Anti-viral activity of Zingiber officinale (Ginger) ingredients against the Chikungunya virus

Potent antiviral action detected in Tontelea micrantha extracts against Alphavirus chikungunya

BACKGROUND

Tontelea micrantha, a notable plant species, has garnered interest for its medicinal properties, including anti-inflammatory, antibacterial and antiviral effects. A vaccine for Chikungunia virus is still under evaluation and no specific antiviral drug has been licensed to date.

OBJECTIVE

The work investigated antiviral activity of ethyl acetate (EAEF) and methanolic (EMF) extracts from T. micrantha leaves in mammalian cells exposed to Alphavirus chikungunya (CHIKV).

METHODS

The cytotoxicity, antiviral activity, selectivity index, effect on viral gene expression, virus production, and mechanisms of action were evaluated.

RESULTS

EAEF and EMF extracts showed anti-CHIKV effects at non-cytotoxic concentrations, with CC50 above 300 μg/mL, EC50 of 18 and 43 μg/mL respectively, and selectivity Index above 4. These concentrations drastically reduce viral yields and CHIKV gene expression and have shown activity both directly on viral particles and at different stages of the viral cycle.

CONCLUSION

EAEF and EMF showed robust antiviral activity against CHIKV, making them promising candidates for the development of anti-CHIKV drugs.

The efficacy and safety of ginger (Zingiber officinale) rhizome extract in outpatients with COVID-19: A randomized double-blind placebo-control clinical trial

BACKGROUND

Ginger, a potent antiviral, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant remedy, is a potential therapeutic option for COVID-19. However, there was not enough clinical evidence about ginger and COVID-19. We evaluated the efficacy and safety of ginger on clinical and paraclinical features in outpatients with COVID-19.

METHODS

In this randomized controlled trial, the outpatients with confirmed COVID-19 were randomly assigned in a 1:1 ratio to receive ginger (1000 mg 3 times a day for 7 days) or placebo. The primary outcome was viral clearance after the end of the intervention. Oxygen saturation (SPO2), body temperature, respiratory rate (RR), hospital admission, and the incidence of adverse events were also assessed.

RESULTS

A total of 84 patients (42 in the ginger and 42 in the control groups) were randomized. The viral clearance was not statistically improved in the ginger group (41.6%) compared to the placebo group (42.8%). The findings indicated that SPO2, body temperature, and RR had no significant difference between the groups at the end of the intervention. The imaging finding indicated pulmonary infiltrate significantly reduced on the 7th day of the intervention in the ginger group. The percentage of patients with SPO2 <96% in the ginger group decreased over the study compared to the placebo group. Moreover, the need for hospital admission and the incidence of adverse drug events were not different between the groups over the follow-up period.

CONCLUSIONS

Ginger had no significant impact on the clinical and paraclinical parameters of patients. However, this intervention demonstrated a safe profile of adverse events and reduced pulmonary infiltrate.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

The trial was registered as IRCT20200506047323N1.

Network pharmacology, molecular docking, and dynamics analyses to predict the antiviral activity of ginger constituents against coronavirus infection

COVID-19 is a global pandemic that caused a dramatic loss of human life worldwide, leading to accelerated research for antiviral drug discovery. Herbal medicine is one of the most commonly used alternative medicine for the prevention and treatment of many conditions including respiratory system diseases. In this study, a computational pipeline was employed, including network pharmacology, molecular docking simulations, and molecular dynamics simulations, to analyze the common phytochemicals of ginger rhizomes and identify candidate constituents as viral inhibitors. Furthermore, experimental assays were performed to analyze the volatile and non-volatile compounds of ginger and to assess the antiviral activity of ginger oil and hydroalcoholic extract. Network pharmacology analysis showed that ginger compounds target human genes that are involved in related cellular processes to the viral infection. Docking analysis highlighted five pungent compounds and zingiberenol as potential inhibitors for the main protease (Mpro), spike receptor-binding domain (RBD), and human angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2). Then, (6)-gingerdiacetate was selected for molecular dynamics (MD) simulations as it exhibited the best binding interactions and free energies over the three target proteins. Trajectories analysis of the three complexes showed that RBD and ACE2 complexes with the ligand preserved similar patterns of root mean square deviation (RMSD) and radius of gyration (Rg) values to their respective native structures. Finally, experimental validation of the ginger hydroalcoholic extract confirmed the existence of (6)-gingerdiacetate and revealed the strong antiviral activity of the hydroalcoholic extract with IC50 of 2.727 μ g / ml . Our study provides insights into the potential antiviral activity of (6)-gingerdiacetate that may enhance the host immune response and block RBD binding to ACE2, thereby, inhibiting SARS-CoV-2 infection.

Anti-microbial efficacy of a scientifically developed and standardized herbal-alcohol sanitizer

Hands are the primary mode of transmission of microbe-based infections, as they harbor normal microbiota and pathogenic microbes. SARS-CoV-2 has endangered lives worldwide, and WHO has recommended good hygiene practices, especially hand hygiene. In addition, other infectious diseases like diphtheria, measles, tuberculosis, HIV, malaria, etc. are spreading in the shadow of the COVID-19 pandemic. The anti-microbial efficiency of two in-house developed herbal-alcohol based hand sanitizers containing Azadirachta indica, Citrus limon, Zingiber officinale, and Aloe vera (HS1) and Zingiber officinale replaced with Ocimum sanctum (HS2) was evaluated. HS1, with Zingiber officinale, and HS2, with Ocimum sanctum, herbal sanitizers showcased in-vitro anti-viral activity on MDCK cells using the reference strain of influenza A virus, A/PR/8/34 (H1N1), and reduced 99.99% of microbial load within 30 s of contact time, estimated by the Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing Method. On volunteers, HS1 and HS2 were more effective than alcohol-based WHO sanitizers. Moreover, HS2 sanitizer is more effective against viruses and has better efficiency and hedonic qualities in volunteers than HS1. These sanitizers don't irritate or dry up the skin and have a longer shelf life. Overall, findings reveal that herbal-alcohol-based sanitizers are promising hand hygiene products with the capability of reducing microbial load.

Miconia albicans (Melastomataceae) to treat Chikungunya viral infection: An effectual symptom-driven ethnomedicinal repurposing of an anti-inflammatory species?

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Miconia albicans (MA) is consumed all over the Brazilian territory as a remedy to treat rheumatoid arthritis and has been increasingly used to alleviate the deleterious symptoms caused by Chikungunya virus (CHIKV).

AIM OF THE STUDY

To investigate the effect of MA leaf and stem hydroethanolic extracts (LE and SE, respectively), their fractions enriched in triterpene acids or polyphenols as well isolated constituents, on CHIKV hosted in Vero cells.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Polyphenol profiles of LE and SE were dereplicated by HPLC-DAD-ESI-MS/MS, aided by standards. Polyphenol-rich (LEx and SEx) and triterpenic acid-rich (LOH and SOH) fractions were obtained in Amberlite XAD-4 and alkalinized 95% ethanol (EtOH) extraction, respectively. TPC and TFC were assessed by colorimetric methods. Three representative flavonoids and two triterpenic acids were quantified by HPLC. CHIKV load suppression was evaluated in Vero cells by real-time qRT‒PCR at noncytotoxic concentrations.

RESULTS

Fifteen flavonoids were characterized in LE and SE. LEx presented isoquercitrin, quercitrin, rutin (0.49-1.51%) and quercetin. The TPC was 48 and 62 mg QE/g extract, and the TFC was 11.93 and 0.76 mg QE/g extract for LEx and SEx, respectively. LOH presented ursolic (15.3%) and oleanolic (8.0%) acids. A reduction (91-97%) in the CHIKV load was produced by the triterpene fraction, quercitrin and quercetin; the latter maintained the activity down to one twentieth of the tolerated concentration.

