Formation, Mitigation, and Detection of Acrylamide in Foods

Prediction acrylamide contents in fried dough twist based on the application of artificial neural network

Acrylamide forms through the reaction between reducing sugars and asparagine in the thermal processing of food. Detection measures like LC-MS, HPLC are time-consuming and costly, which inspired us to use back propagation-artificial neural networks (BP-ANN) based on a genetic algorithm to establish an acrylamide prediction model in fried dough twist. The effects of frying time and temperature on acrylamide contents, as well as the color difference and acid value at different time and temperature were determined. Acrylamide content was found significantly correlated with temperature (P < 0.01) and was correlated with acid value and color difference (P < 0.05). Thus, temperature, acid value, and the color difference were set as input layers, and acrylamide content was set as an output layer to establish a BP-ANN network prediction model. The weight and threshold values in the BP-ANN network prediction model were optimized with a multi-population genetic algorithm and the test data were set to obtain an optimized BP neural network predicting model. The results showed that the Levenberg-Marquardt back-propagation training algorithm of the BP-ANN model with 5 hidden layer neurons and 0.005 learning rate was the best predictive performance, which the correlation coefficients (R) of test and validation were 0.9640 and 0.8999, suggesting a good fitting and strong approximation ability. The BP-ANN model is expected to accurately predict the content of acrylamide in fried dough twist.

Unlocking the potential health improving properties of sprouted wheat

Sprouting can enhance the bioavailability and stimulate the production of health-promoting compounds. This research explored the potential health benefits of wheat sprouting, focusing on underexplored areas in existing literature such as alterations in phenylalanine ammonia-lyase (PAL) activity and glutathione levels during wheat sprouting. Furthermore, special attention was directed toward asparagine (Asn), the main precursor of acrylamide formation, as regulatory agencies are actively seeking to impose limitations on the presence of acrylamide in baked products. The results demonstrate elevated levels of PAL (4.5-fold at 48 h of sprouting), antioxidants, and total phenolics (1.32 mg gallic acid equivalent/g dry matter at 72 h of sprouting), coupled with a reduction in Asn (i.e. 11-fold at 48 h of sprouting) and glutathione concentrations, after wheat sprouting. These findings suggest that sprouting can unlock health-promoting properties in wheat. Optimizing the sprouting process to harness these benefits, however, may have implications for the techno-functionality of wheat flour in food processing.

Traditional food processing and Acrylamide formation: A review

Tradition methods that are applied for the processing of food commonly use relatively high temperature and long cooking time for the preparation of foods. This relatively high temperature and long processing time of foods especially in the presence of carbohydrate is highly associated with the formation of acrylamide. Acrylamide is a process contaminant that is highly toxic to humans and remains as a global issue. The occurrence of acrylamide in traditional foods is a major public health problem. Studies that are conducted in different countries indicated that traditionally processed foods are highly linked to the formation of acrylamide. Therefore, understanding the factors influencing acrylamide formation during traditional food processing techniques is crucial for ensuring food safety and minimizing exposure to this harmful chemical compound. Several research reports indicate that proper food processing is the most effective solution to address food safety concerns by identifying foods susceptible to acrylamide formation. This review aims to provide an overview of traditional food processing techniques and their potential contribution to the formation acrylamide and highlight the importance of mitigating its formation in food products. The information obtained in this review may be of great value to future researchers, policymakers, society, and manufacturers.

Acrylamide in food products and the role of electrochemical biosensors in its detection: a comprehensive review

In this review, the mechanisms of acrylamide formation in food, along with aspects related to its toxicity and associated consumption risks, are investigated, highlighting the potential impact on human health. European regulations regarding acrylamide content in food products are also addressed, emphasizing the importance of monitoring and detecting this substance in nutrition, by public health protection measures. The primary objective of the research is to explore and analyze innovative methods for detecting acrylamide in food, with a particular focus on electrochemical biosensors. This research direction is motivated by the need to develop rapid, sensitive, and efficient monitoring techniques for this toxic compound in food products, considering the associated consumption risks. The research has revealed several significant results. Studies have shown that electrochemical biosensors based on hemoglobin exhibited increased sensitivity and low detection limits, capable of detecting very low concentrations of acrylamide in processed foods. Additionally, it has been found that the use of functionalized nanomaterials, such as carbon nanotubes and gold nanoparticles, has led to the improvement of electrochemical biosensor performance in acrylamide detection. The integration of these technological innovations and functionalization strategies has enhanced the sensitivity, specificity, and stability of biosensors in measuring acrylamides. Thus, the results of this research offer promising perspectives for the development of precise and efficient methods for monitoring acrylamides in food, contributing to the improvement of food quality control and the protection of consumer health.

