The Role of General Parenting Style in Child Diet and Obesity Risk

Interactions between parenting styles, child anxiety, and oppositionality in selective mutism

Selective mutism (SM) is a poorly understood condition, and debate continues regarding its etiology and classification. Research suggests that a genetic vulnerability may play a role in the development of the disorder which may be compounded by anxious and over-protective parenting. While previous studies supported the role of parenting styles in the development of SM, most of them examined child and parent factors in isolation. The current study examined how the interactions between child internalizing and externalizing behaviors (anxiety and oppositionality, respectively) and parenting styles (authoritative, permissive, and authoritarian) are associated with SM diagnosis. The study included 285 children aged 3-7 years (57.2% females), and their parents (66 children with SM and 219 typically developed children). Parents completed questionnaires about child social anxiety, oppositional behavior, SM severity, and their parenting style. Results showed that parents of children with SM reported lower levels of authoritative practices than those of typically developed children. We also found that child social anxiety and oppositionality moderated the effects of authoritative and authoritarian parenting practices on SM diagnosis. Our results suggest that child anxiety and oppositionality may explain the different susceptibility of children to adaptive and maladaptive parenting styles.

Parent childhood experiences, parenting strategies, and youth health-related outcomes in Hispanic families with unhealthy weight: An intergenerational study

We aimed to examine whether (a) parents' childhood family mealtime experiences (CFM) (e.g., mealtime communication-based stress) and parents' socio-demographic characteristics (e.g., education level) predict parents' health-related parenting strategies (e.g., discipline), (b) health-related parenting strategies for eating and physical activity predict youth's health-related outcomes (e.g., dietary intake), (c) parenting strategies mediate the relationship between CFM and youth outcomes. A path model was used to examine the above-mentioned relationships. Data were obtained from the baseline assessment of a randomized clinical trial evaluating the efficacy of a family-based intervention to promote quality diet and increase physical activity. Participants were 280 Hispanic youth (52.1 % female, Mage = 13.01 ± 0.83) with unhealthy weight (MBody Mass Index %tile = 94.55 ± 4.15) and their parents (88.2 % female, Mage = 41.87 ± 6.49). Results indicated that childhood mealtime communication-based stress and mealtime structure were positively associated with control. Appearance weight control was positively associated with monitoring, discipline, limit-setting, and reinforcement. Parental mealtime control had positive associations with discipline, control, and limit-setting. Emphasis on mother's weight was positively associated with reinforcement. We also found positive associations between parental monitoring and youth's physical QOL and between parental discipline and fruits and vegetables intake. No mediating effect was found. Findings demonstrated significant effects of parents' childhood experience on parenting strategies, which in turn was associated with the youths' health-related outcomes. These results suggest the intergenerational effects of parent's childhood experience on their youth's health-related outcomes.

The temporal stability of maternal parenting style and child feeding practices: A six-wave longitudinal study

Although parenting styles and child feeding practices are conceptualized as distal, static predictors of child eating and weight outcomes, few studies have examined the temporal stability (i.e., change over time) of these parenting measures. Also, parental characteristics, such as mental health or socio-demographics, may make it more or less difficult to sustain consistent parenting behavior. This study examined the temporal stability of parenting styles and child feeding practices and the association between temporal stability indices with maternal sociodemographic and mental health characteristics. The analytic sample included 161 ethnically diverse mothers enrolled in a six-wave bi-annual longitudinal study. During each wave, mothers reported on their parenting styles and child feeding practices using validated self-report questionnaires. Temporal stability indices for parenting styles were moderate for authoritative (ICC = 0.57) and authoritarian (ICC = 0.70) styles, yet high for permissive (ICC = 0.78) styles. Temporal stability scores for child feeding practices were low for discipline (ICC = 0.33), limit setting (ICC = 0.33), monitoring (ICC = 0.36), and pressure to eat (ICC = 0.34); however, restriction (ICC = 0.53) and role modeling of healthy eating were moderate (ICC = 0.73). Greater income and education status were positively associated with stability in authoritative, authoritarian, and permissive parenting styles, as well as with limit setting, monitoring, role modeling of healthy eating, and pressure to eat feeding practices. Higher anxiety and depressive symptoms and lower self-esteem were negatively associated with permissive parenting styles and role modeling of healthy eating. Findings show that maternal parenting styles and child feeding practices fluctuate over time, and sociodemographic and mental health characteristics are related to stability of some of these parenting styles and behaviors.

