bioactive Compounds From Keluoxin Against Diabetic Retinopathy

Keluoxin (KLX) is an active agent in the treatment of diabetic retinopathy (DR). However, its mechanism, targets, and effective constituents against DR are still unclear, which seriously restricts its clinical application. Chinmedomics has the promise of explaining the pharmacological effects of herbal medicines and investigating the effective mechanisms. The research results from electroretinography and electron microscope showed that KLX could reduce retinal dysfunction and pathological changes by the DR mouse model. Based on effectiveness, we discovered 64 blood biomarkers of DR by nontargeted metabolomics analysis, 51 of which returned to average levels after KLX treatment including leukotriene D4 and A4, l-tryptophan, 6-hydroxymelatonin, l-phenylalanine, l-tyrosine, and gamma-linolenic acid (GLA). The metabolic pathways involved were phenylalanine metabolism, steroid hormone biosynthesis, sphingolipid metabolism, etc. Adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase (AMPK), extracellular signal-regulated protein kinase1/2 (ERK1/2), phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase (PI3K), and protein 70 S6 kinase (p70 S6K) might be potential targets of KLX against DR. This was related to the mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) signaling and AMPK signaling pathways. We applied the chinmedomics strategy, integrating serum pharm-chemistry of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) with metabolomics, to discover astragaloside IV (AS-IV), emodin, rhein, chrysophanol, and other compounds, which were the core effective constituents of KLX when against DR. Our study was the first to apply the chinmedomics strategy to discover the effective constituents of KLX in the treatment of DR, which fills the gap of unclear effective constituents of KLX. In the next step, the research of effective constituents can be used to optimize prescription preparation, improve the quality standard, and develop an innovative drug.

Metabolomics Analysis Coupled With UPLC/MS on Therapeutic Effect of Jigucao Capsule Against Dampness-Heat Jaundice Syndrome

Dampness-heat Jaundice Syndrome (DHJS) is a complex Chinese medicine syndrome, while Jigucao capsule (JGCC) is an effective compound preparation of Chinese medicine for the treatment of DHJS about liver and gallbladder, but its mechanism is not clear yet. The purpose of this study is to clarify the pathogenesis of DHJS and the treatment mechanism of JGCC. We used ultra-high performance liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (UPLC/MS) combined with pattern recognition, accompanied the advanced software and online database for the urine metabolomics of rats. The potential biomarkers disturbing metabolism were identified and the metabolic pathway was analyzed. We investigated the callback of biomarkers after treatment with JGCC. Finally, A total of 25 potential urine biomarkers were identified, including Arachidonic acid, Phenylpyruvic acid, L-Urobilin and so on, and 14 related metabolic pathways were disturbed. After treatment with JGCC, the clinical biochemical indexes and histopathological were significantly improved, and the disturbed biomarkers were also obviously adjusted. It is proved that JGCC has remarkable effect on the treatment of DHJS.

Analytical strategies for the discovery and validation of quality-markers of traditional Chinese medicine

BACKGROUND

Quality control of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) is the basis of clinical efficacy. Due to the complexity of TCM, it is difficult to unify the quality control, and hinders the further implementation of the quality standardization of TCM. As a new concept, quality-marker (Q-marker) plays a powerful role in promoting the standardization of quality control system of TCM.

HYPOTHESIS/PURPOSE

The present review aims to provide reference and scientific basis for further development of Q-marker and assist standardization of quality control of TCM.

METHODS

Extensive search of various documents and electronic databases such as Pubmed, Royal Society of Chemistry, Science Direct, Springer, Web of Science, and Wiley, etc., were used to search scientific contributions. Other online academic libraries, e.g. Google Scholars, Scopus and national pharmacology literature were also been employed to learn more relevant information about Q-marker.

RESULTS

Q-markers play vital role in promoting the standardization of quality control of TCM. The factors that affect the quality of TCM, the advantages and disadvantages of the analytical techniques commonly used in Q-marker research were reviewed, as well as the systematic research strategies, which were verified by practices.

CONCLUSION

The proposal of Q-marker not only provided a new perspective to break through the bottleneck of current quality control, but also can be used in the evaluation of pharmacological efficiency, therapeutic discovery, toxicology, etc. In addition, the Q-marker analysis strategies summarized in this paper is helpful to standardize the quality control of TCM and promote the internationalization of TCM.

Metabolomic and Lipidomic Biomarkers for Premalignant Liver Disease Diagnosis and Therapy

In recent years, there has been a plethora of attempts to discover biomarkers that are more reliable than α-fetoprotein for the early prediction and prognosis of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Efforts have involved such fields as genomics, transcriptomics, epigenetics, microRNA, exosomes, proteomics, glycoproteomics, and metabolomics. HCC arises against a background of inflammation, steatosis, and cirrhosis, due mainly to hepatic insults caused by alcohol abuse, hepatitis B and C virus infection, adiposity, and diabetes. Metabolomics offers an opportunity, without recourse to liver biopsy, to discover biomarkers for premalignant liver disease, thereby alerting the potential of impending HCC. We have reviewed metabolomic studies in alcoholic liver disease (ALD), cholestasis, fibrosis, cirrhosis, nonalcoholic fatty liver (NAFL), and nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH). Specificity was our major criterion in proposing clinical evaluation of indole-3-lactic acid, phenyllactic acid, N-lauroylglycine, decatrienoate, N-acetyltaurine for ALD, urinary sulfated bile acids for cholestasis, cervonoyl ethanolamide for fibrosis, 16α-hydroxyestrone for cirrhosis, and the pattern of acyl carnitines for NAFL and NASH. These examples derive from a large body of published metabolomic observations in various liver diseases in adults, adolescents, and children, together with animal models. Many other options have been tabulated. Metabolomic biomarkers for premalignant liver disease may help reduce the incidence of HCC.

