Role of the steroidogenic acute regulatory protein in health and disease

Hydroxycitric acid and capsaicin combination alleviates obesity-induced testicular apoptosis, oxidative stress and inflammation

Recent research in rodents suggests that oxidative stress, inflammation, and apoptosis in the testes caused by high-fat diets (HFD) are a cause of male infertility. To investigate the therapeutic efficacy of the combination of hydroxycitric acid and capsaicin (HCC) against male reproductive disorders, we developed an HFD-induced obese rat model. Rats received HFD supplementation for 21 weeks, which induced obesity. From week 16, HCC (100 mg/kg body weight) was administered to investigate its potential to treat testicular toxicity. According to the results of the current study, treatment of obese rats with HCC improved their sperm quality, increased the production of testosterone, follicle-stimulating hormone, and luteinizing hormone and significantly increased the activities of steroidogenic enzymes and corresponding mRNA levels. In addition, HCC decreased lipid peroxidation and nitric oxide levels in both spermatozoa and testes while increasing the expression of mRNA for the antioxidant enzymes superoxide dismutase, catalase, and glutathione peroxidase in the testes, which in turn reduced oxidative stress in the testes. Moreover, after HCC treatment, testicular tissues showed a remarkable decrease in mRNA levels responsible for inflammation (TNF-α, IL-6, NF-κB) and apoptosis (Bax and Bcl-2). Our results suggest that HCC may alleviate obesity-induced male reproductive dysfunction by attenuating oxidative stress, inflammation, and apoptosis in the testes of HFD-induced obese male rats.

Effect of body mass index on progesterone level on trigger day in gonadotropin-releasing hormone antagonist cycles

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the effect of body mass index (BMI) on progesterone (P) level on trigger day in gonadotropin-releasing hormone antagonist (GnRH-ant) cycles.

METHODS

This study was a retrospective cohort study. From October 2017 to April 2022, 412 in-vitro fertilization (IVF)/intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI) patients who were treated with GnRH-ant protocol for controlled ovarian hyperstimulation (COH) in the reproductive center of our hospital were selected as the research objects. Patients were divided into three groups according to BMI level: normal weight group (n = 230):18.5 kg/m2≤BMI < 24 kg/m2; overweight group (n = 122): 24 kg/m2≤BMI < 28 kg/m2; Obesity group (n = 60): BMI ≥ 28 kg/m2. Variables with p < .10 in univariate analysis (BMI, basal FSH, basal P, FSH days, Gn starting dose and E2 level on trigger day) and variables that may affect P level on trigger day (infertility factors, basal LH, total FSH, HMG days and total HMG) were included in the multivariate logistic regression model to analyze the effect of BMI on P level on trigger day of GnRH-ant protocol.

RESULTS

After adjustment for confounding factors, compared with that in normal weight patients, the risk of serum P elevation on trigger day was significantly lower in overweight and obese patients (OR = 0.434 and 0.199, respectively, p < .05).

CONCLUSION

The risk of P elevation on trigger day in GnRH-ant cycles decreased with the increase of BMI, and BMI could be used as one of the predictors of P level on trigger day in GnRH-ant cycles.

The mollifying effect of Sambucus nigra extract on StAR gene expression, oxidative stress, and apoptosis induced by fenpropathrin in male rats

Fenpropathrin (FNP) is a man-made insecticide of to the pyrethroid class, commonly employed in agricultural and horticultural practices. However, it has a prolonged persistence in the environment. Sambucus nigra, also referred to as SN, is a botanical species recognized for its notable antioxidant characteristics. The objective of this study was to examine if SN extract could mitigate the reproductive toxicity induced by FNP in rats. A total of thirty rats were categorized into six distinct groups: a control group with no treatment, two groups getting SN extract at varying doses, a group receiving FNP, and two groups receiving both FNP and SN extract. The exposure to FNP led to a decline in the number and movement of sperm, lowered levels of testosterone, and reduced the activity of the StAR gene in the FNP group compared to the control group (p < 0.05). In addition, FNP resulted in a significant increase in malondialdehyde levels with a significant drop in GSH content compared to the control group (p < 0.05). Also, a significant increase in the expression of caspase 3. Nevertheless, the administration of SN extract alleviated these effects and reinstated spermatogenesis, thereby bringing the parameters closer to those observed in the control group. The data indicate that FNP can induce testicular harm and infertility, but SN extract can mitigate these detrimental consequences.

Non-classical animal models for studying adrenal diseases: advantages, limitations, and implications for research

The study of adrenal disorders is a key component of scientific research, driven by the complex innervation, unique structure, and essential functions of the adrenal glands. This review explores the use of non-traditional animal models for studying congenital adrenal hyperplasia. It highlights the advantages, limitations, and relevance of these models, including domestic ferrets, dogs, guinea pigs, golden hamsters, pigs, and spiny mice. We provide a detailed analysis of the histological structure, steroidogenesis pathways, and genetic characteristics of these animal models. The morphological and functional similarities between the adrenal glands of spiny mice and humans highlight their potential as an important avenue for future research.

Targeting androgen biosynthesis in prostate cancer: implications on endocrine physiology

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Targeting specific steroidogenic enzymes is effective in decreasing testosterone synthesis, resulting in significant antitumor effects in prostate cancer. Such treatments result in disruptions of complicated and intertwining pathways with systemic physiologic consequences via effects on the adrenal gland and renin-angiotensin-aldosterone axis. This review highlights some of these aspects that need to be taken into consideration when treating patients with androgen biosynthesis inhibitors.

RECENT FINDINGS

Targeting CYP17A1, a key enzyme involved in androgen biosynthesis, is a well established treatment in prostate cancer. More recently, efforts are underway to target a gatekeeper enzyme of steroidogenesis, CYP11A1. This enzyme mediates conversion of cholesterol to pregnenolone, the first step in steroid hormone biogenesis. Studies are beginning to demonstrate antitumor effects of ODM-208, a CYP11A1 inhibitor in prostate cancer. Although anticipated to have a therapeutic role in prostate cancer, there are potential downstream effects of CYP11A1 targeting arising from suppression of the entire adrenal cortex, including long-term adrenal insufficiency and possibly cardiovascular dysregulation.

SUMMARY

Agents targeting androgen biosynthesis can have systemic implications. Balancing management of prostate cancer with better understanding of the mechanisms associated with potential side effects will allow for patients to obtain improved antitumor benefit while mitigating against treatment-associated adverse effects.

Thromboxane A2 Modulates de novo Synthesis of Adrenal Corticosterone in Mice via p38/14-3-3γ/StAR Signaling

Prostanoids are endogenous lipid bioactive mediators that play essential roles in physiological processes such as glucocorticoid secretion. Here, it is found that the thromboxane (Tx)A2 receptor (TP) is highly expressed in the adrenal cortex of mice. Both global and adrenocortical-specific deletion of the TP receptor lead to increased adiposity in mice by elevating corticosterone synthesis. Mechanistically, the TP receptor deletion increases the phosphorylation of steroidogenic acute regulatory protein (StAR) and corticosterone synthesis in adrenal cortical cells by suppressing p-p38-mediated phosphorylation of 14-3-3γ adapter protein at S71. The activation of the p38 in the adrenal cortical cells by forced expression of the MKK6EE gene attenuates hypercortisolism in TP-deficient mice. These observations suggest that the TxA2/TP signaling regulates adrenal corticosterone homeostasis independent of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis and the TP receptor may serve as a promising therapeutic target for hypercortisolism.

Causal relationships between mitochondrial proteins and different pathological types of lung cancer: a bidirectional mendelian randomization study

An increasing number of studies point to an association between mitochondrial proteins (MPs) and lung cancer (LC). However, the causal relationship between MPs and LC remains unclear. Consequently, our study employed a bidirectional Mendelian randomization (MR) analysis to explore the causal association between MPs and different pathological types of LC. A two-sample MR study was performed using the genome-wide association study (GWAS) data publicly available. We applied the primary inverse variance weighted (IVW) method along with additional MR methods to validate the causality between MPs and different pathological types of LC. To ensure the robustness of our findings, sensitivity analyses were employed. Moreover, we performed a bi-directional MR analysis to determine the direction of the causal association. We identified a total of seven MPs had significant causal relationships on overall LC, lung squamous cell carcinoma (LUSC), and small cell lung carcinoma (SCLC). We found two MPs had significant associations with overall LC, four MPs had significant associations with LUSC, and four MPs had significant associations with SCLC. Additionally, an MP was found to have a nominal relationship with LUSC. Moreover, no causality was found between MPs and lung adenocarcinoma (LUAD). Bidirectional MR showed no reverse effect between identified MPs and different pathological types of LC. In general, our findings of this MR study suggest causal associations of specific MPs with overall LC, LUSC, and SCLC. However, no such causality was found in LUAD.