Acrylamide in starchy foods subjected to deep-frying, 20 years after its discovery (2002-2022): a patent review

On the occasion of the 20th anniversary of the discovery of acrylamide in food, an analysis of patents related to the mitigation of this compound in food products obtained through immersion frying was carried out. For this purpose, a comprehensive search, compilation, and information analysis were conducted using free online databases such as Google Patents, Patenscope, and Lens. The search yielded a total of 79 patents within the considered time period (2002-2022). The countries with the highest number of granted patents were the United States, the European Union, and South Korea. The patents were classified into four main approaches: raw material modification (49%), application of pre-treatments (27%), process modification (16%), and measurement techniques (8%). Among the results, Frito-Lay, an American company, stands out as the food industry company with the highest number of granted patents, totaling 15. Based on this review, it is concluded that while a significant number of patents have been granted in recent years, there is still a lag in developing countries. Furthermore, more studies are needed to determine acrylamide in starchy food matrices subjected to immersion frying different from potatoes.

Dissecting Maillard reaction production in fried foods: Formation mechanisms, sensory characteristic attribution, control strategy, and gut homeostasis regulation

Foods rich in carbohydrates or fats undergo the Maillard reaction during frying, which promotes the color, flavor and sensory characteristics formation. In the meanwhile, Maillard reaction intermediates and advanced glycation end products (AGEs) have a negative impact on food sensory quality and gut homeostasis. This negative effect can be influenced by food composition and other processing factors. Whole grain products are rich in polyphenols, which can capture carbonyl compounds in Maillard reaction, and reduce the production of AGEs during frying. This review summarizes the Maillard reaction production intermediates and AGEs formation mechanism in fried food and analyzes the factors affecting the sensory formation of food. In the meanwhile, the effects of Maillard reaction intermediates and AGEs on gut homeostasis were summarized. Overall, the innovative processing methods about the Maillard reaction are summarized to optimize the sensory properties of fried foods while minimizing the formation of AGEs.

The Ethiopian snack food ('Kolo'): Existing knowledge and research directions on processing practices, quality and consumption

'Kolo' is an Ethiopian well-roasted and dehulled barely snack food eaten alone or mixed with other roasted grains with a relatively long shelf life. It is an ancient and staple Ethiopian snack food that is being introduced around the globe. Traditionally, Kolo has been prepared by Ethiopian mothers. However, there is a scarcity of documented information about the nutritional profile, consumption status and effect of processing conditions on quality of Kolo. Therefore, the aim of this review is to access the indigenous processing practices, consumption status and the effect of processing conditions in quality of Kolo. The review discussed in detail the raw materials, processing steps, nutritional status, anti-nutritional factors, digestability and functional properties of Kolo from publications from the last thirty years. Due to the high temperature processing condition, the presence of acrylamide is highly likely and this may affect the safety of Kolo. The anti-nutritional factors in Kolo may affect the nutritional quality of Kolo due to the inaccessibility of nutrients. This information could have a significant contribution for future researchers, policy makers, society and producers. In conclusion, there is a need to get more tangible information about the quality and safety of Kolo through well designed scientific research to safeguard the wellbeing of the society.

Acrylamide in potato chips in Iran, health risk assessment and mitigation

This study aimed to determine the acrylamide content in potato chips sold in Kermanshah, Iran and assess the potential health concerns associated with acrylamide exposure. HPLC-DAD was used to analyse 120 samples across 40 brands. The possible non-carcinogenic risk index for adults was below 1 for all 40 brands (100%), but for children it was only below 1 for 9 brands (22.5%) and above 1 for 31 brands (77.5%). Regarding the possible carcinogenic risk index, for adults only 1 out of 40 brands rated > 10-4, whereas for children all brands rated > 10-4. This shows that children's exposure to acrylamide through potato chips consumption in Kermanshah can be considered a risk on cancer and exposure of adults requires attention and monitoring. The best way to reduce acrylamide in potato chips and associated health risks is to improve the production process, especially temperature and time.

Impact of the Temperature Reconditioning of Cold-Stored Potatoes on the Color of Potato Chips and French Fries

The effect of temperature reconditioning on cold-stored potato tubers was investigated for three popularly consumed potato varieties (Shangi, Unica, and Dutch robjin) grown in Kenya. The potatoes were stored at 4 °C for 30 days, followed by removal and storage at 22 ± 3 °C for 9 days during which changes in sugar concentration were evaluated every two days. In parallel, potato chips and French fries were processed, and their colors were determined. The results showed that sugar content decreased significantly with increasing reconditioning time. The relative decrease in fructose content was the highest (p < 0.05) in Dutch robjin (57.49%), followed by Shangi (49.22%) and Unica (38.18%). Glucose content decreased by 54.1% in Dutch robjin, 49.5% in Shangi, and 50.8% in Unica. The lightness (L*) of French fries and chips increased significantly (p < 0.05) with reconditioning time while the redness (a*) values decreased significantly (p < 0.05) across all varieties. The correlation between lightness and the total reducing sugar content of the potatoes was r < -0.93, indicating a strong negative correlation for both products. The coefficient of determination showed that the glucose content of the tubers accounted for 80.5-97.6% of the lightness of French fries and 88.4-94.2% for potato chips. The critical glucose content range for acceptable products in French fries and chips based on the color (L* and a*) values was 12-22 mg/100g and 8-14 mg/100g, respectively, for the varieties in this study.

