Inhibitory effects of bee venom and its components against viruses in vitro and in vivo

Immunomodulatory activities and biomedical applications of melittin and its recent advances

Melittin (MLT), a peptide containing 26 amino acids, is a key constituent of bee venom. It comprises ∼40%-60% of the venom's dry weight and is the main pricing index for bee venom, being the causative factor of pain. The unique properties of MLT extracted from bee venom have made it a very valuable active ingredient in the pharmaceutical industry as this cationic and amphipathic peptide has propitious effects on human health in diverse biological processes. It has the ability to strongly impact the membranes of cells and display hemolytic activity with anticancer characteristics. However, the clinical application of MLT has been limited by its severe hemolytic activity, which poses a challenge for therapeutic use. By employing more efficient mechanisms, such as modifying the MLT sequence, genetic engineering, and nano-delivery systems, it is anticipated that the limitations posed by MLT can be overcome, thereby enabling its wider application in therapeutic contexts. This review has outlined recent advancements in MLT's nano-delivery systems and genetically engineered cells expressing MLT and provided an overview of where the MLTMLT's platforms are and where they will go in the future with the challenges ahead. The focus is on exploring how these approaches can overcome the limitations associated with MLT's hemolytic activity and improve its selectivity and efficacy in targeting cancer cells. These advancements hold promise for the creation of innovative and enhanced therapeutic approaches based on MLT for the treatment of cancer.

Plantar warts successfully treated with bee venom: A case report

BACKGROUND

Plantar warts, or verruca plantaris, are common cutaneous lesions of the plantar surface caused by the human papilloma virus (HPV) infection. Current treatments include salicylic acid, cryotherapy, bleomycin, and immunotherapy; however, they have limitations of low-cure rates or side effects. Plantar warts treated with bee venom (BV) have not been reported. Here we present a case of a patient who showed complete remission of multiple plantar warts after BV treatment.

CASE PRESENTATION

A 13-year-old boy experienced total of 16 plantar warts and visited department of dermatology of Korean Medicine. BV was injected into wart sites. Warts were completely removed at the end of the 8-week treatment with no adverse event recorded. There was improvement during the follow-up after 4 weeks.

CONCLUSION

This is the first case of plantar warts that improved with BV injection. This study suggests that BV may be a therapeutic option for individuals who cannot receive cryotherapy due to pain during and after treatment or who have refractory or relapsed warts.

Anti-Herpes Simplex Virus and Anti-Inflammatory Activities of the Melittin Peptides Derived from Apis mellifera and Apis florea Venom

Herpes simplex virus (HSV) is known to cause cold sores and various diseases in humans. Importantly, HSV infection can develop latent and recurrent infections, and it is also known to cause inflammation. These infections are difficult to control, and effective treatment of the disease remains a challenge. Thus, the search for new antiviral and anti-inflammatory agents is a necessity. Melittin is a major peptide that is present in the venom of the honeybee. It possesses a number of pharmacological properties. In this study, the effects of the melittin peptides from A. mellifera (MEL-AM) and A. florea (MEL-AF) against HSV-1 and HSV-2 were evaluated at different stages during the viral multiplication cycle in an attempt to define the mode of antiviral action using plaque reduction and virucidal assays. The results revealed a new finding that melittin at 5 µg/mL demonstrated the highest inhibitory effect on HSV through the direct inactivation of viral particles, and MEL-AF displayed a greater virucidal activity. Moreover, melittin was also observed to interfere with the process of HSV attachment to the host cells. MEL-AM exhibited anti-HSV-1 and anti-HSV-2 effects with EC50 values of 4.90 ± 0.15 and 4.39 ± 0.20 µg/mL, while MEL-AF demonstrated EC50 values of 4.47 ± 0.21 and 3.95 ± 0.61 µg/mL against HSV-1 and HSV-2, respectively. However, non-cytotoxic concentrations of both types of melittin produced only slight degrees of HSV-1 and HSV-2 inhibition after viral attachment, but melittin at 5 µg/mL was able to reduce the plaque size of HSV-2 when compared to the untreated group. In addition, MEL-AM and MEL-AF also exhibited anti-inflammatory activity via the inhibition of nitric oxide production in LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 macrophage cells, and they were also found to down-regulate the expressions of the iNOS, COX-2 and IL-6 genes. The highest inhibition of IL-6 mRNA expression was found after treatment with 10 µg/mL of MEL-AM and MEL-AF. Therefore, melittin peptides have displayed strong potential to be used as an alternative treatment for HSV infection and inflammatory diseases in the future.

Bee venom: apitherapy and more

Honeybees are becoming increasingly familiar to the general population due to the growing popularity of backyard and amateur beekeeping. Although bee venom produces reactions ranging from mild local irritation to life-threatening anaphylaxis, it is also used for life-saving desensitization immunotherapy in those with severe reactions to bee stings. The use of honeybee venom for immunotherapy has increased due to an enhanced interest in natural therapeutics. Recently, honeybee venom has been administered as a successful, safe, and cost-effective treatment for rheumatoid arthritis, back pain, and skin diseases. During the past two decades, studies have tested honeybee venom's efficacy for treating various skin disorders, including atopic dermatitis, wound healing, and psoriasis. We will review bee venom from multiple perspectives, including its medical applications and mechanisms for dermatological pathologies.

Recent Advances in Enterovirus A71 Infection and Antiviral Agents

Enterovirus A71 (EV-A71) is one of the major causative agents of hand, foot, and mouth disease (HFMD) that majorly affects children. Most of the time, HFMD is a mild disease but can progress to severe complications, such as meningitis, brain stem encephalitis, acute flaccid paralysis, and even death. HFMD caused by EV-A71 has emerged as an acutely infectious disease of highly pathogenic potential in the Asia-Pacific region. In this review, we introduced the properties and life cycle of EV-A71, and the pathogenesis and the pathophysiology of EV-A71 infection, including tissue tropism and host range of virus infection, the diseases caused by the virus, as well as the genes and host cell immune mechanisms of major diseases caused by enterovirus 71 (EV-A71) infection, such as encephalitis and neurologic pulmonary edema. At the same time, clinicopathologic characteristics of EV-A71 infection were introduced. There is currently no specific medication for EV-A71 infection, highlighting the urgency and significance of developing suitable anti-EV-A71 agents. This overview also summarizes the targets of existing anti-EV-A71 agents, including virus entry, translation, polyprotein processing, replication, assembly and release; interferons; interleukins; the mitogen-activated protein kinase, phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase, and protein kinase B signaling pathways; the oxidative stress pathway; the ubiquitin-proteasome system; and so on. Furthermore, it overviews the effects of natural products, monoclonal antibodies, and RNA interference against EV-A71. It also discusses issues limiting the research of antiviral drugs. This review is a systematic and comprehensive summary of the mechanism and pathological characteristics of EV-A71 infection, the latest progress of existing anti-EV-A71 agents. It would provide better understanding and guidance for the research and application of EV-A71 infection and antiviral inhibitors.