Literature Review of Traditional Chinese Medicine Herbs-Induced Liver Injury From an Oncological Perspective With RUCAM

Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) herbs are commonly regarded to be safe with minimal toxicities in Chinese communities. Cancer patients who are receiving Western oncology therapy often concurrently take TCM herbs for anticancer and symptom relief purposes. We performed a literature review for current evidence on TCM herb–induced liver injury from an oncological perspective. A literature search on PubMed was performed to identify publications regarding TCM herbs and concoctions with hepatoprotective or hepatotoxic properties. Lists of commonly used herbs and their causality levels were compiled. In view of the wide range of evidence available, cases assessed by the well-established RUCAM (Roussel Uclaf Causality Assessment Method) algorithm were categorized as the highest level of evidence. More than one case of TCM herb–induced liver injury was confirmed by RUCAM in the following herbs and concoctions: Lu Cha (Camellia sinensis), Bai Xian Pi (Dictamnus dasycarpus), Tu San Qi (Gynura segetum), Jin Bu Huan (Lycopodium serratum), He Shou Wu (Polygoni multiflora), Ge Gen (Pueraria lobata), Dan Lu Tong Du tablet, Shou Wu Pian, Xiao Chai Hu Tang, Xiao Yin pill, and Yang Xue Sheng Fa capsule. Finally, TCM with anticancer or symptom relief uses were discussed in detail with regard to their hepatotoxic or hepatoprotective properties.

Functional metabolomics using UPLC-Q/TOF-MS combined with ingenuity pathway analysis as a promising strategy for evaluating the efficacy and discovering amino acid metabolism as a potential therapeutic mechanism-related target for geniposide against alcoholic liver disease

Metabolomics has been used as a strategy to evaluate the efficacy of and potential targets for natural products.

Gut Microbiota and Metabolome Response of Decaisnea insignis Seed Oil on Metabolism Disorder Induced by Excess Alcohol Consumption

This study investigated the modulatory effects of Decaisnea insignis seed oil (DISO), which was rich in palmitoleic acid (55.25%), palmitic acid (12.25%), and oleic acid (28.74%), on alcohol-induced metabolism disorder in mice. Fifty mice were orally administered with 38% alcohol (0.4 mL/day) and without or with DISO (3, 6, and 12 g/kg) for consecutive 12 weeks. DISO inhibited the alcohol-induced weight loss and liver function abnormality (p < 0.01) and shifted the profiles of cecal microbiome: elevating the abundance of Lactobacillus, Ruminoccoceae_UCG_004 (p < 0.05) and decreasing abundance of Parabacteroides (p < 0.05). This treatment also regulated metabolome response of amino acid and lipid metabolism in cecal content: upregulating 5-hydroxyindole-3-acetic acid (p < 0.05), 6-hydroxynicotinic acid, 5-methoxytryptamine, nicotinamide, and nicotinic acid (p < 0.1) and downregulating androsterone, tryptophan, and indole-3-acetamide (p < 0.05). DISO protected against alcoholic liver injury and gut microbiota dysbiosis by enriching the relative abundance of Lactobacillus, which was positively associated with the improvement of intestinal permeability and tryptophan metabolism.

BA-12 Inhibits Angiogenesis via Glutathione Metabolism Activation

There is a need for an efficient and low-cost leading compound discovery mode. However, drug development remains slow, expensive, and risky. Here, this manuscript proposes a leading compound discovery strategy based on a combination of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) formulae and pharmacochemistry, using a ligustrazine-betulinic acid derivative (BA-12) in the treatment of angiogenesis as an example. Blocking angiogenesis to inhibit the growth and metastasis of solid tumors is currently one recognized therapy for cancer in the clinic. Firstly, based on a traditional Prunella vulgaris plaster, BA-12 was synthesized according to our previous study, as it exhibited better antitumor activities than other derivatives on human bladder carcinoma cells (T24); it was then uploaded for target prediction. Secondly, the efficacy and biotoxicity of BA-12 on angiogenesis were evaluated using human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs), a quail chick chorioallantoic membrane, and Caenorhabditis elegans. According to the prediction results, the main mechanisms of BA-12 were metabolic pathways. Thus, multiple metabolomics approaches were applied to reveal the mechanisms of BA-12. Finally, the predictive mechanisms of BA-12 on glutathione metabolism and glycerophospholipid metabolism activation were validated using targeted metabolomics and pharmacological assays. This strategy may provide a reference for highly efficient drug discovery, with the aim of sharing TCM wisdom for unmet clinical needs.

Novel applications of mass spectrometry-based metabolomics in herbal medicines and its active ingredients: Current evidence

Current evidence shows that herbal medicines could be beneficial for the treatment of various diseases. However, the complexities present in chemical compositions of herbal medicines are currently an obstacle for the progression of herbal medicines, which involve unclear bioactive compounds, mechanisms of action, undetermined targets for therapy, non-specific features for drug metabolism, etc. To overcome those issues, metabolomics can be a great to improve and understand herbal medicines from the small-molecule metabolism level. Metabolomics could solve scientific difficulties with herbal medicines from a metabolic perspective, and promote drug discovery and development. In recent years, mass spectrometry-based metabolomics was widely applied for the analysis of herbal constituents in vivo and in vitro. In this review, we highlight the value of mass spectrometry-based metabolomics and metabolism to address the complexity of herbal medicines in systems pharmacology, and to enhance their biomedical value in biomedicine, to shed light on the aid that mass spectrometry-based metabolomics can offer to the investigation of its active ingredients, especially, to link phytochemical analysis with the assessment of pharmacological effect and therapeutic potential. © 2019 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Mass Spec Rev.