Cholesterol Hydroperoxide Co-trafficking in Testosterone-generating Leydig Cells: GPx4 Inhibition of Cytotoxic and Anti-steroidogenic Effects

Trafficking of intracellular cholesterol (Ch) to and into mitochondria of steroidogenic cells is required for steroid hormone biosynthesis. This trafficking is typically mediated by one or more proteins of the steroidogenic acute regulatory (StAR) family. Our previous studies revealed that 7-OOH, a redox-active cholesterol hydroperoxide, could be co-trafficked with Ch to/into mitochondria of MA-10 Leydig cells, thereby inducing membrane lipid peroxidation (LPO) which impaired progesterone biosynthesis. These negative effects of 7-OOH were inhibited by endogenous selenoperoxidase GPx4, indicating that this enzyme could protect against 7-OOH-induced oxidative damage/dysfunction. In the present study, we advanced our Leydig focus to cultured murine TM3 cells and then to primary cells from rat testis, both of which produce testosterone. Using a fluorescent probe, we found that extensive free radical-mediated LPO occurred in mitochondria of stimulated primary Leydig cells during treatment with liposomal Ch+7-OOH, resulting in a significant decline in testosterone output relative to that with Ch alone. Strong enhancement of LPO and testosterone shortfall by RSL3 (a GPx4 inhibitor) and reversal thereof by Ebselen (a GPx4 mimetic), suggested that endogenous GPx4 was playing a key antioxidant role. 7-OOH in increasing doses was also cytotoxic to these cells, RSL3 exacerbating this in Ebselen-reversable fashion. Moreover, GPx4 knockdown increased cell sensitivity to LPO with reduced testosterone output. These findings, particularly with primary Leydigs (which best represent cells in intact testis) suggest that GPx4 plays a key protective role against peroxidative damage/dysfunction induced by 7-OOH co-trafficking with Ch.

The effect of L-carnitine supplementation during in vitro maturation on oocyte maturation and somatic cloned embryo development

The quality of the recipient cytoplasm was reported as a crucial factor in maintaining the vitality of SCNT embryos and SCNT efficiency for dairy cows. Compared with oocytes matured in vivo, oocytes matured in vitro showed abnormal accumulation and metabolism of cytoplasmic lipids. L-carnitine treatment was found to control fatty acid transport into the mitochondrial β-oxidation pathway, which improved the process of lipid metabolism. The results of this study show that 0.5 mg/ml L-carnitine significantly reduced the cytoplasmic lipid content relative to control. No significant difference was observed in the rate of oocyte nuclear maturation, but the in vitro developmental competence of SCNT embryos was improved in terms of increased blastocyst production and lower apoptotic index in the L-carnitine treatment group. In addition, the pregnancy rate with SCNT embryos in the treatment group was significantly higher than in the control group. In conclusion, the present study demonstrated that adding L-carnitine to the maturation culture medium could improve the developmental competence of SCNT embryos both in vitro and in vivo by reducing the lipid content of the recipient cytoplasm.

The paddy frog genome provides insight into the molecular adaptations and regulation of hibernation in ectotherms

Amphibians, like the paddy frog (Fejervarya multistriata), have played a critical role in the transition from water to land. Hibernation is a vital survival adaptation in cold environments with limited food resources. We decoded the paddy frog genome to reveal the molecular adaptations linked to hibernation in ectotherms. The genome contained 13 chromosomes, with a significant proportion of repetitive sequences. We identified the key genes encoding the proteins of AANAT, TRPM8, EGLN1, and VEGFA essential for circadian rhythms, thermosensation, and hypoxia during hibernation by comparing the hibernator and non-hibernator genomes. Examining organ changes during hibernation revealed the central regulatory role of the brain. We identified 21 factors contributing to hibernation, involving hormone biosynthesis, protein digestion, DNA replication, and the cell cycle. These findings provide deeper insight into the complex mechanisms of ectothermic hibernation and contribute to our understanding of the broader significance of this evolutionary adaptation.

Effect of running exercise training on inflammatory mediators and cytokines expression in testicular tissue; effect of exercise intensity

The aim of this study is to investigate the impact of running exercise training protocols (ETPs) with varying intensities on inflammatory responses, with a specific focus on the interactions between inflammatory mediators, cytokines, and Leydig cell steroidogenic activity, as well as testosterone secretion. To this end, 24 Wistar rats were subdivided into sedentary control, low (LICT), moderate (MICT), and high (HICT) intensity continuous running ETP groups. After 8 weeks, the expression levels of Toll-like receptor-4 (TLR-4), nuclear factor-kappa-B (NF-KB), interleukin-6 (IL-6), interleukin-10 (IL-10), Tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), and the testicular nitric oxide (NO) content were assessed and compared between groups. Moreover, the mean distributions of Leydig cells/mm2 of interstitial connective tissue, their steroidogenic activity, and serum level of testosterone were assessed. The LICT did not show any significant (p > 0.05) change in the expression levels of all aforementioned biomarkers. In contrast, both the MICT and HICT groups demonstrated a significant (p < 0.05) increase in the expression levels of TLR-4, NFK-B, IL-6, TNF-α, iNOS, and COX-2 at both the mRNA and protein levels. The testicular NO has increased in HICT and MICT groups. Despite a decrease in the distribution of Leydig cells in both the MICT and HICT groups, the HICT group exhibited a significant (p < 0.05) reduction in Leydig cell steroidogenic activity and serum testosterone levels. In conclusion, our findings revealed that ETPs can influence Leydig cell steroidogenic activity and testosterone secretion, contingent on their intensity. These effects are attributed to alterations in the expression levels of pro-inflammatory mediators and cytokines.

Using Selenium-enriched Mutated Probiotics as Enhancer for Fertility Parameters in Mice

Increasing fertility rates have become one of the factors that concern all people in the world. Therefore, the study aims to use two mutated strains of probiotics enriched with selenium (PSe40/60/1 and BSe50/20/1) to improve fertility. Thirty Swiss albino male mice were divided into three groups; control, LP + S was given Lactobacillus plantarum PSe40/60/1 plus selenium, and BL + S was given Bifidobacterium longum BSe50/20/1 plus selenium. Free testosterone, LH, and FSH were measured in serum by biochemical analysis. Testicular tissues were examined by histopathological analysis. The count and motility of sperm, and sperm abnormalities were determined by microscopic examination. The method of qRT-PCR was used to detect gene expression of Tspyl1, Hsd3b6, and Star genes. The biochemical results showed that serum content of free testosterone (FT) hormone had significantly increase in the BL + S and LP + S groups compared with control. Levels of LH and FSH hormones were the highest in the BL + S group. The treated groups showed all developmental stages of spermatogenesis, including spermatogenesis, spermatocytes, and seminiferous tubule spermatids, as well as intact Sertoli cells and Leydig cells without changes. When compared to the control group, sperm count and motility increased in the BL + S group, while sperm abnormalities decreased. The expression of Tspyl1 gene in testicular tissues decreased in the LP + S and BL + S groups, while the expression of Star and Hsd3b6 genes was higher in the BL + S group and lower in the LP + S group compared with the control group. Therefore, Bifidobacterium longum BSe50/20/1 enriched with selenium could be useful in enhancing male fertility.

Taste receptor type 1 member 3 is required for the fertility of male mice

Male infertility is a global health concern. However, its underlying pathophysiology remains unclear. Taste receptor type 1 member 3 (TAS1R3) is highly expressed in the testes, indicating its potential involvement in male fertility. Using wild-type and Tas1r3 knockout (KO) mice, we investigated whether TAS1R3 modulates male reproductive function. Tas1r3 KO mice exhibited reduced male fertility compared to WT mice, with fewer live pups per litter and a delayed first litter. Testicular transcriptome analysis indicated suppressed PKA/CREB/StAR signaling-mediated testosterone synthesis in Tas1r3 KO mice. In silico single-cell RNA sequencing revealed considerably higher Tas1r3 expression in Leydig cells than in other testicular cell subtypes. An in vitro study validated that Tas1r3 knockdown downregulated the expression of Creb1 and steroidogenic genes in Leydig cells. Our results suggest that testicular TAS1R3 is intricately involved in male reproduction via the PKA/CREB/StAR signaling pathway, highlighting its potential as a promising target for addressing male infertility.

Impose of KNDy/GnRH neural circuit in PCOS, ageing, cancer and Alzheimer's disease: StAR actions in prevention of neuroendocrine dysfunction

The Kisspeptin1 (KISS1)/neurokinin B (NKB)/Dynorphin (Dyn) [KNDy] neurons in the hypothalamus regulate the reproduction stage in human beings and rodents. KNDy neurons co-expressed all KISS1, NKB, and Dyn peptides, and hence commonly regarded as KISS1 neurons. KNDy neurons contribute to the "GnRH pulse generator" and are implicated in the regulation of pulsatile GnRH release. The estradiol (E2)-estrogen receptor (ER) interactions over GnRH neurons in the hypothalamus cause nitric oxide (NO) discharge, in addition to presynaptic GABA and glutamate discharge from respective neurons. The released GABA and glutamate facilitate the activity of GnRH neurons via GABAA-R and AMPA/kainate-R. The KISS1 stimulates MAPK/ERK1/2 signaling and cause the release of Ca2+ from intracellular store, which contribute to neuroendocrine function, increase apoptosis and decrease cell proliferation and metastasis. The ageing in women deteriorates KISS1/KISS1R interaction in the hypothalamus which causes lower levels of GnRH. Because examining the human brain is so challenging, decades of clinical research have failed to find the causes of KNDy/GnRH dysfunction. The KISS1/KISS1R interactions in the brain have a neuroprotective effect against Alzheimer's disease (AD). These findings modulate the pathophysiological role of the KNDy/GnRH neural network in polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS) associated with ageing and, its protective role in cancer and AD. This review concludes with protecting effect of the steroid-derived acute regulatory enzyme (StAR) against neurotoxicity in the hippocampus, and hypothalamus, and these measures are fundamental for delaying ageing with PCOS. StAR could serve as novel diagnostic marker and therapeutic target for the most prevalent hormone-sensitive breast cancers (BCs).