CONCLUSION

M. albicans contains flavonoids and triterpenic acids that are effective against CHIKV, which might justify its use to alleviate sequelae of CHIKV infection. However, further investigations on the species and its active constituents are needed.

Investigating the effects of four medicinal plants against dengue virus through QSAR modeling and molecular dynamics studies

The Dengue virus (DENV) has been increasingly recognized as a prevalent viral pathogen responsible for global transmission of infection. It has been established that DENV's NS5 methyltransferase (MTase) controls viral replication. As a result, NS5 MTase is considered a potentially useful drug target for DENV. In this study, the two phases of virtual screening were conducted using the ML-based QSAR model and molecular docking to identify potential compounds against NS5 of DENV. Four medicinal plants [Aloe vera, Cannabis sativa (Hemp), Ocimum sanctum (Holy Basil; Tulsi), and Zingiber officinale (Ginger)] that showed anti-viral properties were selected for sourcing the phytochemicals and screening them against NS5. Additionally, re-docking at higher exhaustiveness and interaction analysis were performed which resulted in the identification of the top four hits (135398658, 5281675, 119394, and 969516) which showed comparable results with the control Sinefungin (SFG). Post molecular dynamics simulation, 135398658 showed the lowest RMSD (0.4-0.5 nm) and the maximum number of hydrogen bonds (eight hydrogen bonds) after the control while 5281675 and 969516 showed comparable hydrogen bonds to the control. These compounds showed direct interactions with the catalytic site residues GLU111 and ASP131, in addition to this these compounds showed stable complex formation as depicted by principal component analysis and free energy landscape. 135398658 showed lower total binding free energy (ΔGTotal = -36.56 kcal/mol) than the control, while 5281675 had comparable values to the control (ΔGTotal = -34.1 kcal/mol). Overall, the purpose of this study was to identify phytochemicals that inhibit NS5 function, that could be further tested experimentally to treat dengue virus (DENV).Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma.

A Reappraisal of the Antiviral Properties of and Immune Regulation through Dietary Phytochemicals

In the present era of the COVID-19 pandemic, viral infections remain a major cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide. In this day and age, viral infections are rampant and spreading rapidly. Among the most aggressive viral infections are ebola, AIDS (acquired immunodeficiency syndrome), influenza, and SARS (severe acute respiratory syndrome). Even though there are few treatment options for viral diseases, most of the antiviral therapies are ineffective owing to frequent mutations, the development of more aggressive strains, drug resistance, and possible side effects. Traditionally, herbal remedies have been used by healers, including for dietary and medicinal purposes. Many clinical and scientific studies have demonstrated the therapeutic potential of plant-derived natural compounds. Because of unsafe practices like blood transfusions and organ transplants from infected patients, medical supply contamination. Our antiviral therapies cannot achieve sterile immunity, and we have yet to find a cure for these pernicious infections. Herbs have been shown to improve therapeutic efficacy against a wide variety of viral diseases because of their high concentration of immunomodulatory phytochemicals (both immunoinhibitory and anti-inflammatory). Combined with biotechnology, this folk medicine system can lead to the development of novel antiviral drugs and therapies. In this Review, we will summarize some selected bioactive compounds with probable mechanisms of their antiviral actions, focusing on the immunological axis of these compounds.

Culinary spices and herbs in managing early and long-COVID-19 complications: A comprehensive review

Human race is preparing for the upsurge and aftermath of COVID-19 pandemic complicated by novel variants, new waves, variable mortality rate, and post-COVID complications. Despite use of repurposed drugs, symptomatic treatments and licensing of multiple vaccines, the daily number of cases and rate of transmission are significant. Culinary spices and herbs have been historically used in pandemic and non-pandemic times to reduce respiratory viral burden. Specific food items and culinary spices can boost the levels of protective immunity and also offer therapeutic benefits against impervious bugs via well-known as well as less-known but scientifically testable mechanisms. Here, we analyzed the phytochemicals profile of Ayurvedic herbs and inferred from the clinical trials/observational studies to provide a focused and succinct perspective on the relevance of "food-based" traditional decoction to moderate COVID-19 disease and long-COVID via modulation of immunity and reinstatement of homeostasis. We also underscore the druggable targets in pathogenesis of COVID-19 which are relevant to the ongoing clinical trials using spices and herbs. This information will provide a strong scientific rationale for standardization of the traditional herbs-based therapies and adopting the use of herbs, spices, and their formulations for reducing SARS-CoV-2 transmission, long-COVID symptoms, and COVID-19 disease progression.

Monkeypox virus is nature's wake-up call: a bird's-eye view

Several infections have emerged in humans, domestic animals, wildlife, and plant populations, causing a severe problem for humanity. Since the discovery of the Monkeypox virus (Mpox) in 1958 in Copenhagen, Denmark, it has resurfaced several times, producing severe infections in humans and resulting in a significant fatality rate. Mpox is an Orthopoxvirus of the Poxviridae family. This family contains various medically important viruses. The natural reservoir of Mpox is unknown yet. Mpox might be carried by African rodents and nonhuman primates (such as monkeys). The role of monkeys has been confirmed by its various outbreaks. The infection may be transferred from unidentified wild animals to monkeys, who can then spread it to humans by crossing species barriers. In close contact, human-to-human transmission is also possible. Mpox outbreaks have been documented regularly in Central and Western Africa, but recently in 2022, it has spread to over one hundred-six countries. There is no specific treatment for it, although the smallpox vaccine, antivirals, and vaccinia immune globulin help in the effective management of Mpox. In conclusion: Monkeypox poses a severe threat to public health due to the lack of specific vaccinations and effective antivirals. Surveillance studies in affected regions can assist in the early diagnosis of disease and help to control significant outbreaks. The present review provides information on epidemiology, clinical symptoms, risk factors, diagnosis, and preventive measures of Mpox.

Channel activity of SARS-CoV-2 viroporin ORF3a inhibited by adamantanes and phenolic plant metabolites

SARS-CoV-2 has been responsible for the major worldwide pandemic of COVID-19. Despite the enormous success of vaccination campaigns, virus infections are still prevalent and effective antiviral therapies are urgently needed. Viroporins are essential for virus replication and release, and are thus promising therapeutic targets. Here, we studied the expression and function of recombinant ORF3a viroporin of SARS-CoV-2 using a combination of cell viability assays and patch-clamp electrophysiology. ORF3a was expressed in HEK293 cells and transport to the plasma membrane verified by a dot blot assay. Incorporation of a membrane-directing signal peptide increased plasma membrane expression. Cell viability tests were carried out to measure cell damage associated with ORF3a activity, and voltage-clamp recordings verified its channel activity. The classical viroporin inhibitors amantadine and rimantadine inhibited ORF3a channels. A series of ten flavonoids and polyphenolics were studied. Kaempferol, quercetin, epigallocatechin gallate, nobiletin, resveratrol and curcumin were ORF3a inhibitors, with IC₅₀ values ranging between 1 and 6 µM, while 6-gingerol, apigenin, naringenin and genistein were inactive. For flavonoids, inhibitory activity could be related to the pattern of OH groups on the chromone ring system. Thus, the ORF3a viroporin of SARS-CoV-2 may indeed be a promising target for antiviral drugs.