The current landscape of the antimicrobial peptide melittin and its therapeutic potential

Melittin, a main component of bee venom, is a cationic amphiphilic peptide with a linear α-helix structure. It has been reported that melittin can exert pharmacological effects, such as antitumor, antiviral and anti-inflammatory effects in vitro and in vivo. In particular, melittin may be beneficial for the treatment of diseases for which no specific clinical therapeutic agents exist. Melittin can effectively enhance the therapeutic properties of some first-line drugs. Elucidating the mechanism underlying melittin-mediated biological function can provide valuable insights for the application of melittin in disease intervention. However, in melittin, the positively charged amino acids enables it to directly punching holes in cell membranes. The hemolysis in red cells and the cytotoxicity triggered by melittin limit its applications. Melittin-based nanomodification, immuno-conjugation, structural regulation and gene technology strategies have been demonstrated to enhance the specificity, reduce the cytotoxicity and limit the off-target cytolysis of melittin, which suggests the potential of melittin to be used clinically. This article summarizes research progress on antiviral, antitumor and anti-inflammatory properties of melittin, and discusses the strategies of melittin-modification for its future potential clinical applications in preventing drug resistance, enhancing the selectivity to target cells and alleviating cytotoxic effects to normal cells.

In-Ovo injection of melittin into Alexandria chicken eggs: a way for early immune acceleration

This study intended to assess the properties of in-ovo administration of Melittin (MLT) on hatchability, chick yield, hematology, immunological indices and relative organs weight of Alexandria chickens at hatch. A total of 600 eggs with an average weight of (45.12 g), were gathered and split into five groups: a non-injected group or negative control (NC), a saline injection group or positive control (PC), and three concentrations of MLT (5, 10 and 15 µg of MLT per egg, respectively). On day 18 of incubation, eggs from the injection groups were injected into the amniotic fluid from the large end with the in-ovo injection solutions (0.2 ml per egg). Results indicated that 10 µg MLT/egg positively affected the weight and yield of chicks. In addition, our findings indicated that the in-ovo administration with 10 or 15 µg MLT/egg was superior in most of the immunological indicators (spleen and bursa relative weights, immunoglobulins IgG and IgM, T cells and B cells). In conclusion, in order to improve the immune efficiency (early immune acceleration) of Alexandria chicks, which may contribute to offering a significant boost to their future performance, this study suggests injecting eggs with 5 or 10 µg MLT/egg.

Bee Venom and Its Two Main Components-Melittin and Phospholipase A2-As Promising Antiviral Drug Candidates

Viruses are known to infect most types of organisms. In humans, they can cause several diseases that range from mild to severe. Although many antiviral therapies have been developed, viral infections continue to be a leading cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide. Therefore, the discovery of new and effective antiviral agents is desperately needed. Animal venoms are a rich source of bioactive molecules found in natural goods that have been used since ancient times in alternative medicine to treat a variety of human diseases. Recently, and with the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic, scientists have regained their interest in the possible use of natural products, such as bee venom (BV), as a potential antiviral agent to treat viral infections. BV is known to exert many therapeutic activities such as anti-proliferative, anti-bacterial, and anti-inflammatory effects. However, there is limited discussion of the antiviral activity of BV in the literature. Therefore, this review aims to highlight the antiviral properties of BV and its two primary constituents, melittin (MEL) and phospholipase A2 (PLA2), against a variety of enveloped and non-enveloped viruses. Finally, the innovative strategies used to reduce the toxicity of BV and its two compounds for the development of new antiviral treatments are also considered.

Antiviral attributes of bee venom as a possible therapeutic approach against SARS-CoV-2 infection

The unprecedented scale of the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic has driven considerable investigation into novel antiviral treatments since effective vaccination strategies cannot completely eradicate the virus. Apitherapy describes the medicinal use of bee venom, which may be an effective treatment against SARS-CoV-2 infection. Bee venom contains chemicals that are antimicrobial and stimulate the immune system to counteract viral load. The present review focuses on the use of bee venom as a possible treatment for COVID-19 and reviews studies on the pharmacodynamics of bee venom.

Melittin-Related Peptides Interfere with Sandfly Fever Naples Virus Infection by Interacting with Heparan Sulphate

Emerging viruses pose an important global public health challenge, and early action is needed to control their spread. The Bunyaviridae family contains a great number of arboviruses which are potentially pathogenic for humans. For example, phleboviruses affect a large range of hosts, including humans and animals. Some infections usually have an asymptomatic course, but others lead to severe complications, such as Toscana virus, which is able to cause meningitis and encephalitis. Unfortunately, to date, no vaccines or antiviral treatments have been found. In the present study, we evaluated the effect of melittin-related peptides, namely the frog-derived RV-23 and AR-23, on sandfly fever Naples virus infection in vitro. Both peptides exhibited a strong antiviral activity by targeting the viral particles and blocking the virus-cell interaction. Their action was directed to an early phase of SFNV infection, in particular at viral adsorption on host cells, by interfering with the binding of common glycosaminoglycan receptors. Given the better antimicrobial behavior of AR-23 and RV-23 compared to melittin in terms of selectivity, our studies expand our understanding of the potential of these peptides as antimicrobials and stimulate further investigations in the direction of novel antiviral strategies against phlebovirus infection.

Insights into enterovirus a-71 antiviral development: from natural sources to synthetic nanoparticles

Enteroviruses are pathogens responsible for several diseases, being enterovirus A71 (EVA71) the second leading cause of hand, foot, and mouth disease (HFMD), especially in Asia-Pacific countries. HFMD is mostly common in infants and children, with mild symptoms. However, the disease can result in severe nervous system disorders in children as well as in immunosuppressed adults. The virus is highly contagious, and its transmission occurs via fecal-oral, oropharyngeal secretions, and fomites. The EVA71 burdens the healthy systems and economies around the world, however, up to date, there is no antiviral approved to treat infected individuals and the existent vaccines are not available or approved to be used worldwide. In this context, an extensive literature research was conducted to describe and summarize the recent advances in natural and/or synthetic compounds with antiviral activity against EVA71. The summarized data presented here might simply encourage the future studies in EVA71 antiviral development, by encouraging further research encompassing these compounds or even the application of the techniques and technologies to improve or produce new antiviral molecules.

Can Bee Venom Be Used as Anticancer Agent in Modern Medicine?

Honey bee venom in its composition contains many biologically active peptides and enzymes that are effective in the fight against diseases of various etiologies. The history of the use of bee venom for medicinal purposes dates back thousands of years. There are many reports in the literature on the pharmacological properties of bee venom and/or its main components, e.g., anti-arthritic, anti-inflammatory, anti-microbial or neuroprotective properties. In addition, both crude venom and melittin exhibit cytotoxic activity against a wide range of tumor cells, with significant anti-metastatic activity in pre-clinical studies. Due to the constantly increasing incidence of cancer, the development of new therapeutic strategies in oncology is a particular challenge for modern medicine. A review paper discusses the various properties of bee venom with an emphasis on its anticancer properties. For this purpose, the PubMed database was searched, and publications related to "bee", "venom", "cancer" from the last 10 years were selected.