Epigenetic Dysregulation and Its Correlation with the Steroidogenic Machinery Impacting Breast Pathogenesis: Data Mining and Molecular Insights into Therapeutics

Breast cancer (BC) is a heterogeneous condition and comprises molecularly distinct subtypes. An imbalance in the levels of epigenetic histone deacetylases (HDACs), modulating estrogen accumulation, especially 17β-estradiol (E2), promotes breast tumorigenesis. In the present study, analyses of The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) pan-cancer normalized RNA-Seq datasets revealed the dysregulation of 16 epigenetic enzymes (among a total of 18 members) in luminal BC subtypes, in comparison to their non-cancerous counterparts. Explicitly, genomic profiling of these epigenetic enzymes displayed increases in HDAC1, 2, 8, 10, 11, and Sirtuins (SIRTs) 6 and 7, and decreases in HDAC4-7, -9, and SIRT1-4 levels, respectively, in TCGA breast tumors. Kaplan-Meier plot analyses showed that these HDACs, with the exception of HDAC2 and SIRT2, were not correlated with the overall survival of BC patients. Additionally, disruption of the epigenetic signaling in TCGA BC subtypes, as assessed using both heatmaps and boxplots, was associated with the genomic expression of factors that are instrumental for cholesterol trafficking/utilization for accelerating estrogen/E2 levels, in which steroidogenic acute regulatory protein (STAR) mediates the rate-limiting step in steroid biosynthesis. TCGA breast samples showed diverse expression patterns of a variety of key steroidogenic markers and hormone receptors, including LIPE, CYP27A1, STAR, STARD3, CYP11A1, CYP19A1, ER, PGR, and ERBB2. Moreover, regulation of STAR-governed steroidogenic machinery was found to be influenced by various transcription factors, i.e., CREB1, CREM, SF1, NR4A1, CEBPB, SREBF1, SREBF2, SP1, FOS, JUN, NR0B1, and YY1. Along these lines, ingenuity pathway analysis (IPA) recognized a number of new targets and downstream effectors influencing BCs. Of note, genomic, epigenomic, transcriptional, and hormonal anomalies observed in human primary breast tumors were qualitatively similar in pertinent BC cell lines. These findings identify the functional correlation between dysregulated epigenetic enzymes and estrogen/E2 accumulation in human breast tumors, providing the molecular insights into more targeted therapeutic approaches involving the inhibition of HDACs for combating this life-threatening disease.

Genome-wide association study of mammary gland tumors in Maltese dogs

Background

A genome-wide association study (GWAS) is a valuable tool for investigating genetic and phenotypic variation in many diseases.

Objective

The objective of this study was to identify variations in the genomes of Maltese dogs that are associated with the mammary gland tumor (MGT) phenotype and to assess the association between each biological condition and MGT phenotype in Maltese dogs.

Methods

DNA was extracted from 22 tumor samples and 11 whole blood samples from dogs with MGTs. Genome-wide single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) genotyping was performed, and the top 20 SNPs associated with various conditions and genetic variations were mapped to their corresponding gene locations.

Results

The genotyping process successfully identified 173,662 loci, with an overall genotype completion rate of 99.92%. Through the quality control analysis, 46,912 of these SNPs were excluded. Allelic tests were conducted to generate Manhattan plots, which showed several significant SNPs associated with MGT phenotype in intergenic region. The most prominent SNP, located within a region associated with transcription and linked to the malignancy grade of MGT, was identified on chromosome 5 (p = 0.00001) though there may be lack of statistical significance. Other SNPs were also found in several genes associated with oncogenesis, including TNFSF18, WDR3, ASIC5, STAR, and IL1RAP.

Conclusion

To our knowledge, this is the first GWAS to analyze the genetic predisposition to MGT in Maltese dogs. Despite the limited number of cases, these analyzed data could provide the basis for further research on the genetic predisposition to MGTs in Maltese dogs.

FDX1 regulates leydig cell ferroptosis mediates PM2.5-induced testicular dysfunction of mice

Epidemiological studies have established an association between chronic exposure to PM2.5 and male infertility. However, the underlying mechanisms were not fully revealed. In this study, we established mice models exposed to PM2.5 for 16 weeks, and a significant decrease in sperm quality accompanied by an increase in testosterone levels were observed after PM2.5 exposure. Moreover, treatment with ferrostatin-1 (Fer-1), a specific ferroptosis inhibitor, effectively mitigated PM2.5-induced testicular dysfunction in mice. And lipid peroxidation and ferritin accumulation were found to be significantly increased in Leydig cells of testes with a PM2.5-dose dependent manner. Further investigations revealed that TM-3 cells, a mouse Leydig cell line, were prone to ferroptosis after PM2.5 exposure, and the cell viability was partly rescued after the intervention of Fer-1. Furthermore, our results supported that the ferroptosis of TM-3 cells was attributed to the upregulation of ferredoxin 1 (FDX1), which was the protein transferring electrons to cytochrome P450 family 11 subfamily A member 1 to aid lysing cholesterol to pregnenolone at initial of steroidogenesis. Mechanically, PM2.5-induced FDX1 upregulation resulted in cellular ROS elevation and ferrous iron overload, which together initiated an autoxidation process of polyunsaturated fatty acids in the cell membrane of Leydig cells until the accumulated lipid peroxides triggered ferroptotic cell death. Simultaneously, upregulation of FDX1 promoted steroidogenesis and let to an increased level of testosterone. In summary, our work suggested that FDX1, a mediator involving steroidogenesis, was a key regulator in PM2.5-induced Leydig cells ferroptosis.

Effects of microcystin-LR on mammalian ovaries

The ovaries play critical roles in regulating oocyte maturation and sex steroid hormone production and thus are critical for female reproduction. Ovarian function relies on hormone receptors and signaling pathways, making the ovaries potential targets for environmental factors, such as microcystins (MCs). MCs are a diverse group of cyanobacterial toxins generally found in eutrophic water or algal blooms. Here, we review relevant research on the associations between MC exposure and ovarian dysfunction, including their effects on ovarian morphology, folliculogenesis, steroid production, oxidative stress, endoplasmic reticulum stress, apoptosis, autophagy, and fertility. This review covers the most recent in vitro and in vivo studies in mammals. We also discuss important gaps in the literature. Overall, current evidence indicates that MC exposure causes impairments in ovarian function, but further studies are needed to elucidate the mechanisms through which MCs affect ovarian function and other female endocrine functions.

Protective function of StAR in amyloid-β accumulated hippocampal neurotoxicity and neurosteroidogenesis: Mechanistic insights into Alzheimer's disease

The steroidogenic acute regulatory (StAR) protein principally mediates steroid hormone biosynthesis by governing the transport of intramitochondrial cholesterol. Neurosteroids progressively decrease during aging, the key risk factor for Alzheimer's disease (AD), which is triggered by brain-region specific accumulation of amyloid beta (Aβ) precursor protein (APP), a key pathological factor. We demonstrate that hippocampal neuronal cells overexpressing wild-type (WtAPP) and mutant APP (mAPP) plasmids, conditions mimetic to AD, resulted in decreases in StAR mRNA, free cholesterol, and pregnenolone levels. The magnitude of suppression of the steroidogenic response was more pronounced with mAPP than that of WtAPP. While mAPP-waned assorted anomalies correlate to AD pathology, deterioration of APP/Aβ laden StAR expression and neurosteroid biosynthesis was enhanced by retinoid signaling. An abundance of mitochondrially targeted StAR expression partially restored APP/Aβ accumulated diverse neurodegenerative vulnerabilities. Immunofluorescence analyses revealed that overexpression of StAR diminishes mAPP provoked Aβ aggregation. Co-expression of StAR and mAPP in hippocampal neurons substantially reversed the declines in mAPP mediated cell survival, mitochondrial oxygen consumption rate, and ATP production. Concurrently, induction of mAPP induced Aβ loading showed an increase in cholesterol esters, but decrease in free cholesterol, concomitant with pregnenolone biosynthesis, events that were inversely regulated by StAR. Moreover, retinoid signaling was found to augment cholesterol content for facilitating neurosteroid biosynthesis in an AD mimetic condition. These findings provide novel insights into the molecular events by which StAR acts to protect mAPP-induced hippocampal neurotoxicity, mitochondrial dysfunction, and neurosteroidogenesis, and these measures are fundamental for ameliorating and/or delaying dementia in individuals with AD.

Developmental exposure to a real-life environmental chemical mixture alters testicular transcription factor expression in neonatal and pre-pubertal rams, with morphological changes persisting into adulthood

Environmental chemical (EC) exposure may be impacting male reproductive health. The translationally relevant biosolids treated pasture (BTP) sheep model was used to investigate gestational low-level EC mixture exposure on the testes of F1 male offspring. Adult rams from ewes exposed to BTP 1 month before and throughout pregnancy had more seminiferous tubules with degeneration and depletion of elongating spermatids, indicating possible "recovery" from previously reported testicular dysgenesis syndrome-like phenotype in neonatal and pre-pubertal BTP lambs. Expression of transcription factors CREB1 (neonatal) and BCL11A and FOXP2 (pre-pubertal) were significantly higher in the BTP exposed testes, with no changes seen in adults. Increased CREB1, which is crucial for testes development and regulation of steroidogenic enzymes, could be an adaptive response to gestational EC exposure to facilitate the phenotypic recovery. Overall, this demonstrates that testicular effects from gestational exposure to low-level mixtures of ECs can last into adulthood, potentially impacting fertility and fecundity.