Impact of prenatal maternal dietary exclusion on childhood obesity and overweight risk

BACKGROUND

Child birthweight is a measure of fetal nutrition that is primarily determined by prenatal maternal (PM) diet. Child birthweight and child obesity/overweight risk are well established to be linked. Nevertheless, no studies have investigated the impact of PM dietary exclusion on child obesity/overweight risk or body mass index z-score (BMIz).

OBJECTIVES

The study aimed to determine whether PM dietary exclusion affected the child's BMIz, obesity/overweight risk, whether child birthweight serves as a mediator of this, and whether PM use of dietary supplements can protect against this.

METHODS

Waves within the years 2004-2019 from the Longitudinal Study of Australian Children, a population-based cohort study, were analyzed. The participants were aged 0 to 15 years during these waves of the study. Analysis was conducted using logistic and linear models. A total of 5,107 participants were involved in the first wave of the study.

RESULTS

The PM exclusion of fish was associated with a higher risk of being underweight at age 14 or 15 years and mild-to-moderate obesity at age 6 or 7 years. The PM exclusion of egg was associated with a higher risk of being overweight at age 14 or 15 years. The exclusion of dairy was associated with more mixed effects. Mediation effects did not reach statistical significance. Moderation effects involving PM dietary supplement use, when they did occur, were associated with higher child BMIz and usually a higher risk of obesity/overweight.

CONCLUSIONS

Fish and eggs are likely important parts of PM diets for preventing childhood obesity and overweight. Further studies will be needed to determine reasons for this and the apparent adverse effects of dietary supplements on overweight/obesity risk.

Exploring the Interaction Between Preschool Executive Control and Caregiver Emotion Socialization in Predicting Adolescent Weight Trajectories

There is a critical need for research examining how neural vulnerabilities associated with obesity, including lower executive control, interact with family factors to impact weight trajectories across adolescence. Utilizing a longitudinal design, the present study investigated caregivers' emotion socialization practices as a moderator of the association between preschool executive control and adolescent body mass index (BMI) trajectories. Participants were 229 youth (Mage = 5.24, SD = 0.03; 47.2% assigned female at birth; 73.8% White, 3.9% Black, 0.4% Asian American, 21.8% multiracial; 12.7% Hispanic) enrolled in a longitudinal study. At preschool-age, participants completed performance-based executive control tasks, and their caregivers reported on their typical emotion-related socialization behaviors (i.e., supportive and nonsupportive responses to children's negative emotions). Participants returned for annual laboratory visits at ages 14 through 17, during which their height and weight were measured to calculate BMI. Although neither preschool executive control nor caregiver emotion-related socialization behaviors were directly associated with BMI growth in adolescence, supportive responses moderated the association between executive control and BMI trajectories. The expected negative association between lower preschool executive control and greater BMI growth was present at below average levels of supportive responses, suggesting that external regulation afforded by supportive responses might reduce risk for adolescent overweight and obesity among children with lower internal self-regulatory resources during preschool. Findings highlight the importance of efforts to bolster executive control early in development and targeted interventions to promote effective caregiver emotion socialization (i.e., more supportive responses) for youth with lower internal self-regulatory abilities to mitigate risk for overweight and obesity and promote health across childhood and adolescence.