Determining the protective effects of Yin-Chen-Hao Tang against acute liver injury induced by carbon tetrachloride using 16S rRNA gene sequencing and LC/MS-based metabolomics

Yin-Chen-Hao Tang (YCHT), consisting of Artemisia annua L., Gardenia jasminoides Ellis, and Rheum Palmatum L., has been used to relieve liver diseases in China for thousands of years. Several protective mechanisms of YCHT on liver injury have been investigated based on metabolomics, but the effects of YCHT on the alterations in the gut microbiota are still unclear. In this study, an integrated approach based on 16S rRNA gene sequencing combined with high-performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS) metabolic profiling was performed to assess the effects of YCHT on liver injury induced by carbon tetrachloride (CCl₄) through the regulation of the relative abundances of gut microbiota and their relationships with biomarker candidates. A total of twelve significantly altered bacterial genera and nine metabolites were identified, which returned to normal levels after YCHT treatment. The relative abundances of the identified microbiota, including significantly elevated amounts of p_Firmicutes, c_Clostridia, o_Clostridiales, f_Ruminococcaceae, g_[Eubacterium]_coprostanoligenes_group, s_uncultured_bacterium_f_Lachnospiraceae and remarkedly increased amounts of p_Bacteroidetes, c_Bacteroidia, o_Bacteroidales, f_Bacteroidaceae, g_Bacteroides and s_uncultured_bacterium_g_Bacteroides, were found in model rats compared with controls. Potential biomarkers, including lower levels of LysoPC (16:1(9Z)/0:0), LysoPC (20:3(5Z,8Z,11Z)), LysoPC (17:0), LysoPC (20:1(11Z)) and 3-hydroxybutyric acid and higher amounts of ornithine, L-kynurenine, hippuric acid and taurocholic acid are involved in several custom metabolic pathways, such as arginine and proline metabolism, tryptophan metabolism, glycerophospholipid metabolism and primary bile acid biosynthesis. Interestingly, there was a strong correlation between the perturbed gut microbiota in genera c_Clostridia and o_Clostridiales and the altered plasma metabolite 3-hydroxybutyric acid. This finding means that the hepatoprotective effects of YCHT may be due to the regulation of the production of the functional metabolite 3-hydroxybutyric acid through changes in the proportions of c_Clostridia and o_Clostridiales. These results showed that the hepatoprotective effects of YCHT not only focused on custom metabolic pathways but also depended on the changes in the gut microbiota in liver injury. These findings suggest that the 16S rRNA gene sequencing and LC-MS based metabolomics approach can be applied to comprehensively evaluate the effects of traditional Chinese medicines (TCMs).

Identification of a Quality Marker of Vinegar-Processed Curcuma Zedoaria on Oxidative Liver Injury

Curcuma zedoaria (dry stenophora of Curcuma phaeocaulis Val., Curcuma kwangsiensis S. G. Lee et C. F. Liang, or Curcuma wenyujin Y. H. Chen et C.Ling) is a representative herb with clinical effects on liver diseases after being vinegar-processed. The crude Curcuma zedoaria and the processed Curcuma zedoaria (vinegar-boil) have been widely used as mixtures, but their equivalence has not been fully investigated. In this manuscript, quality markers of processed (vinegar-boil) Curcuma zedoaria were investigated by comparison of the compounds and hepatoprotective activities with the crude (three spices) ones. First, GC-MS-based untargeted metabolomics were applied to reveal the discriminatory components and discover potential markers. As a result, a total of six components were identified as potential markers. Then, the hepatoprotective activities were evaluated by dual cell damage models induced by a certain concentration of H2O2 or tertbutyl hydfroperoxide (t-BHP) (55 μM H2O2 or 40 μM t-BHP), which highlighted the potential of the processed Curcuma zedoaria on oxidative stress. Finally, epicurzerenone was identified as its quality marker on oxidative liver injury based on the above results and the cell-based biological assay. Overall, vinegar-processed Curcuma zedoaria was more suitable for the treatment of oxidative liver diseases, and epicurzerenone could be considered as its quality marker.

Effect of Aerobic Exercise on Serum Metabolites in Mice with Hepatocellular Carcinoma After Surgery

Background

Modern medicine has suggested exercise therapy is one of the main treatments for postoperative rehabilitation of tumors. It can influence the recovery of cancer patients by changing the body’s material metabolism and energy metabolism. However, studies on metabolic changes of exercise therapy on hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) patients after surgery are limited. The aim of this study was to explore the effect of aerobic exercise on mice after orthotopic HCC surgery by serum metabolomics test and explore the related mechanism.

Material/Methods

A total of 60 C57Bl/6 mice were used to establish an orthotopic xenograft model of H22 mouse hepatoma cells. Mice were randomly divided into 6 groups and it was found that the metabolic products of the early postoperative exercise group and sedentary group mainly included L-tryptophan, citric acid, and other energy-related metabolites.

Results

Energy metabolites, such as succinic acid of the high-intensity exercise group were increased after surgery, whereas phospholipid metabolites, including phosphatidylethanolamine (18: 0/0: 0), were decreased. In the moderate-intensity exercise group, the change tendency was consistent, and the level of various metabolites decreased.

Conclusions

Thus, it is likely that aerobic exercise reduced the degree of postoperative stress responses and improved energy metabolism in mice. The underlying mechanism involves improving the tricarboxylic acid cycle, intervening in energy metabolism, reorganization caused by the tumor, reducing the abnormal increase of phospholipase activity caused by the stress of liver cancer, reducing the level of hemolytic phospholipids, thereby inhibiting mitochondrial pathway-initiated apoptosis.

Applications and potential mechanisms of herbal medicines for rheumatoid arthritis treatment: a systematic review

In this review, we systematically discuss the role of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) in rheumatoid arthritis (RA) disease treatment. TCM classifies the subtypes of RA through its own theoretical method, which is beneficial for more accurate diagnosis and treatment with Chinese herbal medicines (CHMs) that are more suitable for different syndromes. TCM mainly uses a flexible combination of CHMs to play an important role in RA treatment. The main components of these extracts can be subdivided into alkaloids, flavonoids, triterpenes, saponins and other compounds. Using a platform of transgenic and induced arthritis models, we explore the potential mechanisms of TCM against RA with the help of omics analysis techniques and methods. These mechanisms are mainly CHM and its extracts can inhibit RA patients and experimental animal models, including synovitis, vascular proliferation and bone injury; this involves many biological signal exchange targets and pathways. In conclusion, the role of TCM in RA treatment mainly involves reducing the expression and secretion of pro-inflammatory factors, thus decreasing the degree of abnormal immune response.