The interplay between androgens and the immune response in polycystic ovary syndrome

Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is a metabolic-reproductive-endocrine disorder that, while having a genetic component, is known to have a complex multifactorial etiology. As PCOS is a diagnosis of exclusion, standardized criteria have been developed for its diagnosis. The general consensus is that hyperandrogenism is the primary feature of PCOS and is associated with an array of physiological dysfunctions; excess androgens, for example, have been correlated with cytokine hypersecretion, adipocyte proliferation, and signaling pathway dysregulation. Another key feature of PCOS is insulin resistance, resulting in aberrant glucose and fatty acid metabolism. Additionally, the immune system plays a key role in PCOS. Hyperandrogenism stimulates some immune cells while it inhibits others, thereby disrupting the normal balance of immune cells and creating a state of chronic inflammation. This low-grade inflammation could contribute to infertility since it induces ovarian dysfunction. This dysregulated immune response in PCOS exhibits autoimmunity characteristics that require further investigation. This review paper examines the relationship between androgens and the immune response and how their malfunction contributes to PCOS.

Urinary concentration of phthalates and bisphenol A during minipuberty is associated with reproductive hormone concentrations in infant boys

BACKGROUND

The transient postnatal activation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal hormone axis is termed minipuberty and considered an important developmental period, which is highly sensitive to endocrine disruption. Here, we explore exposure-outcome associations during minipuberty between concentrations of potentially endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) in urine of infant boys and their serum reproductive hormone concentrations.

METHODS

In total, 36 boys participating in the COPENHAGEN Minipuberty Study had data available for both urine biomarkers of target endocrine disrupting chemicals and reproductive hormones in serum from samples collected on the same day. Serum concentrations of reproductive hormones were measured by immunoassays or by LC-MS/MS. Urinary concentrations of metabolites of 39 non-persisting chemicals, including phthalates and phenolic compounds, were measured by LC-MS/MS. Nineteen chemicals had concentrations above the limit of detection in ≥50% of children and were included in data analysis. Associations of urinary phthalate metabolite and phenol concentrations (in tertiles) with hormone outcomes (age- and sex-specific SD-scores) were analysed by linear regression. Primarily, we focused on the EU regulated phthalates; butylbenzyl phthalate (BBzP), di-iso-butyl phthalate (DiBP), di-n-butyl phthalate (DnBP), and di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) as well as bisphenol A (BPA). Urinary metabolites of DiBP, DnBP and DEHP were summed and expressed as ∑DiBPm, ∑DnBPm and ∑DEHPm.

RESULTS

Compared to boys in the lowest ∑DnBPm tertile, urinary concentration of ∑DnBPm was associated with concurrent higher luteinizing hormone (LH) and anti-Müllerian hormone (AMH) SD-scores as well as lower testosterone/LH ratio in boys in the middle ∑DnBPm tertile (estimates (CI 95%) 0.79 (0.04; 1.54), 0.91 (0.13; 1.68), and -0.88 (-1.58;-0.19), respectively). Further, higher insulin-like peptide 3 (INSL3) SD-scores and lower DHEAS SD-score in boys in the highest ∑DnBPm tertile (0.91 (0.12; 1.70) and -0.85 (-1.51;-0.18), respectively) were observed. In addition, boys in the middle and highest ∑DEHPm tertile had higher LH (1.07 (0.35; 1.79) and 0.71 (-0.01; 1.43), respectively) and in the highest ∑DEHPm tertile also higher AMH (0.85 (0.10; 1.61)) concentration SD-scores, respectively. Boys in the highest BPA tertile had significantly higher AMH and lower DHEAS concentration compared to boys in the lowest BPA tertile (1.28 (0.54; 2.02) and -0.73 (-1.45; -0.01)), respectively.

DISCUSSION

Our findings indicate that exposure to chemicals with known or suspected endocrine disrupting potential, especially the EU-regulated DnBP, DEHP and BPA, may modify male reproductive hormone concentrations in infant boys suggesting that minipuberty is a critical window sensitive to endocrine disruption.

L-carnitine-loaded nanoparticle ameliorates cypermethrin-induced reproductive toxicity in adult male rats

The objective of this investigation was to find out whether L-carnitine-loaded nanoparticle (LCn) could reduce the reproductive toxicity of cypermethrin (CYP), the widely used insecticide in veterinary medicine in male rats. Twenty male Wistar rats that weighed between 210 and 240 g were split into four groups and treated daily for 2 months. The control group was given 0.9% normal saline solution daily. The second group received CYP (3.83 mg/kg b. w. p. o.) daily. The third group was administered with LCn and CYP (50 mg/kg b. wt. p. o. and 3.83 mg/kg b. wt. p. o., respectively) daily, whereas the fourth group received LCn alone (50 mg/kg b. wt. p. o.) daily. On day 60, all rats were sacrificed and samples were collected. CYP-treated animals exhibited inhibition of testicular anti-oxidative stress mechanisms, testicular steroidogenesis enzyme activity (3β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase [3β-HSD] and 17β-HSD), and downregulation of steroidogenic acute regulatory (StAR) gene expression. In addition, it decreased testosterone, follicle-stimulating hormone, and LH levels and had detrimental consequences for sperm quality. LCn attenuated CYP-induced reproductive toxicity via the alleviation of testicular oxidative stress status, improvement of steroidogenic enzyme activity, and upregulation of StAR gene expression, which are probably responsible for the concomitant improvement in testicular hormonal levels and improvement in sperm properties. Intriguingly, LCn treatment alone could enhance the functions of the male reproductive system.

Effects of Aerobic Exercise Combined with Oyster Peptide Supplement on the Formation of CTX-induced Late-Onset Hypogonadism in Male Rats

The purpose of this study is to investigate the effect of aerobic exercise (AE) training and/or oyster peptide (OP) supplementation on the formation of late-onset hypogonadism (LOH). AE training and/or OP supplement was performed during Cytoxan (CTX)-induced LOH formation in male SD rats for 6 consecutive weeks. Low dose of CTX could decrease mating times, the levels of luteinizing hormone (LH), total testosterone (TT), free testosterone (FT) in serum and TT, androgen receptor (AR), androgen binding protein (ABP), and glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px) in testicle, but increase capture latency, mating latency, and malondialdehyde, and downregulate the mRNA expression of steroidogenic acute regulatory (StAR), P450 cholesterol side chain cleavage enzyme (P450scc), and StAR-related lipid transfer domain 7 (StARD7) in testicle. Every change was altered by AE training combined with OP supplement significantly, except for serum LH. Moreover, the effect of AE training combined with OP supplement was better than that of AE training on serum TT, FSH, testicular TT, mating latency, capture times, and mating times. AE training combined with OP supplement during CTX-induced LOH formation can prevent the LOH development by enhancing pituitary-gonads axis's function and reducing testicular oxidative stress to promote testosterone synthesis and spermatogenesis.

Histological study and immunohistochemical expression of StAR protein in the suprarenal cortex of adult male rats associated with sleep disturbance

The present study was designed to investigate the effects of sleep disturbance on histological features and evaluates the expression of StAR protein in the cortex of the adrenal gland of adult male rats. The suprarenal glands are endocrine organs that are directly affected by sleep deprivation. Sleep disturbance is a stress factor affecting steroidogenesis since it is regulated by the hypothalamic-pituitary axis (HPA). Its hormones are cholesterol-derived, and they use the Acut regulating protein of steroidogenesis StAR protein that plays an essential critical role in mediating cholesterol transfer to the inner mitochondrial membrane and the cholesterol side chain cleavage enzyme system. This research aims to investigate the effects of sleep disturbance (sleep disruption and deprivation) on the histological features and changes in StAR expression in the cortex of the adrenal glands of rats. Comparing experimental groups to controls, histological alterations such as cellular hypertrophy and vascular dilatation in the cortical zones of the adrenal cortex were found mainly in the Zona fasculata Zf. Immunohistochemistry was used to identify significant changes in the level of StAR, which showed a higher value in the sleep interruption group compared to the control and sleep deprivation groups at p-value ≤ 0.001. This indicates that sleep interruption has a more significant impact on steroidogenesis than sleep deprivation, which increases the level of StAR in the suprarenal gland. Keywords: suprarenal gland; sleep disturbance; StAR protein; steroidogenesis; circadian rhythms.

Impact of Chronic Multi-Generational Exposure to an Environmentally Relevant Atrazine Concentration on Testicular Development and Function in Mice

A common herbicide, atrazine, is associated with poor health. Atrazine acts as an endocrine disruptor at supra-environmental levels. Little research, however, has been conducted regarding chronic exposure to environmental atrazine concentrations across generations. This study utilized comprehensive endpoint measures to investigate the effects of chronic exposure to a conservative atrazine concentration (0.02 ng/mL), measured in Australian waterways, on male mice fertility across two generations. Mice were exposed through the maternal line, from the pre-conception period and through the F1 and F2 generations until three or six months of age. Atrazine did not impact sperm function, testicular morphology nor germ cell parameters but did alter the expression of steroidogenic genes in the F1, down-regulating the expression of Cyp17a1 (Cytochrome P450 family 17, subfamily A member 1; p = 0.0008) and Ddx4 (DEAD-box helicase 4; p = 0.007), and up-regulating the expression of Star (Steroidogenic acute regulatory protein; p = 0.017). In the F2, atrazine induced up-regulation in the expression of Star (p = 0.016). The current study demonstrates that chronic exposure to an environmentally relevant atrazine concentration perturbs testicular steroid-associated gene expression that varies across generations. Future studies through the paternal and combined parental lineages should be undertaken to further elucidate the multigenerational effects of atrazine on male fertility.