Bioactivities and green advanced extraction technologies of ginger oleoresin extracts: A review

Zingiber officinale Roscoe is an excellent source of bioactive compounds, mainly gingerols and shogaols compounds, that associated with various bioactivities including antioxidant, anticancer, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, and antibiofilm. Zingiber officinale Roscoe found its application in the food, pharmaceutical, and cosmeceutical industries. The demand for a high quality of ginger oleoresin extracts based on the contents of gingerols and shogaols compounds for a health-benefit has dramatically increased. Various extraction techniques, including the conventional and advanced extraction techniques for gingerols and shogaols have been reported based on the literature data from 2012 to 2022. The present review examines the functional composition and bioactivities of Zingiber officinale Roscoe and the advanced green extraction technologies. Some variations in the quantity and quality of gingerols and shogaols compounds are because of the extraction method employed. This review provides a depth discussion of the various green advanced extraction technologies and the influences of process variables on the performance of the extraction process. Lower temperature with a short exposure time such as ultrasound-assisted and enzyme-assisted extraction, will lead to high quality of extracts with high content of 6-gingerol. High thermal processing, such as microwave-assisted and pressurized liquid extraction, will produce higher 6-shogaol. Meanwhile, supercritical fluid extraction promotes high quality and the safety of extracts by using non-toxic CO2. In addition, challenges and future prospects of the extraction of ginger oleoresin have been identified and discussed. The emerging green extraction methods and technologies show promising results with less energy input and higher quality extracts than conventional extraction methods.

Molecular docking study of Zingiber officinale Roscoe compounds as a mumps virus nucleoprotein inhibitor

Background: Mumps virus (MuV) can trigger severe infections, such as parotitis, epididymo-orchitis, and meningitis. The effectiveness of MuV vaccine administration has been proven, but current outbreaks warrant the development of antivirals against MuV. Zingiber officinale var. Roscoe or ginger is often used as an alternative remedy. Currently, there are no known in vitro or in vivo studies that investigate ginger as an MuV antiviral. Purpose: This study aims to evaluate the antiviral potency of the bioactive compounds in Zingiber officinale var. Roscoe against MuV. Methods: Antiviral activity screening was conducted by druglikeness analysis, antiviral probability, molecular docking, and molecular dynamic simulation. Results: As an antiviral, 6-shogaol from Zingiber officinale var. Roscoe has potency against MuV. It has a good binding affinity and can establish interactions with the binding domain of the target protein by forming hydrogen, Van der Waals, and alkyl bonds. Conclusion: The complex of 6-shogaol_NP was predicted to be volatile but stable for triggering inhibitory activity. However, these results must be proved by in vivo and in vitro approaches to strengthen the scientific evidence.

Antiviral Potential of Traditional Unani Medicine with Special Emphasis on Dengue: A Review

Dengue fever has become a major public health concern. It is usually related to intravascular leaking, bleeding disorders, and thrombocytopenia and is recognized as a potent threat to humans. The scarcity of anti-dengue medication or vaccine for such a serious disease leads to an upsurge in the usage of traditional medicines for its proper management. India has diverse biodiversity and a long history of using plant-based remedies. Several medicinal plant extracts have been studied for producing anti-dengue viral activity. AYUSH traditional systems provide a plethora of plants that have been reported to be useful in the treatment of fever. Single and compound plant- based formulations in natural form have been used in Unani holistic approaches. This review serves as a new approach to illustrate the most recent evidence regarding the antiviral activity of various plants by providing scientific proof and also to validate the traditional formulations as effective treatments in dengue fever for global acceptance.

Plant ingredients in Thai food: a well-rounded diet for natural bioactive associated with medicinal properties

Background

Seeking cures for chronic inflammation-associated diseases and infectious diseases caused by critical human pathogens is challenging and time-consuming. Even as the research community searches for novel bioactive agents, consuming a healthy diet with functional ability might be an effective way to delay and prevent the progression of severe health conditions. Many plant ingredients in Thai food are considered medicinal, and these vegetables, herbs, and spices collectively possess multiple biological and pharmacological activities, such as anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antidiabetic, antipyretic, anticancer, hepatoprotective, and cardioprotective effects.

Methodology

In this review, the selected edible plants are unspecific to Thai food, but our unique blend of recipes and preparation techniques make traditional Thai food healthy and functional. We searched three electronic databases: PUBMED, Science Direct, and Google Scholar, using the specific keywords "Plant name" followed by "Anti-inflammatory" or "Antibacterial" or "Antiviral" and focusing on articles published between 2017 and 2021.

Results

Our selection of 69 edible and medicinal plant species (33 families) is the most comprehensive compilation of Thai food sources demonstrating biological activities to date. Focusing on articles published between 2017 and 2021, we identified a total of 245 scientific articles that have reported main compounds, traditional uses, and pharmacological and biological activities from plant parts of the selected species.

Conclusions

Evidence indicates that the selected plants contain bioactive compounds responsible for anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, and antiviral properties, suggesting these plants as potential sources for bioactive agents and suitable for consumption for health benefits.

In silico study on spice-derived antiviral phytochemicals against SARS-CoV-2 TMPRSS2 target

Corona Virus Disease (COVID-19) caused by Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is a pandemic that has claimed so far over half a million human life across the globe. Researchers all over the world are exploring various molecules including phytochemicals to get a potential anti-COVID-19 drug. Certain phytochemicals present in some spices are claimed to possess antiviral, anti-bacterial, and anti-fungal properties. Hence, an in-silico study was done by selecting eighteen well reported antiviral phytochemicals from some spices commonly used in Indian kitchen viz. Curcuma longa (Turmeric), Nigella sativa (Black cumin), Piper nigrum (Black pepper), Trachyspermum ammi (Carom) and Zingiber officinale (Ginger) to find out whether they can prevent SARS-CoV-2 infection. Firstly, we predicted the structure of TMPRSS2 (transmembrane protease serine 2), a host protein that truncates spike protein of SARS-CoV-2 thereby facilitating its endocytosis, and then docked against its catalytic domain the selected phytochemicals and camostat (a well-known synthetic inhibitor of TMPRSS2). Thereafter, stability of seven best docked phytochemicals and camostat were scrutinized by Molecular Dynamic Simulation (MDS). MDS analysis indicated bisdemethoxycurcumin (BDMC), carvacrol and thymol as better inhibitors than the camostat due to their stable binding with TMPRSS2 in its oxyanion hole and inducing subtle modification in the spatial arrangement of the catalytic triad residues. Among these three phytochemicals, carvacrol appeared to be the best inhibitor, followed by BDMC, whereas thymol was least effective.

Molecular insights on bioactive compounds againstCovid-19: A Network pharmacological and computational study

BACKGROUND

Network pharmacology based identification of phytochemicals in the form of cocktails against off-targets can play a significant role in inhibition of SARS_CoV2 viral entry and its propagation. This study includes network pharmacology, virtual screening, docking and molecular dynamics to investigate the distinct antiviral mechanisms of effective phytochemicals against SARS_CoV2.

METHODS

SARS_CoV2 human-protein interaction network was explored from the BioGRID database and analysed using Cytoscape. Further analysis was performed to explore biological function, protein-phytochemical/drugs network and up-down regulation of pathological host target proteins. This lead to understand the antiviral mechanism of phytochemicals against SARS_CoV2. The network was explored through g:Profiler, EnrichR, CTD, SwissTarget, STITCH, DrugBank, BindingDB, STRING and SuperPred. Virtual screening of phytochemicals against potential antiviral targets such as M-Pro, NSP1, Receptor binding domain, RNA binding domain, and ACE2 discloses the effective interaction between them. Further, the binding energy calculations through simulation of the docked complex explains the efficiency and stability of the interactions.

RESULTS

The network analysis identified quercetin, genistein, luteolin, eugenol, berberine, isorhamnetin and cinnamaldehyde to be interacting with host proteins ACE2, DPP4, COMT, TUBGCP3, CENPF, BRD2 and HMOX1 which are involved in antiviral mechanisms such as viral entry, viral replication, host immune response, and antioxidant activity. Thus indicating that herbal cocktails can effectively tackle the viral hijacking of the crucial biological functions of human host. Further exploration through Virtual screening, docking and molecular dynamics recognizes the effective interaction of phytochemicals such as punicalagin, scutellarin, and solamargine with their respective potential targets.