Capillary electromigration methods for food analysis and Foodomics: Advances and applications in the period March 2021 to March 2023

This work presents a revision of the main applications of capillary electromigration (CE) methods in food analysis and Foodomics. Papers that were published during the period March 2021 to March 2023 are included. The work shows the multiple CE methods that have been developed and applied to analyze different types of molecules in foods and beverages. Namely, CE methods have been applied to analyze amino acids, biogenic amines, heterocyclic amines, peptides, proteins, phenols, polyphenols, pigments, lipids, carbohydrates, vitamins, DNAs, contaminants, toxins, pesticides, additives, residues, small organic and inorganic compounds, and other minor compounds. In addition, new CE procedures to perform chiral separation and for evaluating the effects of food processing as well as the last developments of microchip CE and new applications in Foodomics will be also discussed. The new procedures of CE to investigate food quality and safety, nutritional value, storage, and bioactivity are also included in the present review work.

Acrylamide; a neurotoxin in popcorns: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Acrylamide is a known neurotoxic compound for humans. Foods that have high concentrations of acrylamide need to be identified. One of the food products containing acrylamide is popcorn. Popcorn is an important source of snacks for children, especially students. The presented study is a systematic review and meta-analysis of the level of acrylamide in popcorn. The search was done in different databases with the keywords; acrylamide, popcorn, popped corn. 27 articles were found by searching various databases. After initial screening and full text evaluation, 8 articles were selected for systematic review and 6 articles for meta-analysis. The amount of acrylamide in this product was in the range of 1,017.7-106 μg/kg. Microwaved corn contains lower amounts of acrylamide than other methods of preparation. The type of popcorn also had an effect on the amount of acrylamide with Meta-regression. It was found that sweet popcorn contains higher amounts of acrylamide. The overall value of acrylamide concentration in popcorns was calculated to be 459.6 ± 220.3 μg/kg. This amount is high and requires measures to reduce the amount of acrylamide.

The Improved Quality of Gluten-Free Bread Due to the Use of Flaxseed Oil Cake: A Comprehensive Study Evaluating Nutritional Value, Technological Properties, and Sensory Quality

The development of gluten-free bakery products, the quality of which is comparable to the quality of regular wheat-based products, remains a technological challenge. In this study, flaxseed oil cake (FOC), a by-product of flaxseed oil extraction and a source of nutritional and functional compounds, was used as an ingredient in the experimental bread formulation as partial replacement of starches (5%, 15%, and 30%). The gluten-free breads (GFBs) were evaluated for technological parameters, nutritional value, and sensory quality. Compared with the control, all FOC-enhanced GFBs were significantly (p < 0.05) richer in proteins, fat, and dietary fibre, with an increase that was proportional to the concentration of FOC in the formulation. At low-to-moderate levels (5% and 15%), FOC improved the specific volume, texture characteristics (reduced crumb hardness, gumminess, and chewiness), and appearance of GFBs, which allowed us to ameliorate its sensory features, but at 30% of FOC, the quality of the crumb texture decreased significantly (p < 0.005). Among the experimental GFBs, FOC15% exhibited improved technological characteristics and was rated by the sensory panel as the best in terms of overall quality. The results of the conducted research highlighted the benefits of incorporating FOC into GFB as a promising approach to developing a palatable, high-quality bakery product that may be a healthier option for individuals on a gluten-free diet, offering nutritional benefits. Nevertheless, it should be emphasised that the amount of FOC in GFB requires careful regulation.

Study the interaction of amino acids, sugars, thermal treatment and cooking technique on the formation of acrylamide in potato models

This study unveiled the effect of the suspected precursors of acrylamide (asparagine, glutamine) combined/separated with different formulations of glucose, fructose, and sucrose. To better understand the interaction between acrylamide precursors, cooking technique (deep vs air frying), and temperature (170 °C vs 190 °C), seven potato models from starch, sugars, amino acids, water and hydrocolloids (alginate and agar) were formulated. In line with previous findings, the present results showed that asparagine, glucose and fructose played an important role in acrylamide formation in these synthetic potato models. Furthermore, glutamine and sodium alginate might have an inhibitory effect on acrylamide formation. A significant impact of frying technique was also revealed. On the other hand, GC-FID analysis detected acrylamide in only these three models, (glucose-fructose, sucrose and asparagine-glucose/fructose/sucrose models > LOD 333.33 µg.kg^-1).