Regulation of retinoid mediated StAR transcription and steroidogenesis in hippocampal neuronal cells: Implications for StAR in protecting Alzheimer's disease

Retinoids (vitamin A and its derivatives) play pivotal roles in diverse processes, ranging from homeostasis to neurodegeneration, which are also influenced by steroid hormones. The rate-limiting step in steroid biosynthesis is mediated by the steroidogenic acute regulatory (StAR) protein. In the present study, we demonstrate that retinoids enhanced StAR expression and pregnenolone biosynthesis, and these parameters were markedly augmented by activation of the PKA pathway in mouse hippocampal neuronal HT22 cells. Deletion and mutational analyses of the 5'-flanking regions of the StAR gene revealed the importance of a retinoic acid receptor (RAR)/retinoid X receptor (RXR)-liver X receptor (LXR) heterodimeric motif at -200/-185 bp region in retinoid responsiveness. The RAR/RXR-LXR sequence motif can bind RARα and RXRα, and retinoid regulated transcription of the StAR gene was found to be influenced by the LXR pathway, representing signaling cross-talk in hippocampal neurosteroid biosynthesis. Steroidogenesis decreases during senescence due to declines in the central nervous system and the endocrine system, and results in hormone deficiencies, inferring the need for hormonal balance for healthy aging. Loss of neuronal cells, involving accumulation of amyloid beta (Aβ) and/or phosphorylated Tau within the brain, is the pathological hallmark of Alzheimer's disease (AD). HT22 cells overexpressing either mutant APP (mAPP) or mutant Tau (mTau), conditions mimetic to AD, enhanced toxicities, and resulted in attenuation of both basal and retinoid-responsive StAR and pregnenolone levels. Co-expression of StAR with either mAPP or mTau diminished cytotoxicity, and concomitantly elevated neurosteroid biosynthesis, pointing to a protective role of StAR in AD. These findings provide insights into the molecular events by which retinoid signaling upregulates StAR and steroid levels in hippocampal neuronal cells, and StAR, by rescuing mAPP and/or mTau-induced toxicities, modulates neurosteroidogenesis and restores hormonal balance, which may have important implications in protecting AD and age-related complications and diseases.

Clinical and functional analyses of the novel STAR c.558C>A in a patient with classic lipoid congenital adrenal hyperplasia

Objective: Congenital lipid adrenal hyperplasia (LCAH) is the most serious type of congenital adrenal hyperplasia and is caused by steroid-based acute regulatory (STAR) protein mutations. Herein, we report compound heterozygous mutations c.558C>A (p.S186 R) and c.772C>T (p.Q258*) in a newborn 46 XY patient diagnosed with classic LCAH and explore their clinical and functional characteristics. Methods: Peripheral blood samples were collected from LCAH patient and their families. The pathogenic variant identified by whole-exome sequencing was further confirmed by Sanger sequencing and pedigree verification. The functional consequence and ability to convert cholesterol into progesterone of the identified STAR Q258* and S186 R mutations were analyzed by cell transfection and in vitro assays. Results: The proband was presented with severe glucocorticoid and mineralocorticoid deficiency, high adrenocorticotropic hormone, and enlarged adrenals. Heterozygous mutations p. S186 R and p. Q258* in the STAR gene were identified in the patient, and her parents were carriers, which is consistent with an autosomal recessive disorder. The STAR p. Q258* mutation has been reported and generates a truncated protein. The p. S186 R mutation is a novel variant that disrupts STAR. The residual STAR activities of p. S186R, p. Q258*, and p. S186R/p.Q258* were 13.9%, 7.3%, and 11.2%, respectively, of the wild-type, proving the main negative effects of the mutant proteins. Conclusion: Our findings reveal the molecular mechanisms underlying LCAH pathogenesis, further expanding the genotype and clinical spectrum of LCAH.

Persistent organic pollutants affect steroidogenic and apoptotic activities in granulosa cells and reactive oxygen species concentrations in oocytes in the mouse

CONTEXT

The destruction of granulosa cells (GCs), the main functional cell type in the ovary, prevents steroid hormone production, which in turn may damage oocytes, resulting in ovarian failure. The accumulation of a number of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) in the ovarian follicular fluid (FF) has been documented, which raises serious questions regarding their impact on female fertility.

AIMS

We aimed to determine whether a mixture of POPs reflecting the profile found in FF influences mouse GCs or oocyte function and viability.

METHODS

A mixture of POPs, comprising perfluorooctanoate, perfluorooctane sulfonate, 2,2-dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene, polychlorinated biphenyl 153, and hexachlorobenzene, was used. In addition to using the exact concentration of POPs previously measured in human FF, we tested two other mixtures, one with10-fold lower and another with 10-fold higher concentrations of each POP.

KEY RESULTS

Steroidogenesis was disrupted in GCs by the POP mixture, as demonstrated by lower oestradiol and progesterone secretion and greater lipid droplet accumulation. Furthermore, the POP mixture reduced GC viability and increased apoptosis, assessed using caspase-3 activity. The POP mixture significantly increased the number of oocytes that successfully progressed to the second meiotic metaphase and the oocyte reactive oxygen species (ROS) concentration.

CONCLUSIONS

Thus, a mixture of POPs that are typically present in human FF has detrimental effects on ovarian function: it reduces the viability of GCs, and increases the oocyte concentrations of ROS.

IMPLICATIONS

These results indicate that chronic exposure to POPs adversely affects female reproductive health.

Male sex hormones, aging, and inflammation

Adequate levels of androgens (eugonadism), and specifically testosterone, are vital compounds for male quality of life, longevity, and positive health outcomes. Testosterone exerts its effects by binding to the androgen receptor, which is expressed in numerous tissues throughout the body. Significant research has been conducted on the impact of this steroid hormone on skeletal, muscle and adipose tissues and on the cardiovascular, immune, and nervous systems. Testosterone levels have also been studied in relation to the impact of diseases, aging, nutrition and the environment on its circulating levels. Conversely, the impact of testosterone on health has also been evaluated with respect to its cardiac and vascular protective effects, body composition, autoimmunity and all-cause mortality. The male aging process results in decreasing testosterone levels over time. The exact mechanisms and impact of these changes in testosterone levels with age on health- and life-span are still not completely clear. Further research is needed to determine the optimal testosterone and androgen levels to protect from chronic age-related conditions such as frailty and osteoporosis.

Expression and Function of StAR in Cancerous and Non-Cancerous Human and Mouse Breast Tissues: New Insights into Diagnosis and Treatment of Hormone-Sensitive Breast Cancer

Breast cancer (BC) is primarily triggered by estrogens, especially 17β-estradiol (E2), which are synthesized by the aromatase enzyme. While all steroid hormones are derived from cholesterol, the rate-limiting step in steroid biosynthesis is mediated by the steroidogenic acute regulatory (StAR) protein. Herein, we demonstrate that StAR mRNA expression was aberrantly high in human hormone-dependent BC (MCF7, MDA-MB-361, and T-47D), modest in hormone-independent triple negative BC (TNBC; MDA-MB-468, BT-549, and MDA-MB-231), and had little to none in non-cancerous mammary epithelial (HMEC, MCF10A, and MCF12F) cells. In contrast, these cell lines showed abundant expression of aromatase (CYP19A1) mRNA. Immunofluorescence displayed qualitatively similar patterns of both StAR and aromatase expression in various breast cells. Additionally, three different transgenic (Tg) mouse models of spontaneous breast tumors, i.e., MMTV-Neu, MMTV-HRAS, and MMTV-PyMT, demonstrated markedly higher expression of StAR mRNA/protein in breast tumors than in normal mammary tissue. While breast tumors in these mouse models exhibited higher expression of ERα, ERβ, and PR mRNAs, their levels were undetected in TNBC tumors. Accumulation of E2 in plasma and breast tissues, from MMTV-PyMT and non-cancerous Tg mice, correlated with StAR, but not with aromatase, signifying the importance of StAR in governing E2 biosynthesis in mammary tissue. Treatment with a variety of histone deacetylase inhibitors (HDACIs) in primary cultures of enriched breast tumor epithelial cells, from MMTV-PyMT mice, resulted in suppression of StAR and E2 levels. Importantly, inhibition of StAR, concomitant with E2 synthesis, by various HDACIs, at clinical and preclinical doses, in MCF7 cells, indicated therapeutic relevance of StAR in hormone-dependent BCs. These findings provide insights into the molecular events underlying the differential expression of StAR in human and mouse cancerous and non-cancerous breast cells/tissues, highlighting StAR could serve not only as a novel diagnostic maker but also as a therapeutic target for the most prevalent hormone-sensitive BCs.