CONCLUSION

This work illustrates probable strategy for identification of phytochemical based cocktails and off-targets which are effective against SARS_CoV 2.

Antiviral perspectives of economically important Indian medicinal plants and spices

Human respiratory diseases caused by viral infections leads to morbidity. Among infectious diseases, viral infections associated with the respiratory tract remain the primary reason for global deaths due to their transmissibility. Since immemorial, traditional Indian medicinal plants, their extracts, and several phytochemicals can treat various diseases. Sources for this review paper are data derived from a peer-reviewed journal that emphasizes the economic importance of medicinal plants. Several plant-based medicines have been reported to be effective against multiple viral infections, including the Human Adenovirus, Enterovirus, Influenza virus, Hepatitis virus, etc. This review emphasizes use of the Indian medicinal plants like as Withania somnifera (Ashwagandha, Winter Cherry), Moringa oleifera (Drumstick), Ocimum tenuiflorum (Tulsi), Azadirachta indica (Neem), Curcuma longa (Turmeric), Terminalia chebula (Chebulic Myrobalan), Punica granatum (Pomegranate) and the Indian household spices (ginger, garlic and black pepper). It further describes their secondary phytoconstituents extraction procedure, mode of action and the potential application to improve clinical outcomes of neutraceuticals against various viral infections.

Bioactive metabolites in functional and fermented foods and their role as immunity booster and anti-viral innate mechanisms

Live microorganisms in the fermented foods termed probiotics and their secondary metabolites with bioactive potential were considered as potential anti-viral capabilities through various mechanisms. Given the importance of functional and fermented foods in disease prevention, there is a need to discuss the contextualization and deep understanding of the mechanism of action of these foods, particularly considering the appearance of coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic, which is causing health concerns and increased social services globally. The mechanism of probiotic strains or their bioactive metabolites is due to stimulation of immune response through boosting T-lymphocytes, cytokines, and cell toxicity of natural killer cells. Proper consumption of these functional and fermented foods may provide additional antiviral approaches for public benefit by modulating the immune functions in the hosts.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s13197-022-05528-8.

Safety and Efficacy of Medicinal Plants Used to Manufacture Herbal Products with Regulatory Approval in Uganda: A Cross-Sectional Study

Introduction

The Uganda National Drug Authority requires phytochemical screening, freedom from microbial contamination, and evidence of safety and efficacy of the constituent plants to register herbal products. Since Uganda has no pharmacopeia, safety, efficacy, and plant processing information are not readily available. We documented the plant materials used to manufacture products in Uganda and established evidence of their safety and efficacy and availability of monographs.

Methods

The NDA register of herbal products was reviewed, and a product list was extracted. The herbal products were purchased from local pharmacies, and their labels were studied to identify plant ingredients and drug use. Literature was reviewed to document evidence of the safety and efficacy of the plant materials concerning manufacturer's claims. Also, the WHO and available African Pharmacopeia were searched to establish the availability of the plant monographs.

Results

Of the 84 NDA-registered local products, only 18 were obtained from the market; 82% were indicated for respiratory tract disorders. Thirty-three plant materials were listed with Eucalyptus globulus Labill, being the commonest. Several in vitro and in vivo studies demonstrate efficacy, thus supporting the use of the selected plant species for empirical treatment as stated on the product label. While most plants were safe, some species such as Albizia coriaria Oliv. had dose-dependent toxicities that cannot be predicted in combinations. The WHO, African Pharmacopoeia, and West African Herbal Pharmacopoeia had only 16 plant monographs of the 33 plants of interest. Nevertheless, Aloe vera (L.) Burm.f., Azadirachta indica A.Juss., Zingiber officinale Roscoe, and Allium sativum L. monographs were published by all three pharmacopoeias.

Conclusions

Preclinical evidence of safety and efficacy exists in the literature for most of the plants used to manufacture registered herbal products in Uganda. More specific bioassays and clinical trials are required for the products to provide conclusive evidence of safety and toxicity. Monographs are urgently needed for the Ugandan plants.

Phytochemical Investigation and Determination of Antibacterial Activity of Solvent Leave Extracts of Carissa spinarum

Background

Among many traditionally used medicinal plants, Carissa spinarum (Agam) is a well-known indigenous plant in Ethiopia. It is used in its raw form to treat different diseases in different parts of the country. Therefore, the aim of this study is to investigate extraction, isolation, and determination of the antibacterial properties of the solvent leaf extract of Carissa spinarum.

Methods

In this study, 800 g of powdered leaves of Carissa spinarum were macerated with 2500 mL of methanol and yielded 58 g (7.25%, w/w) of gummy material. The extract was then further partitioned by using ethyl acetate and chloroform. The extracts were subjected to phytochemical screening test. The antibacterial activity of the three solvent leaf extracts of Carissa spinarum were evaluated using disc diffusion method. The methanol extract was subjected to column chromatography silica gel (60-200 mesh) by mixing methanol:petroleum ether (4:1). Then fractions were collected and investigated by TLC and finally identified using spectroscopy.

Results

The three extracts (methanol, ethyl acetate, and chloroform) of Carissa spinarum were presented to antimicrobial activity by disc diffusion method against four bacterial species using gentamycin and ampicillin discs as positive controls and DMSO as a negative control. All extracts had a relatively antibacterial effect with different extent zones of inhibition. However, the methanol extract showed superior antibacterial activity compared with DMSO and ethyl acetate and chloroform extracts. These could due to variation of the phytoconstituents. The most probable structure of the compound isolated was 5-(2',3',4',6'-tetrahydroxy-5'-methoxycyclohexyloxy)-2,3,4 trihydroxypentanoic acid.

Conclusion

Data obtained from this study collectively indicated that the three solvent extracts of Carissa spinarum have a promising antimicrobial activity which supports the traditional claim of the plant for treatment of infection.

Antioxidant, antimicrobial and DNA damage protecting potential of hot taste spices: a comparative approach to validate their utilization as functional foods

Hot taste spices have enormous health benefits starting from kitchen to pharmaceutical laboratories. Our present study is focused on phytochemical and pharmacological screening of six hot taste spices namely Zingiber officinale (ginger), Capsicum annuum (chilli), Piper chaba (java long pepper), Piper nigrum (black pepper), Syzygium aromaticum (clove), Trachyspermum ammi (carom). Among all six spices, clove and ginger exhibited strong antioxidant activity owing to higher phytochemical contents. Significant antifungal activity (IZD ≥ 11 mm) was revealed by all six spices except hexane fraction of carom whereas strong antibacterial activity with lowest MIC was displayed by clove, ginger and chilli. DNA was successfully protected from oxidative damage by clove, ginger followed by chilli, java long pepper and carom but black pepper could only partially protect DNA damage even at 4 mg/ml concentration. Based on the DNA damage protecting potentials and antioxidant activities clove, ginger, java long pepper and carom may be utilized for neutraceuticals development. Antimicrobial activities suggested that clove, ginger, java long pepper and chilli may be useful as food preservatives. Fractionated bioactivity of the all the six HTS would help for targeted extraction and development of nutraceuticals from these commonly used medicinal spices.