Experimental envenomation with honeybee venom melittin and phospholipase A2 induced multiple ultrastructural changes in adrenocortical mitochondria

Bee stings represent a public health subject, but the mechanisms involved in bee venom toxicity are not yet fully understood. To evaluate the reactions of adrenocortical cells, through which organisms respond to stress, two honeybee venom components: melittin (Mlt) and phospholipase A2 (PLA2) were tested as potential chemical stressors. Modifications were investigated with transmission electron microscopy and microanalysis. A single dose of Mlt (31 mg/kg) or PLA2 (9.3 mg/kg) was injected in rats of groups ML and PL; daily doses of Mlt (350 μg/kg) or PLA2 (105 μg/kg) were injected 30 days in rats of groups M30 and P30. Adrenocortical cells in ML group showed ultrastructural degenerative alterations of nuclei, endoplasmic reticulum, and mitochondria that exhibited lipid inclusions and mitochondrial cristae (MC) re-organized into mono- or multimembrane large vesicles, and whorls of membranes. Many MC were degenerated. In the M30 group, similar ultrastructural changes, but of lower amplitude were noted; lipid cytosolic droplets were heterogenous. MC diameters in Mlt groups (melittin treated groups) were significantly higher than in control (C) group. In PL group, mitochondria contained large lipid inclusions, vesicular MC of different sizes and multiple membranes, and debris, or whorl structures. In P30 group MC were tubular with increased diameters. In both PLA2 groups (PLA2 treated groups) MC were significantly larger than in C group. We concluded that Mlt and PLA2 were powerful stressors, toxic at the tested doses, cellular reactions concerning in all groups mainly mitochondria, but also other cellular compartments. Apart from degenerative regression of MC, the rearrangement of tubular MC occurred into one or multiple large multimembrane vesicular MC. Reactions to the high doses were more pronounced, with the highest amplitude in ML group, and the lowest in P30 group.

Antimicrobial Activity of Apis mellifera Bee Venom Collected in Northern Peru

Due to the emergence of microorganisms resistant to antibiotics and the failure of antibiotic therapies, there is an urgent need to search for new therapeutic options, as well as new molecules with antimicrobial potential. The objective of the present study was to evaluate the in vitro antibacterial activity of Apis mellifera venom collected in the beekeeping areas of the city of Lambayeque in northern Peru against Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Staphylococcus aureus. Bee venom extraction was performed by electrical impulses and separated using the Amicon ultra centrifugal filter. Subsequently, the fractions were quantified by spectrometric 280 nm and evaluated under denaturant conditions in SDS-PAGE. The fractions were pitted against Escherichia coli ATCC 25922, Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 29213, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa ATCC 27853. A purified fraction (PF) of the venom of A. mellifera and three low molecular weight bands of 7 KDa, 6 KDa, and 5 KDa were identified that showed activity against E. coli with a MIC of 6.88 µg/mL, while for P. aeruginosa and S. aureus, it did not present a MIC. No hemolytic activity at a concentration lower than 15.6 µg/mL and no antioxidant activity. The venom of A. mellifera contains a potential presence of peptides and a predilection of antibacterial activity against E. coli.

Determination of the Effects of Bee Venom on Triple Negative Breast Cancer Cells in Vitro

Honeybees provide multiple products such as bee venom (BV) which are used for various nutritional and medicinal purposes. BV has received great attention due to its wide range of bioactive components with potential anti-cancer effects on different cancers. Triple negative breast cancer (TNBC) is defined as an aggressive type of breast cancer and new therapeutic targets are required for its treatment. In the current literature information is varied about the composition and quantity of BV bioactive compounds as well as the origin of BV and its significance. In this context, the cytotoxic and apoptotic effects of BV with a higher rate of mellitin from Apis mellifera anatoliaca (Muğla ecotype) on MDA-MB-231 cells was evaluated, in vitro. The cytotoxic, apoptotic and morphological effects of BV were determined by WST-1, Annexin V, cell cycle analysis and Acridine Orange staining. The results showed that BV caused apoptotic cell death in TNBC cells at a lower dose (0.47 μg/mL, p<0.01). This study suggests that BV could be developed as a potential therapeutic agent for cancer treatment. However, the mechanism of BV-induced apoptosis death should be clarified at the molecular level.

Therapeutic Use of Bee Venom and Potential Applications in Veterinary Medicine

Apitherapy is a branch of alternative medicine that consists of the treatment of diseases through products collected, processed, and secreted by bees, specifically pollen, propolis, honey, royal jelly, and bee venom. In traditional medicine, the virtues of honey and propolis have been well-known for centuries. The same, however, cannot be said for venom. The use of bee venom is particularly relevant for many therapeutic aspects. In recent decades, scientific studies have confirmed and enabled us to understand its properties. Bee venom has anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, central nervous system inhibiting, radioprotective, antibacterial, antiviral, and antifungal properties, among others. Numerous studies have often been summarised in reviews of the scientific literature that have focused on the results obtained with mouse models and their subsequent transposition to the human patient. In contrast, few reviews of scientific work on the use of bee venom in veterinary medicine exist. This review aims to take stock of the research achievements in this particular discipline, with a view to a recapitulation and stabilisation in the different research fields.

Antiviral Potential of Natural Resources against Influenza Virus Infections

Influenza is a severe contagious disease caused by influenza A and B viruses. The WHO estimates that annual outbreaks lead to 3-5 million severe infections of which approximately 10% lead to the death of the patient. While vaccination is the cornerstone of prevention, antiviral drugs represent the most important treatment option of acute infections. Only two classes of drugs are currently approved for the treatment of influenza in numerous countries: M2 channel blockers and neuraminidase inhibitors. In some countries, additional compounds such as the recently developed cap-dependent endonuclease inhibitor baloxavir marboxil or the polymerase inhibitor favipiravir are available. However, many of these compounds suffer from poor efficacy, if not applied early after infection. Furthermore, many influenza strains have developed resistances and lost susceptibility to these compounds. As a result, there is an urgent need to develop new anti-influenza drugs against a broad spectrum of subtypes. Natural products have made an important contribution to the development of new lead structures, particularly in the field of infectious diseases. Therefore, this article aims to review the research on the identification of novel lead structures isolated from natural resources suitable to treat influenza infections.

Synthesis of bee venom loaded chitosan nanoparticles for anti-MERS-COV and multi-drug resistance bacteria

This study aims to fully exploit the natural compound; bee venom (BV) as a substance that can kill and inhibit the growth of microbes and viruses. For this target, BV was loaded onto a safe, natural, and economically inexpensive polymer; chitosan (Ch) in its nano-size form prepared using ionic gelation method in the presence of chemical crosslinking agent (sodium tripolyphosphate; TPP). The findings illustrated that chitosan nanoparticles (ChNPs) were prepared thru this method and exhibited spherical shape and average hydrodynamic size of 202 nm with a polydispersity index (PDI = 0.44). However, the size was increased to 221 nm with PDI (0.37) when chitosan nanoparticles were loaded with BV (ChNC). In addition, the particles of BV appeared as a core and chitosan nanoparticles as a shell implying the successful preparation of nanocomposite (ChNC). Encapsulation of BV into ChNPs with significantly small size distribution and good stability that protect these formed nanocomposites from agglomeration. The cytopathic effect (CPE) inhibition assay was used to identify potential antivirals for Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV). The response of the dose study was designed to influence the range of effectiveness for the chosen antiviral, i.e., the 50 % inhibitory concentration (IC₅₀), as well as the range of cytotoxicity (CC₅₀). However, our results indicated that crude BV had mild anti-MERS-COV with selective index (SI = 4.6), followed by ChNPs that exhibited moderate anti-MERS-COV with SI = 8.6. Meanwhile. The nanocomposite of ChNC displayed a promising anti-MERS-COV with SI = 12.1. Additionally, the synthesized nanocomposite (ChNC) had greater antimicrobial activity against both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria when compared with ChNPs, BV or the utilized model drug.

Effect of honey bee venom on the histological changes of testes and hormonal disturbance in diabetic mice

Background and Aim:

Hyperglycemia associated with hyper- or hypo-insulinemia is a hallmark of type 2 diabetes mellitus, which is firmly linked to decreased male infertility. Recently, bee venom (BV) has shown potential health prosperities, including antidiabetic; however, no study focuses on the effect of BV on male fertility in diabetic conditions. This study aimed to detect the effect of BV on histological and hormonal alteration of the testis in diabetic mice.