Roles of LonP1 in Oral-Maxillofacial Developmental Defects and Tumors: A Novel Insight

Recent studies have indicated a central role for LonP1 in mitochondrial function. Its physiological functions include proteolysis, acting as a molecular chaperone, binding mitochondrial DNA, and being involved in cellular respiration, cellular metabolism, and oxidative stress. Given its vital role in energy metabolism, LonP1 has been suggested to be associated with multi-system neoplasms and developmental disorders. In this study, we investigated the roles, possible mechanisms of action, and therapeutic roles of LonP1 in oral and maxillofacial tumor development. LonP1 was highly expressed in oral-maxillofacial cancers and regulated their development through a sig-naling network. LonP1 may therefore be a promising anticancer therapy target. Mutations in LONP1 have been found to be involved in the etiology of cerebral, ocular, dental, auricular, and skeletal syndrome (CODAS). Only patients carrying specific LONP1 mutations have certain dental abnormalities (delayed eruption and abnormal morphology). LonP1 is therefore a novel factor in the development of oral and maxillofacial tumors. Greater research should therefore be conducted on the diagnosis and therapy of LonP1-related diseases to further define LonP1-associated oral phenotypes and their underlying molecular mechanisms.

Grim-19 plays a key role in mitochondrial steroidogenic acute regulatory protein stability and ligand-binding properties in Leydig cells

Grim-19 (gene associated with retinoid-IFN-induced mortality 19), the essential component of complex I of mitochondrial respiratory chain, functions as a noncanonical tumor suppressor by controlling apoptosis and energy metabolism. However, additional biological actions of Grim-19 have been recently suggested in male reproduction. We investigated here the expression and functional role of Grim-19 in murine testis. Testicular Grim-19 expression was detected from mouse puberty and increased progressively thereafter, and GRIM-19 protein was observed to be expressed exclusively in interstitial Leydig cells (LCs), with a prominent mitochondrial localization. In vivo lentiviral vector-mediated knockdown of Grim-19 resulted in a significant decrease in testosterone production and triggered aberrant oxidative stress in testis, thus impairing male fertility by inducing germ cell apoptosis and oligozoospermia. The control of testicular steroidogenesis by GRIM-19 was validated using the in vivo knockdown model with isolated primary LCs and in vitro experiments with MA-10 mouse Leydig tumor cells. Mechanistically, we suggest that the negative regulation exerted by GRIM-19 deficiency-induced oxidative stress on steroidogenesis may be the result of two phenomena: a direct effect through inhibition of phosphorylation of steroidogenic acute regulatory protein (StAR) and subsequent impediment to StAR localization in mitochondria and an indirect pathway that is to facilitate the inhibiting role exerted by the extracellular matrix on the steroidogenic capacity of LCs via promotion of integrin activation. Altogether, our observations suggest that Grim-19 plays a potent role in testicular steroidogenesis and that its alterations may contribute to testosterone deficiency-related disorders linked to metabolic stress and male infertility.

The role of exercise intensity on fatty liver in rats

Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is the most common chronic liver disease and is often caused by obesity. Currently, moderate-intensity continuous training (MICT) and high-intensity interval training (HIIT) are two effective treatments for reducing fat mass in patients with obesity and NAFLD. However, the comparative fat-reducing effects and underlying molecular mechanisms of MICT and HIIT remain unclear. This comprehensive study was performed on male Wistar rats treated with standard diet, high-fat diet, MICT, and HIIT to explore their comparative fat-reducing effects and corresponding molecular mechanisms. HIIT had a greater effect on hepatic vacuolation density and lipid content reduction than MICT, and triglyceride and total cholesterol levels in the serum and the liver demonstrated different sensitivities to different exercise training programs. At the molecular level, both MICT and HIIT altered the processes of fatty acid synthesis, fatty acid transport, fatty acid β-oxidation, and cholesterol synthesis, wherein the transcriptional and translational levels of signaling molecules peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs) regulating fatty acid and cholesterol synthesis were strongly changed. Moreover, the metabolic pathways of amino acids, bile acids, and carbohydrates were also affected according to transcriptome analysis, and the changes in the above-mentioned processes in the HIIT group were greater than those in the MICT group. In combination with the search tool for the retrieval of interacting genes/proteins (STRING) analysis and the role of PPARs in lipid metabolism, as well as the expression pattern of PPARs in the MICT and HIIT groups, the MICT-and HIIT-induced fat loss was mediated by the PPAR pathway, causing feedback responses in fatty acid, steroid, amino acid, bile acid, and carbohydrate metabolism, and HIIT had a better fat-reducing effect, which may be initiated by PPAR-α. This study provides a theoretical basis for targeted therapy of patients with obesity and NAFLD.

Differential Response of Transcription Factors to Activated Kinases in Steroidogenic and Non-Steroidogenic Cells

Hormone-induced Leydig cell steroidogenesis requires rapid changes in gene expression in response to various hormones, cytokines, and growth factors. These proteins act by binding to their receptors on the surface of Leydig cells leading to activation of multiple intracellular signaling cascades, downstream of which are several kinases, including protein kinase A (PKA), Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase I (CAMKI), and extracellular signal-regulated protein kinase 1 and 2 (ERK1/2). These kinases participate in hormone-induced steroidogenesis by phosphorylating numerous proteins including transcription factors leading to increased steroidogenic gene expression. How these various kinases and transcription factors come together to appropriately induce steroidogenic gene expression in response to specific stimuli remains poorly understood. In the present work, we compared the effect of PKA, CAMKI and ERK1/2 on the transactivation potential of 15 transcription factors belonging to 5 distinct families on the activity of the Star gene promoter. We not only validated known cooperation between kinases and transcription factors, but we also identified novel cooperations that have not yet been before reported. Some transcription factors were found to respond to all three kinases, whereas others were only activated by one specific kinase. Differential responses were also observed within a family of transcription factors. The diverse response to kinases provides flexibility to ensure proper genomic response of steroidogenic cells to different stimuli.

A Short Promoter Region Containing Conserved Regulatory Motifs Is Required for Steroidogenic Acute Regulatory Protein (Star) Gene Expression in the Mouse Testis

In the testis, Leydig cells produce steroid hormones that are needed to masculinize typical genetic males during fetal development and to initiate and maintain spermatogenesis at puberty and adulthood, respectively. Steroidogenesis is initiated by the transfer of cholesterol from the outer to the inner mitochondrial membrane through the action of steroidogenic acute regulatory protein (STAR). Given its importance for the steroidogenic process, the regulation of STAR gene expression has been the subject of numerous studies. These studies have involved the characterization of key promoter sequences through the identification of relevant transcription factors and the nucleotide motifs (regulatory elements) that they bind. This work has traditionally relied on in vitro studies carried out in cell cultures along with reconstructed promoter sequences. While this approach has been useful for developing models of how a gene might be transcriptionally regulated, one must ultimately validate that these modes of regulation occur in an endogenous context. We have used CRISPR/Cas9 genome editing to modify a short region of the mouse Star promoter (containing a subset of regulatory elements, including conserved CRE, C/EBP, AP1, and GATA motifs) that has been proposed to be critical for Star transcription. Analysis of the resultant mutant mice showed that this short promoter region is indeed required for maximal STAR mRNA and protein levels in the testis. Analysis also showed that both basal and hormone-activated testosterone production in mature mice was unaffected despite significant changes in Star expression. Our results therefore provide the first in vivo validation of regulatory sequences required for Star gene expression.

COVID-19 and its genomic variants: Molecular pathogenesis and therapeutic interventions

Coronavirus disease-19 (COVID-19), caused by a β-coronavirus and its genomic variants, is associated with substantial morbidities and mortalities globally. The COVID-19 virus and its genomic variants enter host cells upon binding to the angiotensin converting enzyme 2 receptors that are expressed in a variety of tissues, but predominantly in the lungs, heart, and blood vessels. Patients afflicted with COVID-19 may be asymptomatic or present with critical symptoms possibly due to diverse lifestyles, immune responses, aging, and underlying medical conditions. Geriatric populations, especially men in comparison to women, with immunocompromised conditions, are most vulnerable to severe COVID-19 associated infections, complications, and mortalities. Notably, whereas immunomodulation, involving nutritional consumption, is essential to protecting an individual from COVID-19, immunosuppression is detrimental to a person with this aggressive disease. As such, immune health is inversely correlated to COVID-19 severity and resulting consequences. Advances in genomic and proteomic technologies have helped us to understand the molecular events underlying symptomatology, transmission and, pathogenesis of COVID-19 and its genomic variants. Accordingly, there has been development of a variety of therapeutic interventions, ranging from mask wearing to vaccination to medication. This review summarizes the current understanding of molecular pathogenesis of COVID-19, effects of comorbidities on COVID-19, and prospective therapeutic strategies for the prevention and treatment of this contagious disease.