In this review, we systematically discuss the role of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) in rheumatoid arthritis (RA) disease treatment.

Molecular mechanism and research progress on pharmacology of traditional Chinese medicine in liver injury

CONTEXT

Liver disease is a common threat to human health, caused by a variety of factors that damage the liver. Recent studies have shown that active ingredients (for example: flavonoids, saponins, acids, phenols, and alkaloids) from Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) can have hepatoprotective benefits, which represents an attractive source of drug discovery for treating liver injury.

OBJECTIVE

We reviewed recent contributions on the chemically induced liver injury, immunological liver damage, alcoholic liver injury, and drug-induced liver injury, in order to summarize the research progress in molecular mechanism and pharmacology of TCM, and provides a comprehensive overview of new TCM treatment strategies for liver disease.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Relevant literature was obtained from scientific databases such as Pubmed, Web of Science. and CNKI databases on ethnobotany and ethnomedicines (from January 1980 to the end of May 2018). The experimental studies involving the antihepatic injury role of the active agents from TCM and the underlying mechanisms were identified. The search terms included 'liver injury' or 'hepatic injury', and 'traditional Chinese medicine', or 'herb'.

RESULTS

A number of studies revealed that the active ingredients of TCM exhibit potential therapeutic benefits against liver injury, while the underlying mechanisms appear to contribute to the regulation of inflammation, oxidant stress, and pro-apoptosis signaling pathways.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

The insights provided in this review will help further exploration of botanical drugs in the development of liver injury therapy via study on the effective components of TCM.

Side effects of methotrexate therapy for rheumatoid arthritis: A systematic review

Methotrexate (MTX) is used as an anchor disease-modifying anti-rheumatic drugs (DMARDs) in treating rheumatoid arthritis (RA) because of its potent efficacy and tolerability. MTX benefits a large number of RA patients but partially suffered from side effects. A variety of side effects can be associated with MTX when treating RA patients, from mild to severe or discontinuation of the treatment. In this report, we reviewed the possible side effects that MTX might cause from the most common gastrointestinal toxicity effects to less frequent malignant diseases. In order to achieve regimen with less side effects, the administration of MTX with appropriate dose and a careful pretreatment inspection is necessary. Further investigations are required when combining MTX with other drugs so as to enhance the efficacy and reduce side effects at the same time. The management of MTX treatment is also discussed to provide strategies for occurred side effects. Thus, this review will provide scholars with a comprehensive understanding the side effects of MTX administration by RA patients.

Identification of potential biomarkers in cholestasis and the therapeutic effect of melatonin by metabolomics, multivariate data and pathway analyses

The present study investigated the anti‑cholestatic effect of melatonin (MT) against α‑naphthyl isothiocyanate (ANIT)‑induced liver injury in rats and screened for potential biomarkers of cholestasis. Rats were administered ANIT by intraperitoneal injection and then sacrificed 36 h later. Serum biochemical parameters were measured and liver tissue samples were subjected to histological analysis. Active components in the serum were identified by gas chromatography‑mass spectrometry, while biomarkers and biochemical pathways were identified by multivariate data analysis. The results revealed that the serum levels of alanine aminotransferase, aspartate aminotransferase, total bilirubin, direct bilirubin, γ‑glutamyl transpeptidase, and alkaline phosphatase were reduced in rats with ANIT‑induced cholestasis that were treated with MT. The histological observations indicated that MT had a protective effect against ANIT‑induced hepatic tissue damage. Metabolomics analysis revealed that this effect was likely to be associated with the regulation of compounds related to MT synthesis and catabolism, and amino acid metabolism, including 5‑aminopentanoate, 5‑methoxytryptamine, L‑tryptophan, threonine, glutathione, L‑methionine, and indolelactate. In addition, principal component analysis demonstrated that the levels of these metabolites differed significantly between the MT and control groups, providing further evidence that they may be responsible for the effects induced by MT. These results provide an insight into the mechanisms underlying cholestasis development and highlight potential biomarkers for disease diagnosis.

Metabolomics of Hydrazine-Induced Hepatotoxicity in Rats for Discovering Potential Biomarkers

Metabolic pathway disturbances associated with drug-induced liver injury remain unsatisfactorily characterized. Diagnostic biomarkers for hepatotoxicity have been used to minimize drug-induced liver injury and to increase the clinical safety. A metabolomics strategy using rapid-resolution liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry (RRLC-MS/MS) analyses and multivariate statistics was implemented to identify potential biomarkers for hydrazine-induced hepatotoxicity. The global serum and urine metabolomics of 30 hydrazine-treated rats at 24 or 48 h postdosing and 24 healthy rats were characterized by a metabolomics approach. Multivariate statistical data analyses and receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curves were performed to identify the most significantly altered metabolites. The 16 most significant potential biomarkers were identified to be closely related to hydrazine-induced liver injury. The combination of these biomarkers had an area under the curve (AUC) > 0.85, with 100% specificity and sensitivity, respectively. This high-quality classification group included amino acids and their derivatives, glutathione metabolites, vitamins, fatty acids, intermediates of pyrimidine metabolism, and lipids. Additionally, metabolomics pathway analyses confirmed that phenylalanine, tyrosine, and tryptophan biosynthesis as well as tyrosine metabolism had great interactions with hydrazine-induced liver injury in rats. These discriminating metabolites might be useful in understanding the pathogenesis mechanisms of liver injury and provide good prospects for drug-induced liver injury diagnosis clinically.