Materials and Methods:

Twenty adult male mice were selected and assigned to four groups: Control, diabetic (150 mg/kg alloxan), BV1 (diabetic + 0.5 mg/kg BV), and BV2 (diabetic + 1 mg/kg BV). After 35 days, the serum levels of glucose, insulin, testosterone, follicular-stimulating hormone, luteinizing hormone, and prolactin were estimated. The histological structure of the testes was also evaluated.

Results:

Alloxan-induced hyperglycemia and decreased insulin concentrations were reversed significantly by BV. Furthermore, diabetic mice exhibited various alterations in fertility hormones, while these disturbances were improved considerably to normal concentrations by BV. Similarly, alloxan-induced changes in sperm and testis histological parameters such as motility, viability, abnormality, sperm count, the number and diameter of seminiferous tubules, and the number of Leydig and Sertoli cells were significantly ameliorated to the normal condition by BV. Changes in the number, size, and shape of seminiferous tubules, the number of Leydig and Sertoli cells, and initial degeneration and vacuolization in interstitial cells and spermatogonia and spermatocyte were seen in diabetic mice. All these changes were shifted almost to normal structure by BV.

Conclusion:

The BV could be used as an alternative therapeutic agent that manages the markers related to diabetic conditions concomitant with the improved histological structure of the testes and hormone production to accelerate male fertility.

General Nutritional Profile of Bee Products and Their Potential Antiviral Properties against Mammalian Viruses

Bee products have been extensively employed in traditional therapeutic practices to treat several diseases and microbial infections. Numerous bioactive components of bee products have exhibited several antibacterial, antifungal, antiviral, anticancer, antiprotozoal, hepatoprotective, and immunomodulatory properties. Apitherapy is a form of alternative medicine that uses the bioactive properties of bee products to prevent and/or treat different diseases. This review aims to provide an elaborated vision of the antiviral activities of bee products with recent advances in research. Since ancient times, bee products have been well known for their several medicinal properties. The antiviral and immunomodulatory effects of bee products and their bioactive components are emerging as a promising alternative therapy against several viral infections. Numerous studies have been performed, but many clinical trials should be conducted to evaluate the potential of apitherapy against pathogenic viruses. In that direction, here, we review and highlight the potential roles of bee products as apitherapeutics in combating numerous viral infections. Available studies validate the effectiveness of bee products in virus inhibition. With such significant antiviral potential, bee products and their bioactive components/extracts can be effectively employed as an alternative strategy to improve human health from individual to communal levels as well.

Animal venoms as a source of antiviral peptides active against arboviruses: a systematic review

Arthropod-borne viruses (arboviruses), such as Zika virus (ZIKV), chikungunya virus (CHIKV), dengue virus (DENV), yellow fever virus (YFV), and West Nile virus (WNV), are pathogens of global importance. Therefore, there has been an increasing need for new drugs for the treatment of these viral infections. In this context, antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) obtained from animal venoms stand out as promising compounds because they exhibit strong antiviral activity against emerging arboviral pathogens. Thus, we systematically searched and critically analyzed in vitro and in vivo studies that evaluated the anti-arbovirus effect of peptide derivatives from toxins produced by vertebrates and invertebrates. Thirteen studies that evaluated the antiviral action of 10 peptides against arboviruses were included in this review. The peptides were derived from the venom of scorpions, spiders, wasps, snakes, sea snails, and frogs and were tested against DENV, ZIKV, YFV, WNV, and CHIKV. Despite the high structural variety of the peptides included in this study, their antiviral activity appears to be associated with the presence of positive charges, an excess of basic amino acids (mainly lysine), and a high isoelectric point (above 8). These peptides use different antiviral mechanisms, the most common of which is the inhibition of viral replication, release, entry, or fusion. Moreover, peptides with virucidal and cytoprotective (pre-treatment) effects were also identified. In conclusion, animal-venom-derived peptides stand out as a promising alternative in the search and development of prototype antivirals against arboviruses.

Reptiles as Promising Sources of Medicinal Natural Products for Cancer Therapeutic Drugs

Natural products have historically played an important role as a source of therapeutic drugs for various diseases, and the development of medicinal natural products is still a field with high potential. Although diverse drugs have been developed for incurable diseases for several decades, discovering safe and efficient anticancer drugs remains a formidable challenge. Reptiles, as one source of Asian traditional medicines, are known to possess anticancer properties and have been used for a long time without a clarified scientific background. Recently, it has been reported that extracts, crude peptides, sera, and venom isolated from reptiles could effectively inhibit the survival and proliferation of various cancer cells. In this article, we summarize recent studies applying ingredients derived from reptiles in cancer therapy and discuss the difficulties and prospective development of natural product research.

Antiviral Effects of Animal Toxins: Is There a Way to Drugs?

Viruses infect all types of organisms, causing viral diseases, which are very common in humans. Since viruses use the metabolic pathways of their host cells to replicate, they are difficult to eradicate without affecting the cells. The most effective measures against viral infections are vaccinations and antiviral drugs, which selectively inhibit the viral replication cycle. Both methods have disadvantages, which requires the development of new approaches to the treatment of viral diseases. In the study of animal venoms, it was found that, in addition to toxicity, venoms exhibit other types of biological activity, including an antiviral one, the first mention of which dates back to middle of the last century, but detailed studies of their antiviral activity have been conducted over the past 15 years. The COVID-19 pandemic has reinforced these studies and several compounds with antiviral activity have been identified in venoms. Some of them are very active and can be considered as the basis for antiviral drugs. This review discusses recent antiviral studies, the found compounds with high antiviral activity, and the possible mechanisms of their action. The prospects for using the animal venom components to create antiviral drugs, and the expected problems and possible solutions are also considered.

Gramicidin S and melittin: potential anti-viral therapeutic peptides to treat SARS-CoV-2 infection

The COVID19 pandemic has led to multipronged approaches for treatment of the disease. Since de novo discovery of drugs is time consuming, repurposing of molecules is now considered as one of the alternative strategies to treat COVID19. Antibacterial peptides are being recognized as attractive candidates for repurposing to treat viral infections. In this study, we describe the anti-SARS-CoV-2 activity of the well-studied antibacterial peptides gramicidin S and melittin obtained from Bacillus brevis and bee venom respectively. The EC₅₀ values for gramicidin S and melittin were 1.571 µg and 0.656 µg respectively based on in vitro antiviral assay. Significant decrease in the viral load as compared to the untreated group with no/very less cytotoxicity was observed. Both the peptides treated to the SARS-CoV-2 infected Vero cells showed viral clearance from 12 h onwards with a maximal viral clearance after 24 h post infection. Proteomics analysis indicated that more than 250 proteins were differentially regulated in the gramicidin S and melittin treated SARS-CoV-2 infected Vero cells against control SARS-CoV-2 infected Vero cells after 24 and 48 h post infection. The identified proteins were found to be associated in the metabolic and mRNA processing of the Vero cells post-treatment and infection. Both these peptides could be attractive candidates for repurposing to treat SARS-CoV-2 infection.