Family-based pediatric weight management interventions in US primary care settings targeting children ages 6-12 years old: A systematic review guided by the RE-AIM framework

Obesity is a pandemic that disproportionately affects children from vulnerable populations in the USA. Current treatment approaches in primary care settings in the USA have been reported to be insufficient at managing pediatric obesity, primarily due to implementation challenges for healthcare systems and barriers for families. While the literature has examined the efficacy of pediatric obesity interventions focused on internal validity, it lacks sufficient reporting and analysis of external validity necessary for successful translation to primary care settings. We conducted a systematic review of the primary-care-setting literature from January 2007 to March 2020 on family-based pediatric weight management interventions in both English and/or Spanish for children ages 6-12 years in the USA using the Reach, Efficacy/Effectiveness, Adoption, Implementation, Maintenance (RE-AIM) framework. A literature search, using PRISMA guidelines, was conducted in January 2022 using the following electronic databases: Medline Ovid, Embase, and Cochrane Library. 22 270 records were screened, and 376 articles were reviewed in full. 184 studies were included. The most commonly reported dimensions of the RE-AIM framework were Reach (65%), Efficacy/Effectiveness (64%), and Adoption (64%), while Implementation (47%) and Maintenance (42%) were less often reported. The prevalence of reporting RE-AIM construct indicators ranged greatly, from 1% to 100%. This systematic review underscores the need for more focus on external validity to guide the development, implementation, and dissemination of future pediatric obesity interventions based in primary care settings. It also suggests conducting additional research on sustainable financing for pediatric obesity interventions.

The relationship between family function and the incidence of overweight/obesity in children and adolescents in Chengdu city, Sichuan province of China: based on latent profile analysis

BACKGROUND

Overweight/obesity in children and adolescents has become a global health problem, and family function may be associated with its occurrence. Studies exploring the association between family function and overweight/obesity in children and adolescents were performed in Western and Taiwan, China. To date, related studies haven't been conducted in Mainland China.

OBJECTIVES

To investigate the current status of overweight, obesity, and family function among children and adolescents in Chengdu, China, and to explore their associations.

METHODS

Children and adolescents in five primary and middle schools were chosen by cluster sampling. Body Mass Index was used to measure the status of overweight and obesity, and the Chinese family assessment instrument was adopted to assess family function. Latent profile analysis and stepwise logistic regression were applied to identify family classification and explore the relationships between family function and overweight/obesity.

RESULTS

A total of 7616 (84.92%) children and adolescents out of 8968 completed the study with qualified-filled questionnaires. Nine hundred and sixty-six (12.68%)participants were overweight and 656 (8.61%) were obese. The family function was categorized into three profiles: mild (63.93%), moderate (12.32%), and severe (23.75%) dysfunction. The prevalence of overweight was 12.16%, 14.71%, and 13.05% for mild, moderate, and severe family dysfunction, respectively. And the prevalence of obesity was 8.19%, 10.77%, and 8.62% respectively. Participants in moderate and severe dysfunction families were more likely to be overweight (moderate: OR = 1.27, 95% CI:1.01 ~ 1.59, P = 0.04; severe: OR = 1.38, 95% CI:1.15 ~ 1.66, P = 0.001) and obese (moderate: OR = 1.35, 95% CI:1.02 ~ 1.79, P = 0.03; severe: OR = 1.55, 95% CI:1.23 ~ 1.96, P < 0.001). Sociodemographic data such as gender, residence, grade, pocket money per week, the number of siblings, and the education level of the mother were all associated with the risk of being overweight/obese in children and adolescents.

CONCLUSIONS

The problems of being overweight or obese exist among children and adolescents in Chengdu. And the risk of being overweight or obese increases along with the decrease in family function.

Strategies elementary school children use to influence mothers' food purchasing decisions