Mooseer (Allium hirtifolium) boosts growth, general health status, and resistance of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) against Streptococcus iniae infection

In large-scale aquaculture, the fast growth rate of fish is positively influenced by feed additives such as medicinal plants. This is however; infectious disease may reduce fish growth and cause devastating economic loss. The present study investigated in vitro antibacterial efficacy of Mooseer (Allium hirtifolium) extract against Streptococcus iniae and its in vivo effects on growth, biochemical parameters, innate immunity of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss). Therefore, six experimental diets were designed to include different levels of Mooseer from zero (as control), 5, 10, 15, 20, and 25 g per kg diet respectively referred to as M1 to M5. Results from the antibacterial evaluation showed that Mooseer extract inhibits S. iniae growth with MIC and MBC values of 128 and 256 μg ml^-1. Appreciable results were obtained in the groups supplemented with Mooseer. Mooseer enhanced growth performance, and modulated serum biochemical and immunological parameters (total protein, albumin, triglyceride, glucose, cortisol, cholesterol, lysozyme, Ig, ACH50, ALP, and protease activity), and liver enzymes (ALT, AST and ALP). The greatest effects were found for higher doses of Mooseer supplementation (M4 and M5). Meanwhile, results from the survival rate of fish challenged with S. iniae showed higher survival in M2 and M4 treatments. The present findings suggest the beneficial use of Mooseer in rainbow trout diet, with 20 g kg^-1 inclusion as the recommended dose.

Traditional medicinal plants used for treating emerging and re-emerging viral diseases in northern Nigeria

Introduction

For decades, viral diseases have been treated using medicinal plants and herbal practices in the northern part of Nigeria. Though scarcely investigated, these medicinal plants could serve as potential sources for novel antiviral drugs against emerging and remerging viral diseases. Therefore, this study is aimed at investigating the medicinal practices and plants used to treat emerging and re-emerging viral diseases including hepatitis, poliomyelitis, monkeypox, smallpox, yellow fever, Lassa fever, meningitis, and COVID-19 in some northern states; Katsina, Kebbi, Kwara and Sokoto states.

Method

Administered questionnaires and oral interviews were used to collect information on medicinal plants, method of preparation of herbal formulations, diagnosis, and treatment of viral diseases. Medicinal plants were collected, botanically identified, and assigned voucher numbers. The plant names were verified using www.theplantlist.org, www.worldfloraonline.org and the international plant names index.

Result

A total of 280 participating herbal medicine practitioners (HMPs) mentioned 131 plants belonging to 65 families. Plant parts such as roots, bark, leaf, seed, and fruit were prepared as a decoction, concoction, infusion, or ointment for oral and topical treatment of viral diseases. Moringa oleifera (75.3%), Elaeis guineensis Jacq. (80%), and Acacia nilotica (70%) were the most frequently mentioned plants in Kebbi, Kwara and Sokoto states, respectively.

Conclusion

The study revealed scarcely investigated and uninvestigated medicinal plants used to treat hepatitis, poliomyelitis, monkeypox, smallpox, yellow fever, Lassa fever, meningitis, and COVID-19. Future studies should be conducted to determine the antiviral potency and isolate novel bioactive agents from these plants against viral diseases.

Demystifying therapeutic potential of medicinal plants against chikungunya virus

Viral infections are posing a great threat to humanity for the last few years. Among these, Chikungunya which is a mosquito-borne viral infection has produced enormous epidemics around the world after been rebounded. Although this infection shows a low mortality rate, patients suffer from fever, arthralgia, and maculopapular rashes, which reduce the quality of life for several weeks to years. The currently available treatments only provide symptomatic relief based on analgesics, antipyretics, and anti-inflammatory drugs which are nonspecific without satisfactory results. Medicinal plants are a widely accepted source of new molecules for the treatment of infectious diseases including viral infections. The scientific reports, primarily focusing on the anti-chikungunya activity of plant extracts, natural origin pure compounds, and their synthetic analog published from 2011 to 2021, were selected from PubMed, Google Scholar, and Scopus by using related keywords like anti-chikungunya plants, natural antivirals for Chikungunya. The present review decodes scientific reports on medicinal plants against chikungunya virus (CHIKV) infection and demystifies the potential phytoconstituents which reveals that the screening of flavonoids containing plants and phytochemicals showing efficacy against other arbovirus infections, may prove as a potential lead for drug development against CHIKV. The present article also outlines pathogenesis, clinical aspects, molecular virology, and diagnostic approaches of CHIKV infection.

A Review of Medicinal Plants with Antiviral Activity Available in Bangladesh and Mechanistic Insight Into Their Bioactive Metabolites on SARS-CoV-2, HIV and HBV

Currently, viral infection is the most serious health issue which causing unexpected higher rate of death globally. Many viruses are not yet curable, such as corona virus-2 (SARS-CoV-2), human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), hepatitis virus, human papilloma virus and so others. Furthermore, the toxicities and ineffective responses to resistant strains of synthetic antiviral drugs have reinforced the search of effective and alternative treatment options, such as plant-derived antiviral drug molecules. Therefore, in the present review, an attempt has been taken to summarize the medicinal plants reported for exhibiting antiviral activities available in Bangladesh along with discussing the mechanistic insights into their bioactive components against three most hazardous viruses, namely SARS-CoV-2, HIV, and HBV. The review covers 46 medicinal plants with antiviral activity from 25 families. Among the reported 79 bioactive compounds having antiviral activities isolated from these plants, about 37 of them have been reported for significant activities against varieties of viruses. Hesperidin, apigenin, luteolin, seselin, 6-gingerol, humulene epoxide, quercetin, kaempferol, curcumin, and epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG) have been reported to inhibit multiple molecular targets of SARS-CoV-2 viral replication in a number of in silico investigations. Besides, numerous in silico, in vitro, and in vivo bioassays have been demonstrated that EGCG, anolignan-A, and B, ajoene, curcumin, and oleanolic acid exhibit anti-HIV activity while piperine, ursolic acid, oleanolic acid, (+)-cycloolivil-4'-O-β-d-glucopyranoside, quercetin, EGCG, kaempferol, aloin, apigenin, rosmarinic acid, andrographolide, and hesperidin possess anti-HBV activity. Thus, the antiviral medicinal plants and the isolated bioactive compounds may be considered for further advanced investigations with the aim of the development of effective and affordable antiviral drugs.

The Cat Que Virus: a resurfacing orthobunyavirus could lead to epidemics

The newly emerging and re-emerging of viral contagion in the present scenario are of more extensive health concern. After a long calm of many years, an unexpected eruption of the Cat Que Virus in China is a source of our concern. Cat Que Virus is an Arbovirus and belongs to the Simbu serogroup of the Orthobunyavirus genus of the Bunyaviridae family. The Simbu serogroup is an extremely diverse group of Arbovirus. The arboviruses are causing the infection in multiple hosts including humans and various livestock. They can cause mild to life-threatening infections. Arboviruses expand their spectrum and are more observable in recent times. Human actions have the most significant geophysical impact on the environment. Changes in rainfall patterns, floods, and the risk of extreme weather events are all consequences of climate change. These events may be connected to the extension of permissive vectors, geographic ranges, and therefore provide more chance of growth and spread of potential vector. Arboviruses are responsible for the health hazard to millions of people globally. It is critical to concentrate research and surveillance on these emerging and re-emerging viruses, particularly arthropod-borne viral infections. The appropriate research and surveillance on them will help us for the development of effective control and treatment strategies and also reduce health problems. The present review summarizes the current broad outline of discovery, evolution and dispersal of this unknown virus.