New Insights into Potential Beneficial Effects of Bioactive Compounds of Bee Products in Boosting Immunity to Fight COVID-19 Pandemic: Focus on Zinc and Polyphenols

The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is an epidemic caused by SARS-CoV-2 (severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2). Populations at risk as well as those who can develop serious complications are people with chronic diseases such as diabetes, hypertension, and the elderly. Severe symptoms of SARS-CoV-2 infection are associated with immune failure and dysfunction. The approach of strengthening immunity may be the right choice in order to save lives. This review aimed to provide an overview of current information revealing the importance of bee products in strengthening the immune system against COVID-19. We highlighted the immunomodulatory and the antiviral effects of zinc and polyphenols, which may actively contribute to improving symptoms and preventing complications caused by COVID-19 and can counteract viral infections. Thus, this review will pave the way for conducting advanced experimental research to evaluate zinc and polyphenols-rich bee products to prevent and reduce the severity of COVID-19 symptoms.

COVID-19 pandemic: impacts on bees, beekeeping, and potential role of bee products as antiviral agents and immune enhancers

COVID-19 pandemic has passed to the front all the contradictions of the beekeeping sector: the valuable role of bee products as immune enhancers and antiviral agents and the impact that unsustainability of human activities has on bees' health and survival. The COVID-19 emergency led several countries to adopt severe restriction measures to contrast the infection. The lowering of industrial and commercial activities, transports, and the general lockdown had immediate consequences on the air quality, significantly improving environmental conditions. This had a positive impact on honeybees' life's quality. On the other hand, the bee and beehive transportation limitations threaten to hit food production by affecting the pollinator service, and this is particularly true in large, food-exporting countries like the USA and China where due to the few numbers of local bees, beekeepers import them by other countries and convey by truck hives for thousands of kilometers to pollinate crops. Furthermore, honeybee products, focusing on their natural pharmacological properties, can play an essential role as a potential natural contrast to the virus by enhancing the immunity defenses of both humans and animals, and their demand by consumers is expected to increase. Several researchers in the last months focused their attention on bee products to evaluate their effect in the cure of COVID-19 patients to ameliorate the symptoms or to contrast the coronavirus directly. This review reports these preliminary results.

The Broad-Spectrum Antiviral Potential of the Amphibian Peptide AR-23

Viral infections represent a serious threat to the world population and are becoming more frequent. The search and identification of broad-spectrum antiviral molecules is necessary to ensure new therapeutic options, since there is a limited availability of effective antiviral drugs able to eradicate viral infections, and consequently due to the increase of strains that are resistant to the most used drugs. Recently, several studies on antimicrobial peptides identified them as promising antiviral agents. In detail, amphibian skin secretions serve as a rich source of natural antimicrobial peptides. Their antibacterial and antifungal activities have been widely reported, but their exploitation as potential antiviral agents have yet to be fully investigated. In the present study, the antiviral activity of the peptide derived from the secretion of Rana tagoi, named AR-23, was evaluated against both DNA and RNA viruses, with or without envelope. Different assays were performed to identify in which step of the infectious cycle the peptide could act. AR-23 exhibited a greater inhibitory activity in the early stages of infection against both DNA (HSV-1) and RNA (MeV, HPIV-2, HCoV-229E, and SARS-CoV-2) enveloped viruses and, on the contrary, it was inactive against naked viruses (PV-1). Altogether, the results indicated AR-23 as a peptide with potential therapeutic effects against a wide variety of human viruses.

Melittin-Based Nano-Delivery Systems for Cancer Therapy

Melittin (MEL) is a 26-amino acid polypeptide with a variety of pharmacological and toxicological effects, which include strong surface activity on cell lipid membranes, hemolytic activity, and potential anti-tumor properties. However, the clinical application of melittin is restricted due to its severe hemolytic activity. Different nanocarrier systems have been developed to achieve stable loading, side effects shielding, and tumor-targeted delivery, such as liposomes, cationic polymers, lipodisks, etc. In addition, MEL can be modified on nano drugs as a non-selective cytolytic peptide to enhance cellular uptake and endosomal/lysosomal escape. In this review, we discuss recent advances in MEL’s nano-delivery systems and MEL-modified nano drug carriers for cancer therapy.

In Silico Analysis of Honeybee Venom Protein Interaction with Wild Type and Mutant (A82V + P375S) Ebola Virus Spike Protein

Venom from different organisms was used in ancient times to treat a wide range of diseases, and to combat a variety of enveloped and non-enveloped viruses. The aim of this in silico research was to investigate the impact of honeybee venom proteins and peptides against Ebola virus. In the current in silico study, different online and offline tools were used. RaptorX (protein 3D modeling) and PatchDock (protein–protein docking) were used as online tools, while Chimera and LigPlot + v2.1 were used for visualizing protein–protein interactions. We screened nine venom proteins and peptides against the normal Ebola virus spike protein and found that melittin, MCD and phospholipase A2 showed a strong interaction. We then screened these peptides and proteins against mutated strains of Ebola virus and found that the enzyme phospholipase A2 showed a strong interaction. According to the findings, phospholipase A2 found in honeybee venom may be an effective source of antiviral therapy against the deadly Ebola virus. Although the antiviral potency of phospholipase A2 has been recorded previously, this is the first in silico analysis of honeybee phospholipase A2 against the Ebola viral spike protein and its more lethal mutant strain.

Stable Loading and Delivery of Melittin with Lipid-Coated Polymeric Nanoparticles for Effective Tumor Therapy with Negligible Systemic Toxicity

Melittin is a potential anticancer candidate with remarkable antitumor activity and ability to overcome tumor drug resistance. However, the clinical applications of melittin are largely restricted by its severe hemolytic activity and nonspecific cytotoxicity after systemic administration. Here, a biocompatible and stable melittin-loaded lipid-coated polymeric nanoparticle (MpG@LPN) formulation that contains a melittin/poly-γ-glutamic acid nanoparticle inner core, a lipid membrane middle layer, and a polyethylene glycol (PEG) and PEG-targeting molecule outer shell was designed. The formulations were prepared by applying a self-assembly procedure based on intermolecular interactions, including electrostatic attraction and hydrophobic effect. The core-shell MpG@LPN presented high efficiency for melittin encapsulation and high stability in physiological conditions. Hemolysis and cell proliferation assays showed that the PEG-modified MpG@LPN had almost no hemolytic activity and nonspecific cytotoxicity even at high concentrations. The modification of targeting molecules on the MpG@LPNs allowed for the selective binding with target tumor cells and cytolytic activity via apoptosis induction. In vivo experiments revealed that MpG@LPNs can remarkably inhibit the growth of tumors without the occurrence of hemolysis and tissue toxicity. Results suggested that the developed MpG@LPN with a core-shell structure can effectively address the main obstacles of melittin in clinical applications and has great potential in cancer treatment.

The Responsiveness of Bee Venom Phospholipase A2 on Regulatory T Cells Correlates with the CD11c+CD206+Population in Human Peripheral Blood Mononuclear Cells

Bee venom phospholipase A2 (bvPLA2) has been reported to have therapeutic effects such as neuroprotection, anti-inflammation, anti-nociception, anti-cancer properties, caused by increasing regulatory T cells (Tregs). The mechanism of Tregs modulation by bvPLA2 has been demonstrated by binding with the mannose receptor, CD206 in experimental models of several diseases. However, it remains unknown whether this mechanism can also be applied in human blood. In this study, we collected peripheral blood samples from healthy donors and analyzed the percentages of monocyte-derived dendritic cells with CD206 (CD206⁺ DCs) before expansion, the proportion of Tregs, and the subpopulations after expansion treated with bvPLA2 or PBS using flow cytometry and the correlations among them. The percentage of Tregs tended to be higher in the bvPLA2 group than in the control group. There were significant positive correlations between the CD206 population in hPBMC and the proportions of Tregs treated with bvPLA2, especially in the Treg fold change comparing the increase ratio of Tregs in bvPLA2 and in PBS. These findings indicate that bvPLA2 increased the proportion of Tregs in healthy human peripheral blood and the number of CD206⁺ DCs could be a predictor of the bvPLA2 response of different individuals.