Testicular Expression of Antioxidant Enzymes and Changes in Response to a Slow-Release Deslorelin Implant (Suprelorin® 4.7 mg) in the Dog

Spermatogenesis takes place in a hypoxic environment, and antioxidant enzymes protect germ and somatic cells from free radical-mediated damage. Expression of the antioxidant enzyme system in the canine testis has not yet been investigated. We hypothesized that the slow-release GnRH superagonist deslorelin 4.7 mg implant, which induces temporary reversible suppression of endocrine and germinative testicular function, would affect the testicular expression of antioxidant enzymes compared to untreated adult and prepubertal dogs. The goal of this study was to investigate and compare gene (by qPCR, in whole-tissue homogenates) and protein expression (by immunohistochemistry) of superoxide dismutase (SOD1, SOD2), catalase (CAT), glutathione peroxidase (GPx1), and glutathione disulfide reductase (GSR) in the testes of untreated adult (CON, n = 7), prepubertal (PRE, n = 8), and deslorelin-treated (DES, n = 5, 16 weeks after implantation) dogs. We found that in DES dogs, the gene expression of SOD1 was significantly (p < 0.05) lower and GPx1 was higher than in CON, and SOD2 was higher than in PRE. Expression of all, except for the SOD2 mRNA, differed between the CON and PRE dogs. Immunohistochemistry showed distinct cell-specific localization and expression patterns for the antioxidant enzymes in each experimental group. Additionally, in the CON animals, cell-specific SOD1, CAT, and GSR expression was dependent on the stage of the seminiferous epithelium cycle. These findings confirm that members of the antioxidant enzyme system are present in normal adult and prepubertal testis as well as in the deslorelin-treated downregulated adult canine testis, and that this local antioxidant system protects developing germ cells and somatic cells from oxidative damage. Different expression patterns of antioxidant enzymes in various germ cell populations and stages of the seminiferous epithelium cycle may indicate differences in their susceptibility to oxidative stress depending on their developmental and maturation stage. The continued presence of the antioxidant enzymes in the testis of DES dogs offers protection to spermatogonia as well as Sertoli and Leydig cells from oxidative stress during temporary infertility, potentially contributing to ensure the reversibility of suppression and the return of normal spermatogenesis and steroidogenesis after the end of deslorelin treatment.

Vitamin D Signaling in Psoriasis: Pathogenesis and Therapy

Psoriasis is a systemic, chronic, immune-mediated disease that affects approximately 2–3% of the world’s population. The etiology and pathophysiology of psoriasis are still unknown, but the activation of the adaptive immune system with the main role of T-cells is key in psoriasis pathogenesis. The modulation of the local neuroendocrine system with the downregulation of pro-inflammatory and the upregulation of anti-inflammatory messengers represent a promising adjuvant treatment in psoriasis therapies. Vitamin D receptors and vitamin D-mediated signaling pathways function in the skin and are essential in maintaining the skin homeostasis. The active forms of vitamin D act as powerful immunomodulators of clinical response in psoriatic patients and represent the effective and safe adjuvant treatments for psoriasis, even when high doses of vitamin D are administered. The phototherapy of psoriasis, especially UVB-based, changes the serum level of 25(OH)D, but the correlation of 25(OH)D changes and psoriasis improvement need more clinical trials, since contradictory data have been published. Vitamin D derivatives can improve the efficacy of psoriasis phototherapy without inducing adverse side effects. The anti-psoriatic treatment could include non-calcemic CYP11A1-derived vitamin D hydroxyderivatives that would act on the VDR or as inverse agonists on RORs or activate alternative nuclear receptors including AhR and LXRs. In conclusion, vitamin D signaling can play an important role in the natural history of psoriasis. Selective targeting of proper nuclear receptors could represent potential treatment options in psoriasis.

Developmental exposure to real-life environmental chemical mixture programs a testicular dysgenesis syndrome-like phenotype in prepubertal lambs

Current declines in male reproductive health may, in part, be driven by anthropogenic environmental chemical (EC) exposure. Using a biosolids treated pasture (BTP) sheep model, this study examined the effects of gestational exposure to a translationally relevant EC mixture. Testes of 8-week-old ram lambs from mothers exposed to BTP during pregnancy contained fewer germ cells and had a greater proportion of Sertoli-cell-only seminiferous tubules. This concurs with previous published data from fetuses and neonatal lambs from mothers exposed to BTP. Comparison between the testicular transcriptome of biosolids lambs and human testicular dysgenesis syndrome (TDS) patients indicated common changes in genes involved in apoptotic and mTOR signalling. Gene expression data and immunohistochemistry indicated increased HIF1α activation and nuclear localisation in Leydig cells of BTP exposed animals. As HIF1α is reported to disrupt testosterone synthesis, these results provide a potential mechanism for the pathogenesis of this testicular phenotype, and TDS in humans.

STARD5 as a potential clinical target of hepatocellular carcinoma

To reveal whether STARD5 is a potential biomarker for diagnosis and prognosis of HCC. Using gene expression omnibus and the cancer genome atlas (TCGA) to screen differentially expressed genes in HCC and STARD5 was selected by LASSO algorithm. Then, we analyzed the association between STARD5 and clinical characteristics of HCC patients in TCGA and International Cancer Genome Consortium. Meanwhile, the mRNA and protein level of STARD5 was also verified by collecting 87 cases of HCC patients' liver tissues using qRT-PCR and WB. Next, we applied gene set enrichment analysis (GSEA) for pathways analysis of STARD5. Finally, TIMER1.0 and TISIDB were used to explore the correlation of STARD5 with immune cell infiltration. The expression of STARD5 was lower in HCC and negatively correlated with tumor grade (p < 0.05), while high expression of STARD5 suggested a better prognosis for HCC patients (p < 0.01) and it could be an independent prognostic predictor (p < 0.001). Meanwhile, STARD5 also had strong diagnostic accuracy for HCC patients. GSEA revealed that STARD5-related genes were mainly enriched in E2F targets, G2M checkpoint and KRAS signaling. The TIMER1.0 and TISIDB databases found a negative correlation between STARD5 and tumor immune infiltrating cells. STARD5 could be used as a potential target for HCC diagnosis and prognosis.

Form of dietary selenium affects mRNA encoding interferon-stimulated and progesterone-induced genes in the bovine endometrium and conceptus length at maternal recognition of pregnancy

Widespread regions of the southeast United States have soils, and hence forages, deficient in selenium (Se), necessitating Se supplementation to grazing cattle for optimal immune function, growth, and fertility. We have reported that supplementation with an isomolar 1:1 mix (MIX) of inorganic (ISe) and organic (OSe) forms of Se increases early luteal phase (LP) concentrations of progesterone (P4) above that in cows on ISe or OSe alone. Increased early LP P4 advances embryonic development. Our objective was to determine the effects of the form of Se on the development of the bovine conceptus and the endometrium using targeted real-time PCR (qPCR) on day 17 of gestation, the time of maternal recognition of pregnancy (MRP). Angus-cross yearling heifers underwent 45-d Se-depletion then repletion periods, then at least 90 d of supplementation (TRT) with 35 ppm Se per day as either ISe (n = 10) or MIX (n = 10). Heifers were inseminated to a single sire after detected estrus (day 0). On day 17 of gestation, caruncular (CAR) and intercaruncular (ICAR) endometrial samples and the developing conceptus were recovered from pregnant heifers (ISe, n = 6 and MIX, n = 6). qPCR was performed to determine the relative abundance of targeted transcripts in CAR and ICAR samples, with the expression data subjected to one-way ANOVA to determine TRT effects. The effect of TRT on conceptus development was analyzed using a one-tailed Student's t-test. When compared with ISe-treated heifers, MIX heifers had decreased (P < 0.05) abundance of several P4-induced and interferon-stimulated mRNA transcripts, including IFIT3, ISG15, MX1, OAS2, RSAD2, DGAT2, FGF2 in CAR and DKK1 in ICAR samples and tended (P ≤ 0.10) to have decreased mRNA abundance of IRF1, IRF2, FOXL2, and PGR in CAR samples, and HOXA10 and PAQR7 in ICAR samples. In contrast, MIX-supplemented heifers had increased (P < 0.05) mRNA abundance of MSTN in ICAR samples and an increase in conceptus length (ISe: 17.45 ± 3.08 cm vs. MIX: 25.96 ± 3.95 cm; P = 0.05). Notably, myostatin increases glucose secretion into histotroph and contributes to advanced conceptus development. This advancement in conceptus development occurred in the presence of similar concentrations of serum P4 (P = 0.88) and whole blood Se (P = 0.07) at MRP.

Characterization of 2,2'4,4'-Tetrabromodiphenyl ether (BDE47)-induced testicular toxicity via single-cell RNA-sequencing

Background

The growing male reproductive diseases have been linked to higher exposure to certain environmental compounds such as 2,2′,4,4′-tetrabromodiphenyl ether (BDE47) that are widely distributed in the food chain. However, the specific underlying molecular mechanisms for BDE47-induced male reproductive toxicity are not completely understood.

Methods

Here, for the first time, advanced single-cell RNA sequencing (ScRNA-seq) was employed to dissect BDE47-induced prepubertal testicular toxicity in mice from a pool of 76 859 cells.

Results

Our ScRNA-seq results revealed shared and heterogeneous information of differentially expressed genes, signaling pathways, transcription factors, and ligands-receptors in major testicular cell types in mice upon BDE47 treatment. Apart from disruption of hormone homeostasis, BDE47 was discovered to downregulate multiple previously unappreciated pathways such as double-strand break repair and cytokinesis pathways, indicative of their potential roles involved in BDE47-induced testicular injury. Interestingly, transcription factors analysis of ScRNA-seq results revealed that Kdm5b (lysine-specific demethylase 5B), a key transcription factor required for spermatogenesis, was downregulated in all germ cells as well as in Sertoli and telocyte cells in BDE47-treated testes of mice, suggesting its contribution to BDE47-induced impairment of spermatogenesis.