Zingiber officinale: Ayurvedic Uses of the Plant and In Silico Binding Studies of Selected Phytochemicals With Mpro of SARS-CoV-2

Among the large number of plants that are part of the Ayurvedic system of medicine in India and Bangladesh, Zingiber officinale Roscoe (Zingiberaceae), or ginger in English, holds a special place and is often referred to as “Mahaushadha” (great medicine) and “Vishvabhesaja” (worldwide or universal herb) to signify its special status. The plant and particularly its rhizomes are used both in the raw and dry form for the relief of a multitude of disorders. Since a number of these disorders occur in patients infected with severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), it was of interest to perform in silico studies (molecular docking) to evaluate the binding affinities of a number of constituents of Zingiber officinale with the 3C-like protease or main protease (Mpro) of SARS-CoV-2, which plays an essential role in the cleavage of viral polyproteins and subsequent viral replication. Our studies indicated that 2 of the compounds present in ginger, namely, chlorogenic acid and hesperidin, had high binding affinities for Mpro with predicted binding energies of −7.5 and −8.3 kcal/mol. The two-dimensional and three-dimensional interactions also showed that, while chlorogenic acid interacts with one of the His41 amino acids of the catalytic dyad of Mpro, hesperidin interacts with the other amino acid Cys145, which can account for their predicted high binding energies and, therefore, possibly can inhibit Mpro activity. Taken together, our findings indicate that ginger, besides alleviating the symptoms induced by SARS-CoV-2, may also play a role in inhibiting the virus.

Ayurveda Rasayana as antivirals and immunomodulators: potential applications in COVID-19

Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) has been declared as a pandemic by the World Health Organization with rapid spread across 216 countries. COVID-19 pandemic has left its imprints on various health systems globally and caused immense social and economic disruptions. The scientific community across the globe is in a quest for digging the effective treatment for COVID-19 and exploring potential leads from traditional systems of healthcare across the world too. Ayurveda (Indian traditional system of medicine) has a comprehensive aspect of immunity through Rasayana which is a rejuvenation therapy. Here we attempt to generate the potential leads based on the classical text from Ayurveda in general and Rasayana in particular to develop effective antiviral and/or immunomodulator for potential or adjunct therapy in SARS-CoV-2. The Rasayana acts not only by resisting body to restrain or withstand the strength, severity or progression of a disease but also by promoting power of the body to prevent the manifestation of a disease. These Rasayana herbs are common in practice as immunomodulator, antiviral and protectives. The studies on Rasayana can provide an insight into the future course of research for the plausible development of effective management of COVID-19 by the utilization and development of various traditional systems of healthcare. Keeping in view the current pandemic situation, there is an urgent need of developing potential medicines. This study proposes certain prominent medicinal plants which may be further studied for drug development process and also in clinical setup under repurposing of these herbs.

Therapeutic potential of ginger against COVID-19: Is there enough evidence?

In addition to the respiratory system, severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) strikes other systems, including the digestive, circulatory, urogenital, and even the central nervous system, as its receptor angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) is expressed in various organs, such as lungs, intestine, heart, esophagus, kidneys, bladder, testis, liver, and brain. Different mechanisms, in particular, massive virus replication, extensive apoptosis and necrosis of the lung-related epithelial and endothelial cells, vascular leakage, hyper-inflammatory responses, overproduction of pro-inflammatory mediators, cytokine storm, oxidative stress, downregulation of ACE2, and impairment of the renin-angiotensin system contribute to the COVID-19 pathogenesis. Currently, COVID-19 is a global pandemic with no specific anti-viral treatment. The favorable capabilities of the ginger were indicated in patients suffering from osteoarthritis, neurodegenerative disorders, rheumatoid arthritis, type 2 diabetes, respiratory distress, liver diseases and primary dysmenorrheal. Ginger or its compounds exhibited strong anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidative influences in numerous animal models. This review provides evidence regarding the potential effects of ginger against SARS-CoV-2 infection and highlights its antiviral, anti-inflammatory, antioxidative, and immunomodulatory impacts in an attempt to consider this plant as an alternative therapeutic agent for COVID-19 treatment.

Antiviral medicinal plants found in Lanna traditional medicine

Traditional medicine uses a multitude of plants to create medicinal formulations, some of which show antiviral properties that may be of benefit in treating emerging viral diseases, including Covid-19. Lanna, an ancient Kingdom in Northern Thailand, with a thriving culture that continues to this day and has a rich history of traditional medicine using local plants that is still practiced today. To find potential antiviral medicinal candidates, we examined ancient manuscripts, interviewed traditional healers practicing today, and inventoried current traditional medicines to catalogue 1400 medicinal formulations used in Lanna traditional medicine. We then narrowed this list to find those traditionally used to treat diseases that in their original use and descriptions most likely map to those we know today to be viral diseases. We identified the plants used in these formulations to create a list of 64 potential antiviral herbal candidates drawn from this ancient Lanna wisdom and matched these to the scientific literature to see which of these plants had already been shown to possess antiviral properties, generating a list of 64 potential antiviral medicinal candidates from Lanna traditional medicine worth further investigation for treating emerging viral diseases.

Herbal plants as immunity modulators against COVID-19: A primary preventive measure during home quarantine

The novel coronavirus or severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS‐CoV‐2) is a deadly virus which has spread globally and claimed millions of lives. This novel virus transmits mainly through droplets and close human contact. It’s impact in different countries varies depending on geographical location, climatic conditions, food habits, and cultural activities. Several precautionary measures, as well as many medicines, are applied in different combinations to limit the spread of infection. This results in a preliminary relief of people infected in the first stage of infection. An alternative approach has been introduced which proposes natural herbs, which have minimal or no side effects, and improve overall immunity. Some essential herbs with their immunomodulatory effects are mentioned in this article along with suggestions for improved immunity and protection.

Identifying potential human and medicinal plant microRNAs against SARS-CoV-2 3'UTR region: A computational genomics assessment

The coronavirus disease of 2019 (COVID-19) began as an outbreak and has taken a toll on human lives. The current pandemic requires scientific attention; hence we designed a systematic computational workflow to identify the cellular microRNAs (miRNAs) from human host possessing the capability to target and silence 3′UTR of SARS-CoV-2 genome. Based on this viewpoint, we extended our miRNA search to medicinal plants like Ocimum tenuiflorum, Zingiber officinale and Piper nigrum, which are well-known to possess antiviral properties, and are often consumed raw or as herbal decoctions. Such an approach, that makes use of miRNA of one species to interact and silence genes of another species including viruses is broadly categorized as cross-kingdom interactions. As a part of our genomics study on host-virus-plant interaction, we identified one unique 3′UTR conserved site ‘GGAAGAG’ amongst 5024 globally submitted SARS-CoV-2 complete genomes, which can be targeted by the human miRNA ‘hsa-miR-1236–3p’ and by Z. officinale miRNA ‘zof-miR2673b’. Additionally, we also predicted that the members of miR477 family commonly found in these three plant genomes possess an inherent potential to silence viral genome RNA and facilitate antiviral defense against SARS-CoV-2 infection. In conclusion, this study reveals a universal site in the SARS-CoV-2 genome that may be crucial for targeted therapeutics to cure COVID-19.

Is Trikatu; an ayurvedic formulation effective for the management of flu-like illness? A narrative review

OBJECTIVES

The aim of this review is to summarise and appraise the findings of various studies on Trikatu.

CONTENT

COVID-19 or SARS-CoV-2 disease a pandemic principally contaminating the respiratory tract and bringing about Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome is liable for significant mortality around the world. Far-fetched, there is no exact treatment accessible till today. Consequently, it is critical to discover the alternative methodology which can decrease the weight of illness. Trikatu powder recommended by authorities for the management of mild cases of COVID-19 is a conventional ayurvedic formulation containing three spices; Zingiber officinale, Piper nigrum, and Piper longum. A comprehensive search of the articles published since inception to 01/08/2020 on Trikatu was carried out. Major electronic medical databases such as Pub Med/MEDLINE and Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews were used for the literature search.

SUMMARY

A total of 21 records were identified by electronic searches between since inception to 01/08/2020 of which 13 records were included for review. The reviewed articles highlight Trikatu as a safe, anti-inflammatory, and immune-modulatory property by suppression of the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines TNF-a, IL-1b, IL-6, IL-17, alteration in levels of circulating immune complexes, anti-dyslipidaemia agent by reduced triglycerides and LDL cholesterol and increased HDL cholesterol, enhancing bio-availability of co-drug by reducing the elimination half-life (t1/2β) and zero time intercept of the elimination phase.