Applications and evolution of melittin, the quintessential membrane active peptide

Melittin, the main venom component of the European Honeybee, is a cationic linear peptide-amide of 26 amino acid residues with the sequence: GIGAVLKVLTTGLPALISWIKRKRQQ-NH₂. Melittin binds to lipid bilayer membranes, folds into amphipathic α-helical secondary structure and disrupts the permeability barrier. Since melittin was first described, a remarkable array of activities and potential applications in biology and medicine have been described. Melittin is also a favorite model system for biophysicists to study the structure, folding and function of peptides and proteins in membranes. Melittin has also been used as a template for the evolution of new activities in membranes. Here we overview the rich history of scientific research into the many activities of melittin and outline exciting future applications.

Bee Venom: From Venom to Drug

Insects of the order Hymenoptera have a defensive substance that contains many biologically active compounds. Specifically, venom from honeybees (Apis mellifera) contains many enzymes and peptides that are effective against various diseases. Different research papers stated the possibility of using bee venom (a direct bee sting or in an injectable form) in treating several complications; either in vivo or in vitro. Other reports used the active fractions of bee venom clinically or at labratory scale. Many reports and publications have stated that bee venom and its constituents have multiple biological activities including anti-microbial, anti-protozoan, anti-cancer, anti-inflammatory, and anti-arthritic properties. The present review aims to refer to the use of bee venom itself or its fractions in treating several diseases and counteracting drug toxicities as an alternative protocol of therapy. The updated molecular mechanisms of actions of bee venom and its components are discussed in light of the previous updated publications. The review also summarizes the potential of venom loaded on nanoparticles as a drug delivery vehicle and its molecular mechanisms. Finally, the products of bee venom available in markets are also demonstrated.

Strategies to identify and develop antiviral peptides

The emergence and re-emergence of viral pathogens capable of causing epidemics or pandemics pose a serious healthcare burden. Small molecule antivirals used in conventional therapy have given rise to the severe problem of viral resistance against them. Peptides are generally considered safe, effective and are less likely to induce viral resistance. Antiviral peptides can be identified from screening of phage display of combinational peptide libraries, peptide array libraries or designed against viral targets. Limitations of peptides such as bioavailability can be improved with chemical modifications. Nanotechnology can further improve the stability of peptides in systemic circulation and enhance the antiviral activity of peptides, making them an appealing therapeutic option.

Pharmaceutical Prospects of Bee Products: Special Focus on Anticancer, Antibacterial, Antiviral, and Antiparasitic Properties

Bee products have long been used in traditional healing practices to treat many types of disorders, including cancer and microbial-related diseases. Indeed, several chemical compounds found in bee products have been demonstrated to display anticancer, antibacterial, antiviral, and antiparasitic properties. With the improvement of research tools and in view of recent advances related to bee products, this review aims to provide broad yet detailed insight into the pharmaceutical prospects of bee products such as honey, propolis, bee pollen, royal jelly, bee bread, beeswax, and bee venom, in the domain of cancer and infectious disease management. Available literature confirms the efficacy of these bee products in the alleviation of cancer progression, inhibition of bacterial and viral proliferation, and mitigation of parasitic-related symptoms. With such potentials, bioactive components isolated from the bee products can be used as an alternative approach in the long-run effort to improve humans’ health at a personal and community level.

Naturally-derived targeted therapy for wound healing: Beyond classical strategies

This review summarizes the four processes of wound healing in the human body (hemostasis, inflammatory, proliferation, and remodeling) and the most current research on the most important factors affecting cutaneous wound healing and the underlying cellular and/or molecular pathways. Local factors, including temperature, oxygenation, and infection, and systemic factors, such as age, diabetes, sex hormones, genetic components, autoimmune diseases, psychological stress, smoking and obesity are also addressed. A better understanding of the role of these factors in wound repair could result in the development of therapeutics that promote wound healing and resolve affected wounds. Additionally, natural products obtained from plants and animals are critical targets for the discovery of novel biologically significant pharmacophores, such as medicines and agrochemicals. This review outlines the most recent advances in naturally derived targeted treatment for wound healing. These are plant-derived natural products, insect-derived natural products, marine-derived natural products, nanomaterial-based wound-healing therapeutics (metal- and non-metal-based nanoparticles), and natural product-based nanomedicine to improve the future direction of wound healing. Natural products extracted from plants and animals have advanced significantly, particularly in the treatment of wound healing. As a result, the isolation and extraction of bioactive compounds from a variety of sources can continue to advance our understanding of wound healing. Undescribed bioactive compounds or unexplored formulations that could have a role in today's medicinal arsenal may be contained in the abundance of natural products and natural product derivatives.

Low semen quality and adverse histological changes in testes of adult male mice treated with bee venom (Apis mellifera)

Background

Male infertility has been on the rise since the past seven decades. Recently, in Libya, bee venom therapy (BVT) has become a popular method among alternative healthcare practitioners for treating male infertility. However, a literature search did not find any published studies that investigated the use of BVT for infertility treatment.

Aim

To investigate the effect of bee venom on the male reproductive status through measurements of semen quality parameters and testicular histological changes in adult male mice.

Methods

A total of 48 male mice were randomly divided into three experimental groups (which were subdivided into two subgroups with eight mice each) as follows: control, bee venom sting (BVS), and bee venom injection (BVI). The normal control subgroup mice were not subjected to any treatment, while the vehicle control subgroup mice were injected (i.p.) with 200 μl of 0.9% saline solution. In the BVS-treated subgroups, each mouse was stung by one live bee for five times (BVS-5) or seven times (BVS-7) every third day for 2 or 3 weeks. While each mouse in the BVI-treated subgroups received 23 μg/kg in a dose volume of 200 μl BVIs (i.p.) for five times (BVI-5) or seven times (BVI-7) every third day for 15 or 21 days.

Results

The findings of this study showed that repeated bee venom treatment by sting or injection to adult male mice resulted in a significant decline in testosterone levels, sperm count, sperm motility, and a very significant increase in the percentage of abnormal sperm morphology; also, there were harmful testicular histological changes in the structural organization of seminiferous tubules and degenerative changes in the germinal epithelium compared to control group.

Conclusion

The results of this study provide evidence for the low semen quality and adverse testicular histological changes in male mice treated with bee venom. Hence, there is a desperate need for educating alternative healthcare practitioners and infertile couples about the harmful effects of BVT on reproductive status.