Gas chromatography-time of flight/mass spectrometry-based metabonomics of changes in the urinary metabolic profile in osteoarthritic rats

The aim of the present study was to explore changes in the urinary metabolic spectrum in rats with knee osteoarthritis, using gas chromatography-time of flight/mass spectrometry (GC-TOF/MS) to determine the metabonomic disease pathogenesis. Sprague-Dawley rats were randomly divided into the control and model groups (n=8/group), and 20 µl of 4% papain and 0.03 M L-cysteine was injected into the right knee on days 1, 3 and 7 to establish the knee osteoarthritis model. Following 14 days, urine was collected over 12 h and cartilage ultrastructural damage was assessed by hematoxylin-eosin staining. GC-TOF/MS, combined with principal component analysis, partial least squares discriminant modeling and orthogonal partial least squares discriminant modeling, was used to analyze the changes in the metabolic spectrum trajectory and to identify potential biomarkers and their related metabolic pathways. Compared with the control group, the synovial cell lining of the knee joint exhibited proliferation, inflammatory cell infiltration and collagen fiber hyperplasia in the knee osteoarthritis group. A total of 23 potential biomarkers were identified, including alanine, α-ketoglutarate, asparagine, maltose and glutamine. Furthermore, metabolomic pathogenesis of osteoarthritis may be related to disorders of amino acid metabolism, energy metabolism, fatty acid metabolism, vitamin B₆ metabolism and nucleic acid metabolism.

Serum metabolomics strategy for understanding the therapeutic effects of Yin-Chen-Hao-Tang against Yanghuang syndrome

Yin-Chen-Hao-Tang (YCHT), a classic Chinese herbal formula, is characterized by its strong therapeutic effects of liver regulation and relief of jaundice, especially Yanghuang syndrome (YHS). YHS is a type of jaundice with damp-heat pathogenesis, and it is considered a complicated Chinese medicine syndrome (CMS). The accurate mechanism for healing YHS has not yet been completely reported. The purpose of the current research is to investigate the expression of endogenous biomarkers in YHS mice and evaluate the clinical therapeutic effect of YCHT. Serum samples were analyzed using UPLC-Q/TOF-MS techniques in order to determine differential metabolites to elucidate the functional mechanism of YCHT on YHS through metabolite profiling combined with multivariate analysis. Simultaneously, the exact diversification of YHS mice was elucidated using blood biochemistry indexes and histopathological examination, and the results indicated that YHS is markedly improved by YCHT. Unsupervised principal component analysis (PCA) patterns were constructed to dissect the variances of metabolic profiling. Overall, 22 potential biomarkers were identified using a metabolomics approach based on an accurate MS/MS approach, clustering and distinguishing analysis. The present work demonstrates that the effectiveness of YCHT against YHS prompts distinct discrepancies in metabolic profiles by adjusting biomarkers and regulating metabolic disorders. A total of 15 metabolic pathways were involved in biological disturbance. This demonstrates that metabolomic techniques are powerful means to explore the pathogenesis of CMS and the therapeutic effects of traditional Chinese formulae.

The purpose of the current research is to investigate the expression of endogenous biomarkers in Yanghuang syndrome mice and evaluate the clinical therapeutic effect of Yin-Chen-Hao-Tang.

Effects of Shu Gan Jian Pi formula on rats with carbon tetrachloride‑induced liver fibrosis using serum metabonomics based on gas chromatography‑time of flight mass spectrometry

Liver fibrosis is a common stage in the majority of chronic liver diseases, regardless of the etiology, and its progression may lead to hepatic cirrhosis or hepatocellular carcinoma. Metabolomics, a powerful approach in systems biology, is a discipline used to qualitatively and quantitatively analyze the small molecule metabolites of cells at specific times and under certain conditions. The present study aimed to investigate serum metabolic changes following Shu Gan Jian Pi formula (SGJPF) treatment of carbon tetrachloride (CCl₄)-induced liver fibrosis in rats using gas chromatography-time of flight mass spectrometry (GC-TOFMS). In addition, the potential mechanisms were explored. Rat liver fibrosis was induced by twice-weekly subcutaneous CCl₄ injection for 12 continuous weeks. During the same period, the SGJPF group received 16.2 g/kg body weight SGJPF, diluted in water, once a day for 12 weeks. Rats in the control and model groups received oral administration of the same volume of saline solution. Serum samples from the control, model and SGJPF groups were collected after 12 weeks of treatment, and metabolic profile alterations were analyzed by GC-TOF/MS. Metabolic profile analysis indicated that clustering differed between the three groups and the following 12 metabolites were detected in the serum of all three groups: Isoleucine; L-malic acid; D-erythro-sphingosine; putrescine; malonic acid; 3,6-anhydro-D-galactose, α-ketoglutaric acid; ornithine; glucose; hippuric acid; tetrahydrocorticosterone; and fucose. The results demonstrated that SGJPF treatment mitigated the effects of CCl₄-induced liver fibrosis on biomarker levels, thus indicating that SGJPF may have a therapeutic effect on CCl₄-induced liver fibrosis in rats. The mechanism may involve the regulation of energy, amino acid, sphingolipid, cytochrome P450, glucose and water-electrolyte metabolism.

Detecting serum and urine metabolic profile changes of CCl4-liver fibrosis in rats at 12 weeks based on gas chromatography-mass spectrometry