This study aimed to understand the strategies elementary-school-aged children used to influence mothers' food purchasing decisions. Semi-structured qualitative interviews were conducted with 40 children aged 6-11 years and their mothers living in South Carolina. Strategies to influence mothers' food purchases were collected from children and their mothers separately. The interviews were audio-recorded, transcribed verbatim, and open-coded. The constant comparative method was used for data analysis. Coding matrices were used to compare children's and mothers' responses on the children's strategies. Children reported 157 instances of 25 distinct strategies to influence mothers' purchasing decisions. Mothers had concordance with 83 instances of these strategies. Mothers were more concordant with sons than daughters. The most common and successful strategies reported by children and mothers were repeated polite requests, reasoned requests and referencing friends. Other strategies included offers to contribute money or service, using other family members to pursue mothers for the item, writing a list and grabbing desired items. Mothers perceived that children had a large influence on food purchasing decisions. Children were aware of the strategies that would get positive reactions from mothers. They (children) could get their desired items a lot of times, often, or several times in a month from their mothers irrespective of the healthfulness of the items. Children's influence can be used as a change agent for improving mothers' food purchases if children prefer healthy foods. Efforts are needed for mothers and children to help address children's strategies to influence mothers to purchase unhealthy foods and make healthy foods more appealing to children.

Helicopter Parenting Among Socio-Economically and Ethnically/Racially Diverse Emerging Adults: Associations with Weight-Related Behaviors

Helicopter parenting, a parenting style defined by over-involvement, may lead to poor health outcomes. However, research has primarily focused on children and adolescents from White, high socio-economic families, with little research examining weight-related health or with emerging adult children. The current study examined associations with emerging adult diet, physical activity, and body mass index (BMI) among a diverse population-based sample of parent and emerging adult dyads (n = 919). Helicopter parenting was highest among lower socioeconomic households and those identifying as Black, Indigenous, or people of color. Helicopter parenting was associated with both healthy and less healthy dietary behaviors across ethnic/racial groups, but was not associated with physical activity or BMI. Greater consideration of the cultural context related to helicopter parenting is needed before making conclusions about its benefits or harms.

Parental influences on children's dairy products consumption: a narrative review

OBJECTIVE

To review research on the influence of parent-related factors on children's dairy products consumption.

DESIGN

A search of electronic databases and a narrative synthesis of the literature were conducted. English-language articles were included if they reported data relating to parental influences on children's consumption of dairy products and if statistical significance was reported.

SETTING

Studies were carried out in the USA (n 8) and in a range of countries across Europe (n 12) and Asia (n 5).

PARTICIPANTS

The subjects of this research were children aged between 2 and 12 years of age, from a range of geographical locations.

RESULTS

Twenty-five studies met the inclusion criteria. The studies examined children's dairy products consumption in relation to parental socio-economic status (education level and income) (n 12), home availability (n 2), home food environment (n 3), parental dairy products consumption (n 4), parent feeding practices (n 3), parents' beliefs and attitudes (n 3) and parental nutrition knowledge (n 3). Results on the association between socio-economic status and children's dairy products consumption varied; however, studies reporting a significant association generally observed a positive relationship. Fifteen studies reported children's total dairy products intake as an outcome measure, with the remaining studies reporting intake of milk or other dairy products as individual foods.

CONCLUSIONS

This review identified literature exploring a range of parental factors in relation to children's dairy products intake. However, there were limited numbers of studies published within each category of modifiable factors. Further research on the parent-related determinants of dairy products consumption in children is required in order to identify potential intervention targets in this age group.

A Cross-Sectional Study: Structural and Related Functional Connectivity Changes in the Brain: Stigmata of Adverse Parenting in Patients with Major Depressive Disorder?

Background: There is a high correlation between the risk of major depressive disorder (MDD) and adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) such as adverse parenting (AP). While there appears to be an association between ACEs and changes in brain structure and function, there have yet to be multimodal neuroimaging studies of associations between parenting style and brain developmental changes in MDD patients. To explore the effect of AP on brain structure and function. Methods: In this cross-sectional study, 125 MDD outpatients were included in the study and divided into the AP group and the optimal parenting (OP) group. Participants completed self-rating scales to assess depressive severity, symptoms, and their parents' styles. They also completed magnetic resonance imaging within one week of filling out the instruments. The differences between groups of gender, educational level, and medications were analyzed using the chi-squared test and those of age, duration of illness, and scores on scales using the independent samples t-test. Differences in gray matter volume (GMV) and resting-state functional connectivity (RS-FC) were assessed between groups. Results: AP was associated with a significant increase in GMV in the right superior parietal lobule (SPL) and FC between the right SPL and the bilateral medial superior frontal cortex in MDD patients. Limitations: The cross-cultural characteristics of AP will result in the lack of generalizability of the findings. Conclusions: The results support the hypothesis that AP during childhood may imprint the brain and affect depressive symptoms in adulthood. Parents should pay attention to the parenting style and avoid a style that lacks warmth.