Mechanism of antimicrobial activity of honeybee (Apis mellifera) venom on Gram-negative bacteria: Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas spp

Honeybee venom (Apitoxin, BV), a secretion substance expelled from the venom gland of bees, has being reported as antimicrobial against various bacterial species; however, the mechanism of action remains uncharacterized. In this study, the antibacterial activity of BV was investigated on hygiene indicator Escherichia coli and the environmental pathogen and spoilage bacterial species, Pseudomonas putida and Pseudomonas fluorescens. An array of methods was combined to elucidate the mode of action of BV. Viability by culture on media was combined with assessing cell injury with flow cytometry analysis. ATP depletion was monitored as an indicator to metabolic activity of cells, by varying BV concentration (75, 225and 500 µg/mL), temperature (25 \documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \usepackage{amsmath} \usepackage{wasysym} \usepackage{amsfonts} \usepackage{amssymb} \usepackage{amsbsy} \usepackage{mathrsfs} \usepackage{upgreek} \setlength{\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \begin{document}$$^\circ \complement $$\end{document}∘∁ and 37 \documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \usepackage{amsmath} \usepackage{wasysym} \usepackage{amsfonts} \usepackage{amssymb} \usepackage{amsbsy} \usepackage{mathrsfs} \usepackage{upgreek} \setlength{\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \begin{document}$$^\circ \complement $$\end{document}∘∁), and time of exposure (0 to 24 h). Venom presented moderate inhibitory effect on E. coli by viability assay, caused high membrane permeability and significant ATP loss where the effect was increased by increased concentration. The viability of P. putida was reduced to a greater extent than other tested bacteria at comparable venom concentrations and was dictated by exposure time. On the contrary, P. fluorescens appeared less affected by venom based on viability; however, flow cytometry and ATP analysis highlighted concentration- and time-dependent effect of venom. According to Transmission Electron Microscopy results, the deformation of the cell wall was evident for all species. This implies a common mechanism of action of the BV which is as follows: the cell wall destruction, change of membrane permeability, leakage of cell contents, inactivation of metabolic activity and finally cell death.

Fighting against the second wave of COVID-19: Can honeybee products help protect against the pandemic?

Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19) has infected people in 210 nations and has been declared a pandemic on March 12, 2020 by the World Health Organization (WHO). In the absence of effective treatment and/or vaccines for COVID-19, natural products of known therapeutic and antiviral activity could offer an inexpensive, effective option for managing the disease. Benefits of products of honey bees such as honey, propolis, and bee venom, against various types of diseases have been observed. Honey bees products are well known for their nutritional and medicinal values, they have been employed for ages for various therapeutic purposes. In this review, promising effects of various bee products against the emerging pandemic COVID-19 are discussed. Products of honey bees that contain mixtures of potentially active chemicals, possess unique properties that might help to protect, fight, and alleviate symptoms of COVID-19 infection.

Repurposing of Sitagliptin- Melittin Optimized Nanoformula against SARS-CoV-2: Antiviral Screening and Molecular Docking Studies

The outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic in China has become an urgent health and economic challenge. The objective of the current work was to evaluate the efficacy of the combined complex of Sitagliptin (SIT) with melittin (MEL) against SARS-CoV-2 virus. SIT-MEL nano-conjugates were optimized by a full three-factor bi-level (23) factorial design. In addition, SIT concentration (mM, X1), MEL concentration (mM, X2), and pH (X3) were selected as the critical factors. Particle size (nm, Y1) and zeta potential (mV, Y2) were assessed as responses. Characterization of the optimized formula for Fourier-transformed infrared (FTIR) was carried out. The optimized formula showed particle size and zeta potential values of 77.42 nm and 27.67 mV, respectively. When compared with SIT and MEL, the combination of SIT-MEL complex has shown anti-viral potential against isolate of SARS-CoV-2 with IC50 values of 8.439 μM with significant improvement (p < 0.001). In addition, the complex showed IC50 in vitro 3CL-protease inhibition with IC50 7.216 µM. Molecular docking has revealed that formula components have good predicted pocket accommodation of the SARS-CoV-2 3-CL protease. An optimized formulation of SIT-MEL could guarantee both enhanced delivery to the target cells and the enhanced cellular uptake with promising activities against SARS-CoV-2.

Antiviral peptides against Enterovirus A71 causing hand, foot and mouth disease

The emergence of new and resistant viruses is a serious global burden. Conventional antiviral therapy with small molecules has led to the development of resistant mutants. In the case of hand, foot and mouth disease (HFMD), the absence of a US-FDA approved vaccine calls for urgent need to develop an antiviral that could serve as a safe, potent and robust therapy against the neurovirulent Enterovirus A71 (EV-A71). Natural peptides such as lactoferrin, melittin and synthetic peptides such as SP40, RGDS and LVLQTM have been studied against EV-A71 and have shown promising results as potent antivirals in pre-clinical studies. Peptides are considered safe, efficacious and pose fewer chances of resistance. Poor pharmacokinetic features of peptides can be overcome by the use of chemical modifications to improve in vivo delivery particularly by oral route. The use of nanotechnology can remarkably assist in the oral delivery of peptides and enhance stability in vivo. This can greatly increase patient compliance and make it more attractive as antiviral therapy.

Bee Venom in Wound Healing

Bee venom (BV), also known as api-toxin, is widely used in the treatment of different inflammatory diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis or multiple sclerosis. It is also known that BV can improve the wound healing process. BV plays a crucial role in the modulation of the different phases of wound repair. It possesses anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antifungal, antiviral, antimicrobial and analgesic properties, all of which have a positive impact on the wound healing process. The mentioned process consists of four phases, i.e., hemostasis, inflammation, proliferation and remodeling. The impaired wound healing process constitutes a significant problem especially in diabetic patients, due to hypoxia state. It had been found that BV accelerated the wound healing in diabetic patients as well as in laboratory animals by impairing the caspase-3, caspase-8 and caspase-9 activity. Moreover, the activity of BV in wound healing is associated with regulating the expression of transforming growth factor (TGF-β1), vascular endothelial growth factor and increased collagen type I. BV stimulates the proliferation and migration of human epidermal keratinocytes and fibroblasts. In combination with polyvinyl alcohol and chitosan, BV significantly accelerates the wound healing process, increasing the hydroxyproline and glutathione and lowering the IL-6 level in wound tissues. The effect of BV on the wounds has been proved by numerous studies, which revealed that BV in the wound healing process brings about a curative effect and could be applied as a new potential treatment for wound repair. However, therapy with bee venom may induce allergic reactions, so it is necessary to assess the existence of the patient’s hypersensitivity to apitoxin before treatment.

Cytotoxic Effect of Bee (A. mellifera) Venom on Cancer Cell Lines

Objectives

Nowadays cancer treatment is an important challenge in the medical world that needs better therapies. Many active secretions produced by insects such as honey bees used to discover new anticancer drugs. Bee venom (BV) has a potent anti inflammatory, anti cancer and tumor effects. The aim of present study is evaluation of anticancer effects induced by Apis mellifera venom (AmV) on cell Lines.

Methods

AmV was selected for study on cancer cell lines. Total protein, molecular weight and LD₅₀ of crude venom were determined. Then, cells were grown in Dulbecco's Modified Eagle medium supplemented with 10% fetal bovine serum and 1% antibiotics. The A₅₄₉, HeLa and MDA-MB-231 cell Lines were exposed by different concentration of AmV. The morphology of cells was determined and cell viability was studed by MTT assay. Evaluation of cell death was determined by and DNA fragmentation.

Results

The results from MTT assay showed that 3.125 µg/mL of A₅₄₉, 12.5 for HeLa and 6.25 µg/mL of MDA-MB-231 killed 50% of cells (p < 0.05). Morphological analysis and the results from hoescht staining and DNA fragmentation indicated that cell death induced by AmV was significantly apoptosis.

Conclusion

The data showed that using lower dosage of AmV during treatment period cause inhibition of proliferation in time and dose dependant manner. Findings indicated that some ingredients of AmV have anticancer effects and with further investigation it can be used in production of anticancer drugs.