Diet as a Source of Acrolein: Molecular Basis of Aldehyde Biological Activity in Diabetes and Digestive System Diseases

Acrolein, a highly reactive α,β-unsaturated aldehyde, is a compound involved in the pathogenesis of many diseases, including neurodegenerative diseases, cardiovascular and respiratory diseases, diabetes mellitus, and the development of cancers of various origins. In addition to environmental pollution (e.g., from car exhaust fumes) and tobacco smoke, a serious source of acrolein is our daily diet and improper thermal processing of animal and vegetable fats, carbohydrates, and amino acids. Dietary intake is one of the main routes of human exposure to acrolein, which is a major public health concern. This review focuses on the molecular mechanisms of acrolein activity in the context of its involvement in the pathogenesis of diseases related to the digestive system, including diabetes, alcoholic liver disease, and intestinal cancer.

Screening of Acrylamide Content in Commercial Plant-Based Protein Ingredients from Different Technologies

The demand of plant-based protein ingredients (PBPIs) in the food sector has strongly increased over recent years. These ingredients are produced under a wide range of technological processes that impact their final characteristics. This work aimed to evaluate acrylamide contamination in a range of PBPIs produced with different technologies and classified into four categories i.e., flours, dry-fractionated proteins, wet-extracted proteins, and texturized vegetable proteins. The results highlighted a remarkable variability in the acrylamide contamination in all the classes under investigation, with the flours showing the lowest mean acrylamide content (280 µg kg^-1) compared with the wet-extracted proteins that showed the highest (451 µg kg^-1). These differences could likely be associated with the different processing technologies used to obtain the protein ingredients. These findings suggest the need to monitor acrylamide formation during the processing of PBPIs and, consequently, to study mitigation strategies when necessary.

Efficient optimization and development of two methods for the determination of acrylamide in deep-frying oil by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry: Application of multifactor analysis assessment strategy

A new multifactor analysis assessment strategy was developed for evaluating, optimizing, and comparing analytical techniques for acrylamide in frying oils. Based on five indices (absolute recovery, absolute matrix effect, the intensity of the full ion scan, and the precursor ion scan to m/z 184 and m/z 241), the proposed strategy was performed with radar analysis, relative contribution analysis, and the entropy-weighted technique for order performance by similarity to ideal solution analysis. Two novel methods based on quick, easy, cheap, effective, rugged, and safe extraction methodology and gel permeation chromatography-liquid-liquid extraction followed by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry have been developed for the analysis of acrylamide in frying oils. Two methods were suitable for rapid and sensitive analysis of acrylamide in oils in different laboratories, with a limit of quantitation at 2 μg/kg, and the average recovery ranging from 92.5% to 107.8%, with relative standard deviations below 10%. When considering automation efficiency and matrix effects, gel permeation chromatography is the most efficient method, whereas the other method has an advantage when analyzing large samples. The developed methods were used in a pilot study to analyze frying oils with acrylamide content below 9.82 μg/kg, showing that the repeated frying process did not produce significant content of acrylamide in oils.

Potential of Low Cost Agro-Industrial Wastes as a Natural Antioxidant on Carcinogenic Acrylamide Formation in Potato Fried Chips

Acrylamide is classified as a toxic and a prospective carcinogen to humans, and it is formed during thermal process via Maillard reaction. In order to find innovative ways to diminish acrylamide formation in potato chips, several extracts of agricultural wastes including potato peels, olive leaves, lemon peels and pomegranate peels extracts were examined as a soaking pre-treatment before frying step. Total phenolic, total flavonoids, antioxidant activity, and the reduction in sugar and asparagine contents were additionally performed. Proximate composition of these wastes was found to be markedly higher in fat, carbohydrate and ash contents. Lemon peels and potato peels showed almost similar phenolic content (162 ± 0.93 and 157 ± 0.88 mg GAE /g, respectively) and exhibited strong ABTS and DPPH radical scavenging activities than the other wastes. The reduction percentage of reducing sugars and asparagine after soaking treatment ranged from 28.70 to 39.57% and from 22.71 to 29.55%, respectively. HPLC results showed higher level of acrylamide formation in control sample (104.94 mg/kg) and by using the wastes extracts of lemon peels, potato peels, olive leaves, and pomegranate peels succeeded to mitigate acrylamide level by 86.11%, 69.66%, 34.03%, and 11.08%, respectively. Thus, it can be concluded that the soaking of potato slices in the tested wastes extracts as antioxidant as pre-treatment before frying reduces the formation of acrylamide and in this way, the risks connected to acrylamide consumption could be regulated and managed.