Liver fibrosis is caused by liver injury induced by a number of chronic liver diseases, including schistosome infection, hepatitis infection, metabolic disease, alcoholism and cholestasis. The tissue damage occurring after injury or inflammation of the liver is a reversible lesion; however, liver fibrosis has become a worldwide problem and poses a threat to human health. The development of an effective drug for the prevention and treatment of liver fibrosis is ongoing and uses information from different occurrences of liver fibrosis. In the present study, carbon tetrachloride (CCl₄)-induced metabonomic changes in serum and urine at 12 weeks were analyzed using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC/MS) to investigate potential biomarkers. Liver fibrosis was induced in rats by subcutaneous injections of CCl₄ twice a week for 12 consecutive weeks. Histopathological changes were used to assess the successful production of a CCl₄-induced liver fibrosis model. Serum and urine samples from the two groups were collected at 12 weeks. The metabolic profile changes were analyzed by GC/MS alongside principal component analysis and orthogonal projections to latent structures. Metabolic profile studies indicated that the clustering of the two groups could be separated and seven metabolites in serum and five metabolites in urine were identified. In serum, the metabolites identified included isoleucine, L-malic acid, α-copper, carnitine, hippuric acid, glutaric acid and glucose. In urine 2-hydroxy butyric acid, isoleucine, N-acetyl-β-alanine, cytidine and corticoid were identified. The present study demonstrated that the pathogenesis of liver fibrosis may be associated with the dysfunction of a number of metabolic pathways, including glucose, amino acid, P450, fatty acid, nucleic acid, water-electrolyte and glutathione biosynthesis. Assessing potential biomarkers may therefore provide novel targets and theories for the innovation of novel drugs to prevent and cure liver fibrosis.

Discovery and verification of the potential targets from bioactive molecules by network pharmacology-based target prediction combined with high-throughput metabolomics

Natural products are an invaluable source for drug candidates. Currently, plasma metabolome has suggested that compounds present in herbs may exert bioactivity.

Metabolic Profile Changes of CCl₄-Liver Fibrosis and Inhibitory Effects of Jiaqi Ganxian Granule

Jiaqi Ganxian Granule (JGG) is a famous traditional Chinese medicine, which has been long used in clinical practice for treating liver fibrosis. However, the mechanism underlying its anti-hepatic fibrosis is still not clear. In this study, an Ultra-Performance Liquid Chromatography-Time-Of-Flight Mass Spectrometry (UPLC-TOF-MS)-based metabolomics strategy was used to profile the metabolic characteristic of serum obtained from a carbon tetrachloride (CCl₄)-induced hepatic fibrosis model in Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats with JGG treatment. Through Principal Component Analysis (PCA) and Partial Least Square Discriminant Analysis (PLS-DA), it was shown that metabolic perturbations induced by CCl₄ were inhibited after treatment of JGG, for 17 different metabolites related to CCl₄. Among these compounds, the change tendency of eight potential drug targets was restored after the intervention with JGG. The current study indicates that JGG has a significant anti-fibrosis effect on CCl₄-induced liver fibrosis in rats, which might be by regulating the dysfunction of sphingolipid metabolism, glycerophospholipid metabolism, N-acylethanolamine biosynthesis, fat digestion and absorption, while glycerophospholipid metabolism played vital roles in the inhibitory effects of JGG on hepatic fibrosis according to Metabolic Pathway Analysis (MetPA). Our findings indicated that the metabolomics approach may provide a useful tool for exploring potential biomarkers involved in hepatic fibrosis and elucidate the mechanisms underlying the action of therapies used in traditional Chinese medicine.

Untargeted Metabolomics Reveals Dose-Response Characteristics for Effect of Rhubarb in a Rat Model of Cholestasis

Cholestasis is a serious manifestation of liver diseases with limited therapies. Rhubarb, a widely used herbal medicine, has been frequently used at a relatively large dose for treating cholestasis. However, whether large doses are optimal and the therapeutic mechanism remain unclear. To explore these questions, the anti-cholestatic effect of five doses of rhubarb (0.21, 0.66, 2.10, 6.60, and 21.0 g/kg) in an alpha-naphthylisothiocyanate (ANIT)-induced rat model of cholestasis was examined by histopathology and serum biochemistry. A dose-dependent anti-cholestatic effect of rhubarb (0.21–6.6 g/kg) was observed, and an overdose of 21.0 g/kg showed a poor effect. LC-MS-based untargeted metabolomics together with pathway analysis were further applied to characterize the metabolic alterations induced by the different rhubarb doses. Altogether, 13 biomarkers were identified. The dose-response curve based on nine important biomarkers indicated that doses in the 0.42–6.61 g/kg range (EC₂₀–EC₈₀ range, corresponding to 4.00–62.95 g in the clinic) were effective for cholestasis treatment. The pathway analysis showed that bile acid metabolism and excretion, inflammation and amino acid metabolism were altered by rhubarb in a dose-dependent manner and might be involved in the dose-response relationship and therapeutic mechanism of rhubarb for cholestasis treatment.

Chemometrics applied to quality control and metabolomics for traditional Chinese medicines

Traditional Chinese medicines (TCMs) bring a great challenge in quality control and evaluating the efficacy because of their complexity of chemical composition. Chemometric techniques provide a good opportunity for mining more useful chemical information from TCMs. Then, the application of chemometrics in the field of TCMs is spontaneous and necessary. This review focuses on the recent various important chemometrics tools for chromatographic fingerprinting, including peak alignment information features, baseline correction and applications of chemometrics in metabolomics and modernization of TCMs, including authentication and evaluation of the quality of TCMs, evaluating the efficacy of TCMs and essence of TCM syndrome. In the conclusions, the general trends and some recommendations for improving chromatographic metabolomics data analysis are provided.

Metabolomics Coupled with Multivariate Data and Pathway Analysis on Potential Biomarkers in Cholestasis and Intervention Effect of Paeonia lactiflora Pall

Background: The dried root of Paeonia lactiflora Pall. (PLP) is a classical Chinese herbal medicine that has been used to treat hepatic disease for 1000s of years. Our previous work suggested that PLP can be used to treat hepatitis with severe cholestasis. This study explored the mechanism by which PLP affects ANIT-induced cholestasis in rats using a metabolomics approach.

Methods: The effects of PLP on serum indices (TBIL, DBIL, AST, ALT, ALP, and TBA) and the histopathology of the liver were analyzed. Moreover, UHPLC-Q-TOF was performed to identify the possible effect of PLP on metabolites. The pathway analysis was conducted to illustrate the pathways and network by which PLP treats cholestasis.