Bee Venom-A Potential Complementary Medicine Candidate for SARS-CoV-2 Infections

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is characterized by severe cytokine storm syndrome following inflammation. SARS-CoV-2 directly interacts with angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE-2) receptors in the human body. Complementary therapies that impact on expression of IgE and IgG antibodies, including administration of bee venom (BV), have efficacy in the management of arthritis, and Parkinson's disease. A recent epidemiological study in China showed that local beekeepers have a level of immunity against SARS-CoV-2 with and without previous exposure to virus. BV anti-inflammatory properties are associated with melittin and phospholipase A2 (PLA2), both of which show activity against enveloped and non-enveloped viruses, including H1N1 and HIV, with activity mediated through antagonist activity against interleukin-6 (IL-6), IL-8, interferon-γ (IFN-γ), and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α). Melittin is associated with the underexpression of proinflammatory cytokines, including nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB), extracellular signal-regulated kinases (ERK1/2), and protein kinase Akt. BV therapy also involves group III secretory phospholipase A₂ in the management of respiratory and neurological diseases. BV activation of the cellular and humoral immune systems should be explored for the application of complementary medicine for the management of SARS-CoV-2 infections. BV "vaccination" is used to immunize against cytomegalovirus and can suppress metastases through the PLA2 and phosphatidylinositol-(3,4)-bisphosphate pathways. That BV shows efficacy for HIV and H1NI offers opportunity as a candidate for complementary therapy for protection against SARS-CoV-2.

Bee Venom: An Updating Review of Its Bioactive Molecules and Its Health Applications

Bee venom (BV) is usually associated with pain since, when humans are stung by bees, local inflammation and even an allergic reaction can be produced. BV has been traditionally used in ancient medicine and in acupuncture. It consists of a mixture of substances, principally of proteins and peptides, including enzymes as well as other types of molecules in a very low concentration. Melittin and phospholipase A2 (PLA2) are the most abundant and studied compounds of BV. Literature of the main biological activities exerted by BV shows that most studies focuses on the comprehension and test of anti-inflammatory effects and its mechanisms of action. Other properties such as antioxidant, antimicrobial, neuroprotective or antitumor effects have also been assessed, both in vitro and in vivo. Moreover, human trials are necessary to confirm those clinical applications. However, notwithstanding the therapeutic potential of BV, there are certain problems regarding its safety and the possible appearance of adverse effects. On this perspective, new approaches have been developed to avoid these complications. This manuscript is aimed at reviewing the actual knowledge on BV components and its associated biological activities as well as the latest advances on this subject.

Potent virucidal activity of honeybee "Apis mellifera" venom against Hepatitis C Virus

Hepatitis C virus (HCV) is a global viral widespread without an available vaccine to prevent infection. HCV infection can cause serious liver diseases such as hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Current treatment of HCV infection depends on the FDA approved direct-acting antivirals (DAAs) which have side effects and expensive. Thus, development of a novel, more efficient, along with affordable pricing anti-HCV agents is still required. The purpose of the present study is to evaluate the antiviral effects of bee venom (BV) from the honeybee Apis mellifera on the HCV replication life cycle. The crude venom and its components were examined for their anti-HCV activities using Huh7it-1 cultured cells and the JFH1 strain of HCV genotype 2a. Results revealed that BV inhibited HCV infection with 50% inhibitory concentration (IC₅₀) of 0.05 ng/ml, while the 50% cytotoxic concentration (CC₅₀) being 20,000 ng/ml. The venom directly blocked HCV/cell entry by acting on virus particles in a dose dependent manner, whereas no interference on the host cells. Furthermore, venom showed no inhibitory effect on HCV replication and release. Interestingly, none of the main BV components including the mast cell degranulating peptide (MCD), mpamin, or the small peptides melittin (MLT) showed anti-HCV activity up to 5 μg/ml. In conclusion, these results suggest that BV has a direct virucidal activity against HCV and may exert its antiviral effect through a non-common peptide(s) or toxin complex within the crude venom. Therefore, the crude BV can be considered as a promising candidate for characterization and development of new and natural anti-HCV therapeutic agents.

Beekeepers who tolerate bee stings are not protected against SARS-CoV-2 infections

A survey on 5115 beekeepers and 121 patients treated with bee venom by an apitherapy clinic in the Hubei province, the epicenter of COVID-19 in China, reported that none of the beekeepers developed symptoms associated with COVID-19, the new and devastating pandemic. The hypothesis that immunity to bee venom could have a preventive effect was expressed and the authors of the Chinese survey suggested that the next step should be animal experiments on monkeys. We believed that before starting such studies, a second independent survey should verify the findings and define the hypothesis more clearly. Thus we asked all German beekeepers to complete an assessment form which would summarize their experiences with COVID-19. In contrast to the Chinese study we found that two beekeepers had died from a SARS-CoV-2 infection and forty-five were affected. The reaction to bee stings (none; mild swelling; severe swelling) correlated with the perceived severity of the SARS-CoV-2-infection-associated symptoms - exhaustion and sore throat. Beekeepers comorbidity correlated with problems with breathing at rest, fever, and diarrhea. Our results did not confirm the findings of the Chinese study. However, since the antiviral effects of bee venom have been found in several studies, we cannot exclude that there could be a direct preventive or alleviating effect when bee venom is administered during the infection.

Bee products as a source of promising therapeutic and chemoprophylaxis strategies against COVID-19 (SARS-CoV-2)

The emergence of novel coronavirus (SARS‐CoV‐2) in 2019 in China marked the third outbreak of a highly pathogenic coronavirus infecting humans. The novel coronavirus disease (COVID‐19) spread worldwide, becoming an emergency of major international concern. However, even after a decade of coronavirus research, there are still no licensed vaccines or therapeutic agents to treat the coronavirus infection. In this context, apitherapy presents as a promising source of pharmacological and nutraceutical agents for the treatment and/or prophylaxis of COVID‐19. For instance, several honeybee products, such as honey, pollen, propolis, royal jelly, beeswax, and bee venom, have shown potent antiviral activity against pathogens that cause severe respiratory syndromes, including those caused by human coronaviruses. In addition, the benefits of these natural products to the immune system are remarkable, and many of them are involved in the induction of antibody production, maturation of immune cells, and stimulation of the innate and adaptive immune responses. Thus, in the absence of specific antivirals against SARS‐CoV‐2, apitherapy could offer one hope toward mitigating some of the risks associated with COVID‐19.

Membrane Active Peptides Remove Surface Adsorbed Protein Corona From Extracellular Vesicles of Red Blood Cells

Besides the outstanding potential in biomedical applications, extracellular vesicles (EVs) are also promising candidates to expand our knowledge on interactions between vesicular surface proteins and small-molecules which exert biomembrane-related functions. Here we provide mechanistic details on interactions between membrane active peptides with antimicrobial effect (MAPs) and red blood cell derived EVs (REVs) and we demonstrate that they have the capacity to remove members of the protein corona from REVs even at lower than 5 μM concentrations. In case of REVs, the Soret-band arising from the membrane associated hemoglobins allowed to follow the detachment process by flow-Linear Dichroism (flow-LD). Further on, the significant change on the vesicle surfaces was confirmed by transmission electron microscopy (TEM). Since membrane active peptides, such as melittin have the affinity to disrupt vesicles, a combination of techniques, fluorescent antibody labeling, microfluidic resistive pulse sensing, and flow-LD were employed to distinguish between membrane destruction and surface protein detachment. The removal of protein corona members is a newly identified role for the investigated peptides, which indicates complexity of their in vivo function, but may also be exploited in synthetic and natural nanoparticle engineering. Furthermore, results also promote that EVs can be used as improved model systems for biophysical studies providing insight to areas with so far limited knowledge.