Conclusions

Overall, for the first time, we established the molecular cell atlas of mice testes to define BDE47-induced prepubertal testicular toxicity using the ScRNA-seq approach, providing novel insight into our understanding of the underlying mechanisms and pathways involved in BDE47-associated testicular injury at a single-cell resolution. Our results can serve as an important resource to further dissect the potential roles of BDE47, and other relevant endocrine-disrupting chemicals, in inducing male reproductive toxicity.

Hormonal and Genetic Regulatory Events in Breast Cancer and Its Therapeutics: Importance of the Steroidogenic Acute Regulatory Protein

Estrogen promotes the development and survival of the majority of breast cancers (BCs). Aromatase is the rate-limiting enzyme in estrogen biosynthesis, and it is immensely expressed in both cancerous and non-cancerous breast tissues. Endocrine therapy based on estrogen blockade, by aromatase inhibitors, has been the mainstay of BC treatment in post-menopausal women; however, resistance to hormone therapy is the leading cause of cancer death. An improved understanding of the molecular underpinnings is the key to develop therapeutic strategies for countering the most prevalent hormone receptor positive BCs. Of note, cholesterol is the precursor of all steroid hormones that are synthesized in a variety of tissues and play crucial roles in diverse processes, ranging from organogenesis to homeostasis to carcinogenesis. The rate-limiting step in steroid biosynthesis is the transport of cholesterol from the outer to the inner mitochondrial membrane, a process that is primarily mediated by the steroidogenic acute regulatory (StAR) protein. Advances in genomic and proteomic technologies have revealed a dynamic link between histone deacetylases (HDACs) and StAR, aromatase, and estrogen regulation. We were the first to report that StAR is abundantly expressed, along with large amounts of 17β-estradiol (E2), in hormone-dependent, but not hormone-independent, BCs, in which StAR was also identified as a novel acetylated protein. Our in-silico analyses of The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) datasets, for StAR and steroidogenic enzyme genes, revealed an inverse correlation between the amplification of the StAR gene and the poor survival of BC patients. Additionally, we reported that a number of HDAC inhibitors, by altering StAR acetylation patterns, repress E2 synthesis in hormone-sensitive BC cells. This review highlights the current understanding of molecular pathogenesis of BCs, especially for luminal subtypes, and their therapeutics, underlining that StAR could serve not only as a prognostic marker, but also as a therapeutic candidate, in the prevention and treatment of this life-threatening disease.

Knowledge Gap in Understanding the Steroidogenic Acute Regulatory Protein Regulation in Steroidogenesis Following Exposure to Bisphenol A and Its Analogues

The use of bisphenols has become extremely common in our daily lives. Due to the extensive toxic effects of Bisphenol A (BPA), the industry has replaced this endocrine-disrupting chemical (EDC) with its analogues, which have been proven to decrease testosterone levels via several mechanisms, including targeting the steroidogenic acute regulatory (StAR) protein. However, when exposed to BPA and its analogues, the specific mechanism that emerges to target StAR protein regulations remains uncertain. Hence, this review discusses the effects of BPA and its analogues in StAR protein regulation by targeting cAMP-PKA, PLC-PKC, EGFR-MAPK/ERK and Ca²⁺-Nur77. BPA and its analogues mainly lead to decreased LH in blood and increased ERK expression and Ca²⁺ influx, with no relationship with the StAR protein regulation in testicular steroidogenesis. Furthermore, the involvement of the cAMP-PKA, PLC-PKC, and Nur77 molecules in StAR regulation in Leydig cells exposed to BPA and its analogues remains questionable. In conclusion, although BPA and its analogues have been found to disrupt the StAR protein, the evidence in connecting the signaling pathways with the StAR regulations in testicular steroidogenesis is still lacking, and more research is needed to draw a solid conclusion.

Effects of Phthalate Mixtures on Ovarian Folliculogenesis and Steroidogenesis

The female reproductive system is dependent upon the health of the ovaries. The ovaries are responsible for regulating reproduction and endocrine function. Throughout a female’s reproductive lifespan, the ovaries undergo continual structural changes that are crucial for the maturation of ovarian follicles and the production of sex steroid hormones. Phthalates are known to target the ovaries at critical time points and to disrupt normal reproductive function. The US population is constantly exposed to measurable levels of phthalates. Phthalates can also pass placental barriers and affect the developing offspring. Phthalates are frequently prevalent as mixtures; however, most previous studies have focused on the effects of single phthalates on the ovary and female reproduction. Thus, the effects of exposure to phthalate mixtures on ovarian function and the female reproductive system remain unclear. Following a brief introduction to the ovary and its major roles, this review covers what is currently known about the effects of phthalate mixtures on the ovary, focusing primarily on their effects on folliculogenesis and steroidogenesis. Furthermore, this review focuses on the effects of phthalate mixtures on female reproductive outcomes. Finally, this review emphasizes the need for future research on the effects of environmentally relevant phthalate mixtures on the ovary and female reproduction.

Effects of Iron Supplementation on Testicular Function and Spermatogenesis of Iron-Deficient Rats

Iron deficiency is the most common micronutrient deficiency in the world. Previous studies have shown that iron deficiency increases oxidative stress and decreases antioxidant enzymes, and studies of male infertility indicated that oxidative stress may affect male reproductive functions. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of iron supplementation on spermatogenesis and testicular functions in iron-deficient rats. Three-week-old male Sprague Dawley (SD) rats were randomly divided into two groups: an iron-adequate control (AI group, 35 ppm FeSO4) and an iron-deficient group (ID group, <5 ppm FeSO4). After three weeks, the iron-deficient group was divided into an original iron-deficient group and five iron-supplemented groups, the latter fed diets containing different doses of FeSO4 (6, 12, 18, 24, and 35 ppm). After five weeks, blood and testis tissue were analyzed. We presented as median (interquartile range, IQR) for continuous measurements and compared their differences using the Kruskal−Wallis test followed by the Mann−Whitney U test among groups. The results showed that as compared with the AI group, the ID group had significantly lower serum testosterone and poorer spermatogenesis (The medians (QR) were 187.4 (185.6−190.8) of AI group vs. 87.5 (85.7−90.4) of ID group in serum testosterone, p < 0.05; 9.3 (8.8−10.6) of AI group vs. 4.9 (3.4−5.4) of ID group in mean testicular biopsy score (MTBS], p < 0.05); iron supplementation reversed the impairment of testis tissue. In the testosterone biosynthesis pathway, iron supplementation improved the lowered protein expressions of hydroxysteroid dehydrogenases caused by iron deficiency. Additionally, decreased activities of glutathione peroxidase and catalase, and increased cleaved-caspase 8 and caspase 3 expression, were found in the iron-deficient rats. The iron-supplemented rats that received > 12 ppm FeSO4 exhibited improvements in antioxidant levels. In conclusion, iron supplementation can abrogate testis dysfunction due to iron deficiency through regulation of the testicular antioxidant capacity.

Beneficial effects of roots of Argyreia nervosa (Brum.f.) Bojer on testosterone biosynthesis in testis and spermatogenesis in Wistar rats

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Roots of Argyreia nervosa (Burm.f.) Bojer is used traditionally as an aphrodisiac and mentioned in the indigenous system of medicine as spermatogenic. The roots of the plant are also used as bitter, tonic, and alternative.

AIM OF THE STUDY

To study the effect of n-butanol fraction (BTF) and ethyl acetate fraction (ETF) of methanol extract prepared from the roots of Argyreia nervosa and scopoletin isolated from ETF on testosterone biosynthesis in testis and spermatogenesis using rats.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The effect of BTF, ETF, and scopoletin on the testosterone biosynthesis was evaluated by determining the alteration in expression of mRNA corresponding to steroidogenic enzymes and concentration of testosterone using TM-3 cell line. The ability of BTF and ETF in altering the level of testicular cholesterol and testosterone along with mRNA expression corresponding to 3β-Hydroxy-Δ⁵-steroid dehydrogenase (3β-HSD) and Acute Steroid Regulatory Protein (StAR) was evaluated using rats as experimental animals. The sperm concentration in the seminal fluid was determined, and histological studies of testicular tissues were also carried out.

RESULTS

Test solutions containing BTF, ETF, and scopoletin showed a dose-dependent and statistically significant increase in the testosterone content when incubated with TM-3 cells. The test solutions also increased the fold expression of mRNA corresponding to StAR and 3β-HSD enzymes from TM-3 cells. BTF and ETF elevated testicular testosterone levels by 3.57 and 3.84-fold as compared to control animals, while the fractions showed 9.04 and 10.41-fold alteration in expression of mRNA corresponding to StAR, respectively. BTF and ETF altered the expression of mRNA corresponding to 3β-HSD by 13.43 and 15.04-fold in testicular tissues; moreover, they elevated the activity of 3β-HSD by 7.11 and 7.73 fold, respectively. The animals treated with BTF and ETF showed increased sperm concentration. Histological observations showed that the lumen of seminiferous tubules was densely populated with spermatozoa and Leydig cells were intensely stained. Extract prepared from fruits of Tribulus terrestris Linn and testosterone served as positive controls.

CONCLUSION

BTF, ETF, and scopoletin could promote testosterone biosynthesis by elevating mRNA expression corresponding to StAR, 3β-HSD, and by increasing 3β-HSD activity in the testicular tissues. Elevated testosterone concentration in testis promoted spermatogenesis. The studies provided the probable mechanism through which the roots of A. nervosa act as spermatogenic.