OUTLOOK

The findings of this review seem to show Trikatu as a potential anti-inflammatory, anti-dyslipidaemia, and immune-modulatory ayurvedic formulation can be used for combating flu like illnesses and also in the management of COVID-19 as an adjuvant. However, rigorous double blind randomized controlled trials with larger sample size are warranted for better validation in such clinical conditions.

HIGHLIGHTS

– COVID-19 has affected the lives of millions worldwide and unfortunately no precise treatment available till today. – Trikatu an ayurvedic formulation suggested by various authorities in India. – Trikatu found to be a potential anti-inflammatory; anti-dyslipidaemia and immune-modulatory drug can be used for combating flu like illnesses.

Phytochemical Moieties From Indian Traditional Medicine for Targeting Dual Hotspots on SARS-CoV-2 Spike Protein: An Integrative in-silico Approach

SARS-CoV-2 infection across the world has led to immense turbulence in the treatment modality, thus demanding a swift drug discovery process. Spike protein of SARS-CoV-2 binds to ACE2 receptor of human to initiate host invasion. Plethora of studies demonstrate the inhibition of Spike-ACE2 interactions to impair infection. The ancient Indian traditional medicine has been of great interest of Virologists worldwide to decipher potential antivirals. Hence, in this study, phytochemicals (1,952 compounds) from eight potential medicinal plants used in Indian traditional medicine were meticulously collated, based on their usage in respiratory disorders, along with immunomodulatory and anti-viral potential from contemporary literature. Further, these compounds were virtually screened against Receptor Binding Domain (RBD) of Spike protein. The potential compounds from each plant were prioritized based on the binding affinity, key hotspot interactions at ACE2 binding region and glycosylation sites. Finally, the potential hits in complex with spike protein were subjected to Molecular Dynamics simulation (450 ns), to infer the stability of complex formation. Among the compounds screened, Tellimagrandin-II (binding energy of −8.2 kcal/mol and binding free energy of −32.08 kcal/mol) from Syzygium aromaticum L. and O-Demethyl-demethoxy-curcumin (binding energy of −8.0 kcal/mol and binding free energy of −12.48 kcal/mol) from Curcuma longa L. were found to be highly potential due to their higher binding affinity and significant binding free energy (MM-PBSA), along with favorable ADMET properties and stable intermolecular interactions with hotspots (including the ASN343 glycosylation site). The proposed hits are highly promising, as these are resultant of stringent in silico checkpoints, traditionally used, and are documented through contemporary literature. Hence, could serve as promising leads for subsequent experimental validations.

Phytochemicals from Plant Foods as Potential Source of Antiviral Agents: An Overview

To date, the leading causes of mortality and morbidity worldwide include viral infections, such as Ebola, influenza virus, acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) and recently COVID-19 disease, caused by the SARS-CoV-2 virus. Currently, we can count on a narrow range of antiviral drugs, especially older generation ones like ribavirin and interferon which are effective against viruses in vitro but can often be ineffective in patients. In addition to these, we have antiviral agents for the treatment of herpes virus, influenza virus, HIV and hepatitis virus. Recently, drugs used in the past especially against ebolavirus, such as remdesivir and favipiravir, have been considered for the treatment of COVID-19 disease. However, even if these drugs represent important tools against viral diseases, they are certainly not sufficient to defend us from the multitude of viruses present in the environment. This represents a huge problem, especially considering the unprecedented global threat due to the advancement of COVID-19, which represents a potential risk to the health and life of millions of people. The demand, therefore, for new and effective antiviral drugs is very high. This review focuses on three fundamental points: (1) presents the main threats to human health, reviewing the most widespread viral diseases in the world, thus describing the scenario caused by the disease in question each time and evaluating the specific therapeutic remedies currently available. (2) It comprehensively describes main phytochemical classes, in particular from plant foods, with proven antiviral activities, the viruses potentially treated with the described phytochemicals. (3) Consideration of the various applications of drug delivery systems in order to improve the bioavailability of these compounds or extracts. A PRISMA flow diagram was used for the inclusion of the works. Taking into consideration the recent dramatic events caused by COVID-19 pandemic, the cry of alarm that denounces critical need for new antiviral drugs is extremely strong. For these reasons, a continuous systematic exploration of plant foods and their phytochemicals is necessary for the development of new antiviral agents capable of saving lives and improving their well-being.

In-vitro and in-silico evaluation of the anti-chikungunya potential of Psidium guajava leaf extract and their synthesized silver nanoparticles

Chikungunya is a notorious viral infection, which affects a large segment of world populations in absence of vaccines and antivirals. The current study evaluates of anti-chikungunya activities of Psidium guajava leaves extract and their green synthesized silver nanoparticles. Green synthesized nanoparticles were well characterized for their size and stability by dynamic light scattering (DLS), zeta potential, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and their functional groups were analyzed by FTIR. Maximum non-toxic doses (MNTD) of extracts and nanoparticles were analysed by using Vero cell-lines. Anti-chikungunya activities of extracts and nano-particles were determined on Vero cells and their effects on cell viability were measured by MTT assay. The P. guajava nano-particles and extracts revealed the anti-chikungunya activities in the Vero cell. The cells viability was increased by 40% and 60% as compared to the virus control, when these cells were treated with MNTD of P. guajava nano-particles and extracts, respectively. To know the reason for antiviral activity, molecular docking of phytochemicals was done against a replication essential cysteine protease (nsP2) of Chikungunya. It was found that phytochemicals; Longifollen and Quercetin showed the minimum binding energy with nsP2. P. guajava extracts can be exploited to develop an effective anti-chikungunya agent. In the absence of CHIKV vaccines and antivirals, P. guajava may be used to develop rapid, responsive, specific, and cost-effective anti-chikungunya agents.

A review on antiviral and immunomodulatory polysaccharides from Indian medicinal plants, which may be beneficial to COVID-19 infected patients

The emergence of the novel coronavirus, SARS-CoV-2 has pushed forward the world to experience the first pandemic of this century. Any specific drug against this RNA virus is yet to be discovered and presently, the COVID-19 infected patients are being treated symptomatically. During the last few decades, a number of polysaccharides with potential biological activities have been invented from Indian medicinal plants. Many polysaccharides, such as sulfated xylomannan, xylan, pectins, fucoidans, glucans, glucoarabinan, and arabinoxylan from Indian medicinal plants, have been shown to exhibit antiviral and immunomodulating activities. Plant polysaccharides exhibit antiviral activities through interference with the viral life cycle and inhibition of attachment of virus to host cell. Intake of certain immune stimulating plant polysaccharides may also protect from the virus to a certain extent. In process of continuous search for most potent drug, Indian plant polysaccharides may emerge as significant biomaterial to combat COVID-19. This review explores a number of polysaccharides from Indian medicinal plants which showed antiviral and immunomodulating activities. It is aimed to provide an overview about the composition, molecular mass, branching configuration and related bioactivities of polysaccharides which is crucial for their classification as possible drug to induce immune response in viral diseases.