Result: High-dose PLP remarkably down-regulated the serum indices and alleviated histological damage to the liver. Metabolomics analyses showed that the therapeutic effect of high-dose PLP is mainly associated with the regulation of several metabolites, such as glycocholic acid, taurocholic acid, glycochenodeoxycholic acid, L(D)-arginine, and L-tryptophan. A pathway analysis showed that the metabolites were related to bile acid secretion and amino acid metabolism. In addition, the significant changes in bile acid transporters also indicated that bile acid metabolism might be involved in the therapeutic effect of PLP on cholestasis. Moreover, a principal component analysis indicated that the metabolites in the high-dose PLP group were closer to those of the control, whereas those of the moderate dose or low-dose PLP group were closer to those of the ANIT group. This finding indicated that metabolites may be responsible for the differences between the effects of low-dose and moderate-dose PLP.

Conclusion: The therapeutic effect of high-dose PLP on cholestasis is possibly related to regulation of bile acid secretion and amino acid metabolism. Moreover, these findings may help better understand the mechanisms of disease and provide a potential therapy for cholestasis.

Serum Metabolomic Profiling in a Rat Model Reveals Protective Function of Paeoniflorin Against ANIT Induced Cholestasis

Cholestasis is a leading cause of hepatic accumulation of bile acids resulting in liver injury, fibrosis, and liver failure. Paeoniflorin displays bright prospects in liver protective effect. However, its molecular mechanism has not been well-explored. This study was designed to assess the effects and possible mechanisms of paeoniflorin against alpha-naphthylisothiocyanate-induced liver injury. Ultraperformance liquid chromatography coupled with quadrupole time-of-flight combined with principle component analysis and partial least squares discriminant analysis were integrated to obtain differentiating metabolites for the pathways and clarify mechanisms of disease. The results indicated that paeoniflorin could remarkably downregulate serum biochemical indexes and alleviate the histological damage of liver tissue. Different expression of 14 metabolites demonstrated that paeoniflorin mainly regulated the dysfunctions of glycerophospholipid metabolism and primary bile acid biosynthesis. Moreover, several pathways such as arginine and proline metabolism, ether lipid metabolism, and arachidonic acid metabolism were also related to the efficacy. In conclusion, paeoniflorin has indicated favorable pharmacological effect on serum biochemical indexes and pathological observation on cholestatic model. And metabolomics is a promising approach to unraveling hepatoprotective effects by partially regulating the perturbed pathways, which provide insights into mechanisms of cholestasis.

Chemometrics strategy coupled with high resolution mass spectrometry for analyzing and interpreting comprehensive metabolomic characterization of hyperlipemia

Hyperlipidemia (HLP) is a metabolic disorder which is characterized by a disturbance in lipid metabolism and is a primary risk factor for cardiovascular disease and atherosclerosis.

A Simple, Rapid and Reliable Method to Determine Imipramine and Desipramine in Mouse Serum Using Ultra-High-Performance Liquid Chromatography-Quadrupole-Time-of-Flight Mass Spectrometry

A rapid and sensitive ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography-quadrupole-time-of-flight mass spectrometric (UHPLC-Q-TOF-MS) method was developed for quantification of imipramine, one of the most widely used tricyclic antidepressants, and desipramine, an active metabolite of imipramine, in mouse serum. The developed method included a simple protein precipitation with acetonitrile in 50 μL of serum and analyte separation on an Acquity UPLC BEH C18 column using a gradient elution of acetonitrile with 0.1% formic acid and 20 mM ammonium formate. As a result, the entire analysis time was <20 min including the sample preparation and the LC-MS analysis. The limit of quantification was 5.0 ng mL(-1) for both imipramine and desipramine, and calibration curves were linear over the concentration range of 5.0-1,000.0 and 5.0-250.0 ng mL(-1) for imipramine and desipramine, respectively. Intraday precisions at three levels were 2.2-3.6 and 1.7-4.2% for imipramine and desipramine, respectively, whereas interday precisions were 2.6-5.0 and 2.0-8.4% for imipramine and desipramine, respectively. Accuracy ranged between 93.6 and 106.6% for imipramine and 94.1 and 106.4% for desipramine. Absolute recovery was 96.0-97.6% for imipramine and 87.0-99.5% for desipramine. Finally, the described method was applied to mice administered with imipramine, demonstrating the suitability for quantification of imipramine and desipramine for therapeutic drug monitoring or bioequivalence studies.

Metabolomics and its application to the evaluation of the efficacy and toxicity of traditional Chinese herb medicines

Traditional Chinese herb medicines (TCHMs) have been used in the treatment of a variety of diseases for thousands of years in Asian countries. The active components of TCHMs usually exert combined synergistic therapeutic effects on multiple targets, but with less potential therapeutic effect based on routine indices than Western drugs. These complex effects make the assessment of the efficacy of TCHMs and the clarification of their underlying mechanisms very challenging, and therefore hinder their wider application and acceptance. Metabolomics is a crucial part of systems biology. It allows the quantitative measurement of large numbers of the low-molecular endogenous metabolites involved in metabolic pathways, and thus reflects the fundamental metabolism status of the body. Recently, dozens of metabolomic studies have been devoted to prove the efficacy/safety, explore the underlying mechanisms, and identify the potential biomarkers to access the action targets of TCHMs, with fruitful results. This article presents an overview of these studies, focusing on the progress made in exploring the pharmacology and toxicology of various herbal medicines.

Metabolic fingerprinting to understand therapeutic effects and mechanisms of silybin on acute liver damage in rat

BACKGROUND

Metabolic fingerprinting is a rapid and noninvasive analysis, representing a powerful approach for the characterization of phenotypes and the distinction of specific metabolic states due to environmental alterations. It has become a valuable analytical approach for the characterization of phenotypes and is the rapidly evolving field of the comprehensive measurement of ideally all endogenous metabolites in bio-samples. Silybin has displayed bright prospects in the prevention and therapy of liver injury, and we had conducted a preliminary exploration on the molecular mechanism of the hepatoprotective effects of silybin. Because the knowledge on the metabolic responses of an acute liver damage rat to the silybin is still scarce, metabolic fingerprinting can provide relevant information on the intrinsic metabolic adjustments.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Here, the physiological and metabolic changes in the acute liver damage rat were investigated by performing a metabolic analysis. The phenotypic response was assessed by liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (LC/MS) combined with pattern recognition approaches such as principal components analysis and partial least squares projection to supervised latent structures and discriminant analysis. Multivariate analysis of the data showed trends in scores plots that were related to the concentration of the silybin.