Demystifying therapeutic potential of medicinal plants against chikungunya virus

Viral infections are posing a great threat to humanity for the last few years. Among these, Chikungunya which is a mosquito-borne viral infection has produced enormous epidemics around the world after been rebounded. Although this infection shows a low mortality rate, patients suffer from fever, arthralgia, and maculopapular rashes, which reduce the quality of life for several weeks to years. The currently available treatments only provide symptomatic relief based on analgesics, antipyretics, and anti-inflammatory drugs which are nonspecific without satisfactory results. Medicinal plants are a widely accepted source of new molecules for the treatment of infectious diseases including viral infections. The scientific reports, primarily focusing on the anti-chikungunya activity of plant extracts, natural origin pure compounds, and their synthetic analog published from 2011 to 2021, were selected from PubMed, Google Scholar, and Scopus by using related keywords like anti-chikungunya plants, natural antivirals for Chikungunya. The present review decodes scientific reports on medicinal plants against chikungunya virus (CHIKV) infection and demystifies the potential phytoconstituents which reveals that the screening of flavonoids containing plants and phytochemicals showing efficacy against other arbovirus infections, may prove as a potential lead for drug development against CHIKV. The present article also outlines pathogenesis, clinical aspects, molecular virology, and diagnostic approaches of CHIKV infection.

Footprint of the COVID-19 Pandemic in India: A Study of Immune Landscape and Other Factors Shielding Mortality

The impact of the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic has significantly affected global health and created a world crisis. The exponentially increasing numbers of infection and mortality have made preventive measures challenging. India being a highly populated nation has so far effectively counteracted the pandemic outbreak with a significantly lower rate of mortality despite the high infection rates. The genetic architecture of the immune response genes in the Indian population, BCG vaccination, the predominantly young age group of people, and their traditional food habits might contribute to the lower rate of mortality. Human leukocyte antigens (HLA) play a vital role in triggering T cells, and natural killer (NK) cells can immediately react to eliminate infected cells. Activation of virus-specific CD4+ T cells and CD8+ cytotoxic T cells selectively targets the infected cells and strengthens the immunoregulatory system. The checkpoint for NK cell function is the engagement of killer Ig-like receptors (KIR) molecules with their respective HLA ligands overexpressed or expressed on the compromised virus-infected cells which have shown polymorphism among different ethnic groups. Here, we explore if certain KIR-HLA motifs grant Indians a survival advantage in terms of the low rate of mortality. Additionally, enhanced immunity through BCG vaccination may favor fruitful eradication of SARS-CoV-2 and provide the way out as in therapeutic intervention and vaccination strategies.

Molecular Docking Studies on the Anti-viral Effects of Compounds From Kabasura Kudineer on SARS-CoV-2 3CLpro

The COVID-19 has now been declared a global pandemic by the World Health Organization. No approved drug is currently available; therefore, an urgent need has been developed for any antiviral therapy for COVID-19. Main protease 3CL^pro of this novel Coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) play a critical role in the disease propagation, and hence represent a crucial target for the drug discovery. Herein, we have applied a bioinformatics approach for drug repurposing to identify the possible potent inhibitors of SARS-CoV-2 main proteases 3CL^pro (6LU7). In search of the anti-COVID-19 compound, we selected 145 phyto-compounds from Kabasura kudineer (KK), a poly-herbal formulation recommended by AYUSH for COVID-19 which are effective against fever, cough, sore throat, shortness of breath (similar to SARS-CoV2-like symptoms). The present study aims to identify molecules from natural products which may inhibit COVID-19 by acting on the main protease (3CL^pro). Obtained results by molecular docking showed that Acetoside (−153.06), Luteolin 7 -rutinoside (−134.6) rutin (−133.06), Chebulagic acid (−124.3), Syrigaresinol (−120.03), Acanthoside (−122.21), Violanthin (−114.9), Andrographidine C (−101.8), myricetin (−99.96), Gingerenone -A (−93.9), Tinosporinone (−83.42), Geraniol (−62.87), Nootkatone (−62.4), Asarianin (−79.94), and Gamma sitosterol (−81.94) are main compounds from KK plants which may inhibit COVID-19 giving the better energy score compared to synthetic drugs. Based on the binding energy score, we suggest that these compounds can be tested against Coronavirus and used to develop effective antiviral drugs.

Network pharmacology of AYUSH recommended immune-boosting medicinal plants against COVID-19

The Ministry of AYUSH recommended the use of a decoction of the mixture of Ocimum tenuiflorum, Cinnamomum verum, Piper nigrum, Zingiber officinale, and Vitis vinifera as a preventive measure by boosting the immunity against the severity of infection caused by a novel coronavirus (COVID-19). The present study aimed to identify the probable modulated pathways by the combined action of AYUSH recommended herbal tea and golden milk formulation as an immune booster against COVID-19. Reported phytoconstituents of all the medicinal plants were retrieved from the ChEBI database, and their targets were predicted using DIGEP-Pred. STRING database and Cytoscape were used to predict the protein–protein interaction and construct the network, respectively. Likewise, MolSoft and admet SAR2.0 were used to predict the druglikeness score and ADMET profile of phytoconstituents. The study identified the modulation of HIF-1, p53, PI3K-Akt, MAPK, cAMP, Ras, Wnt, NF-kappa B, IL-17, TNF, and cGMP-PKG signaling pathways to boost the immune system. Further, multiple pathways were also identified which are involved in the regulation of pathogenesis of the multiple infections and non-infectious diseases due to the lower immune system. Results indicated that the recommended herbal formulation not only modulated the pathways involved in boosting the immunity but also modulated the multiple pathways that are contributing to the progression of multiple disease pathogenesis which would add the beneficial effect in the co-morbid patients of hypertension and diabetes. The study provides the scientific documentation of the role of the Ayurvedic formulation to combat COVID-19.

Molecular docking analysis of selected phytochemicals against SARS-CoV-2 Mpro receptor

Presently world is on a war with the novel coronavirus and with no immediate treatments available the scourge caused by the SARS-CoV-2 is increasing day by day. A lot of researches are going on for the potential drug candidate that could help the healthcare system in this fight. Plants are a natural data bank of bioactive compounds. Many phytochemicals are being studied for various ailments including cancer, bacterial and viral infections, etc. The present study aims to screen 38 bioactive compounds from 5 selected plants viz., Azadirachta indica, Curcuma longa, Zingiber officinale, Ocimum basilicum and Panax ginseng against SARS-CoV-2. Lipinski’s rule was taken as the foundation for initial screening. Shortlisted compounds were subjected to molecular docking study with M^pro receptor present in SARS-CoV-2. The study identified that gedunin, epoxyazadiradione, nimbin and ginsenosides have potential to inhibit M^pro activity and their binding energies are − 9.51 kcal/mol, − 8.47 kcal/mol, − 8.66 kcal/mol and − 9.63 kcal/mol respectively. Based on bioavailability radar studies gedunin and epoxyazadiradione are the two most potent compounds which are used for molecular dynamics simulation studies. Molecular dynamics studies showed that gedunin is more potent than epoxyazadiradione. To find the effectiveness and to propose the exact mechanism, in-vitro studies can be further performed on gedunin.

COVID-19: Emergence of Infectious Diseases, Nanotechnology Aspects, Challenges, and Future Perspectives

Wuhan, a city of China, is the epicenter for the pandemic outbreak of coronavirus disease-2019 (COVID-19). It has become a severe public health challenge to the world and established a public health emergency of international worry. This infectious disease has pulled down the economy of almost all top developed nations. The coronaviruses (CoVs) known for various epidemics caused time to time. Infectious diseases such as severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) and middle east respiratory syndrome (MERS), followed by COVID-19, are all coronaviruses led outbreaks that scourged the history of mankind. CoVs evolved themselves to more infectious, transmissible, and more pandemic with time. To prevent the spread of the SARS-CoV-2, many countries have ordered the complete lockdown to combat the outbreak. This paper briefly discussed the historical background of CoVs and the evolution of human coronaviruses (HCoVs), the case studies and the development of their antiviral medications. The viral infection encountered with present-day challenges and futuristic approaches with the help of nanotechnology to minimize the spread of infectious viruses. The antiviral drugs and their clinical advances, along with herbal medicines for viral inhibition and immunity boosters, are described. Elaboration of tables related to CoVs for the compilation of the literature has been adopted for the better understanding.