RESULTS

Results indicate 10 ions (7 upregulated and 3 downregulated) as differentiating metabolites. Key observations include perturbations of metabolic pathways linked to glutathione metabolism, tryptophan metabolism, cysteine and methionine metabolism, etc., Overall, this investigation illustrates the power of the LC/MS combined with the pattern recognition methods that can engender new insights into silybin affecting on metabolism pathways of an acute liver damage rat.

CONCLUSION

The present study demonstrates that the combination of metabolic fingerprinting with appropriate chemometric analysis is a valuable approach for studying cellular responses to silybin drug and can provide additional insight into the mechanisms.

Liver Injury from Herbal, Dietary, and Weight Loss Supplements: a Review

Herbal and dietary supplement usage has increased steadily over the past several years in the United States. Among the non-bodybuilding herbal and dietary supplements, weight loss supplements were among the most common type of HDS implicated in liver injury. While drug induced liver injury is rare, its consequences are significant and on the rise. The purpose of this review is to highlight case reports of weight loss products such as Hydroxycut and OxyElite Pro as one form of HDS that have hepatotoxic potential and to characterize its clinical effects as well as pattern of liver injury. We also propose future strategies in the identification and study of potentially hepatotoxic compounds in an effort to outline a diagnostic approach for identifying any drug induced liver injury.

Metabonomic Evaluation of Chronic Unpredictable Mild Stress-Induced Changes in Rats by Intervention of Fluoxetine by HILIC-UHPLC/MS

Hydrophilic interaction-ultra high performance liquid chromatography (HILIC-UHPLC) allows the analysis of highly polar metabolites, providing complementary information to reversed-phase (RP) chromatography. By optimization of the preparation and analytical conditions in HILIC mode, HILIC-UHPLC/MS was applied for the global metabolic profiling of rat plasma samples generated in an experimental model of chronic unpredictable mild stress (CUMS), and the concomitant investigation of the protective effect of fluoxetine was also evaluated. Identification of plasma metabolic profiles indicated that significant changes in specific metabolites occurred after fluoxetine exposure, including increased phenylalanine, serine, acetyl-L-carnitine, carnitine and decreased creatine, betaine, proline, tryptophan, tyrosine, C16:0 LPC. Some novel biomarkers from this HILIC-UHPLC/MS approach were betaine, proline, tyrosine creatine and serine compared with the results of RP-UHPLC/MS. The complementary nature of this technique is confirmed and is on agreement with previously published studies.

UPLC/Q-TOFMS-Based Metabolomics Studies on the Protective Effect of Panax notoginseng Saponins on Alcoholic Liver Injury

Consistent, excessive alcohol consumption leads to liver injury. The aim of the present study is to evaluate the possible efficacy of Panax notoginseng saponins (PNS) against chronic alcohol-induced liver injury using LC-MS-based urinary metabolomics. Mice were fed a Lieber–DeCarli liquid diet containing alcohol or isocaloric maltose dextrin as a control diet with or without PNS (200 mg/kg/BW) for 4 weeks. Treatment with PNS significantly reduced the increases in plasma ALT and AST levels, hepatic levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and malondialdehyde (MDA), which induced by chronic alcohol exposure. Conversely, PNS was also found to restore the glutathione (GSH) depletion and increase the superoxide dismutase (SOD) activities. The end-point urine sample of each mouse was collected overnight (24 h) in metabolic cages and their metabolic profiling changes were analyzed using UPLC/Q-TOFMS followed by multivariate statistical analysis. After 4 week of Lieber–DeCarli alcohol diet feeding, the metabolic profile experienced great perturbation in PCA score plot, and the treatment of PNS could assist to regulate the disturbed metabolic profile induced by alcohol exposure. Additionally, sixteen potential biomarkers responsible for derivations of the metabolic profile induced by alcohol exposure were identified, and the alcohol-induced changes in these biomarkers, except hexanoylglycine, could be partially or nearly reversed by PNS treatment. Taken together, PNS protects against chronic alcohol-induced liver injury. Our findings demonstrated that the LC-MS-based metabolomics approach is a useful tool to investigate the efficacy of Chinese medicines.

Metabolomics approach to identify therapeutically potential biomarkers of the Zhi-Zi-Da-Huang decoction effect on the hepatoprotective mechanism

A NMR-based metabolomics approach was applied to find potential plasma and liver biomarkers responsible for the hepatoprotective effects of Zhi-Zi-Da-Huang decoction (ZZDHD).

The application of metabolomics in traditional Chinese medicine opens up a dialogue between Chinese and Western medicine

Metabolomics provides an opportunity to develop the systematic analysis of the metabolites and has been applied to discovering biomarkers and perturbed pathways which can clarify the action mechanism of traditional Chinese medicines (TCM). TCM is a comprehensive system of medical practice that has been used to diagnose, treat and prevent illnesses more than 3000 years. Metabolomics represents a powerful approach that provides a dynamic picture of the phenotype of biosystems through the study of endogenous metabolites, and its methods resemble those of TCM. Recently, metabolomics tools have been used for facilitating interactional effects of both Western medicine and TCM. We describe a protocol for investigating how metabolomics can be used to open up 'dialogue' between Chinese and Western medicine, and facilitate lead compound discovery and development from TCM. Metabolomics will bridge the cultural gap between TCM and Western medicine and improve development of integrative medicine, and maximally benefiting the human.