Association between Fathers' and Mothers' Parenting Styles and the Risk of Overweight/Obesity among Adolescents in San José Province, Costa Rica

Parenting styles are a risk factor for adolescents overweight/obesity worldwide, but this association is not well understood in the context of Latin America. This study examines the association between the parenting styles of mothers and fathers and the risk of overweight/obesity among Costa Rican adolescents. Data are cross-sectional from a sample of adolescents (13-18 years old) enrolled in ten urban and eight rural schools (n = 18) in the province of San José, Costa Rica, in 2017. Hierarchical logistic regression analyses were performed to assess the likelihood of adolescents being overweight according to the mothers' and fathers' parenting styles. A significant association was found between the risk of adolescent overweight/obesity and the paternal authoritarian style only in rural areas (B = 0.622, SE = 0.317, Wald = 3.864, ExpB = 1.863, p = 0.04), and between said risk and the paternal permissive style only in male adolescents (B = 0.901, SE = 0.435, Wald = 4.286, ExpB = 2.461, p = 0.038). For maternal parenting styles, no associations reached significant levels once logistic regression models were adjusted for the fathers' parenting styles. These findings underscore the importance of further studying the role of fathers' paternal parenting styles on Latin American adolescent weight outcomes. Expanding our understanding of the parenting styles of fathers has important implications for the design and implementation of culturally- and gender-appropriate family interventions.

Parenting style and its effect on eating disorders and substance abuse across the young population

This article attempts to examine the occurrence of two behavioural changes, namely, substance abuse and eating disorders in order of onset mediated by ineffective parenting styles during young age. The four parenting styles and their consequential behavioural adverse effects are taken as the focal point of this study and are synthesized to provide an outlook on the status of ineffective parenting and deviant offspring behaviours. A review of literature was primarily undertaken to examine the characteristic features of ineffective parenting. A causal relationship was then drawn between the onset of behavioural disorders with an emphasis on substance abuse and eating disorders, along the parenting spectrum. We probed into the order and directionality of the offspring behavioural changes against ineffective parenting. The current available data shows the superimposition of the parenting style spectrum on a bell-shaped distribution of behavioural outcomes as exemplified by authoritarian, permissive and neglectful parenting as a prime determinant of several disorders among the young age; parenting styles being at the extremities of the parenting spectrum. The sweet spot of parenting, mainly associated to the authoritative approach, bears the most positive effect on the growing child. The extreme ends of parenting as per the varying degree of responsiveness and demandingness, generally observed in authoritarian and neglectful parenting precipitate concomitant deviant behaviours cascading from one another; intricately linking substance abuse and eating disorders. A number of studies describe the isolated effects of ineffective parenting on the development of substance abuse and eating disorders during the adolescent period. However, the relationship between both eating disorders and substance abuse is underplayed and need to be stressed upon to tailor behaviour-specific targeted therapies and restore the normalcy of these altered behaviours.

How the parenting style adopted can lead to a concurrent amalgam of disordered eating patterns and substance abuse.

How disordered eating behaviours and substance abuse are initiated as coping strategies to deal with the consequences of poor parenting.

Isolation of specific risk factors to deter the development of those deviant behaviours in addition to improvement of parenting methods.

The relationship of parenting style and eating behavior in preschool children

BACKGROUND

Eating behavior represents individual appetitive traits which are related to the individual's regulation of food intake. Eating behavior develops at an early age. There is some evidence that parenting styles might impact on the child's eating behavior. The aim of this study was to investigate the relationship of different dimensions of positive and negative parenting styles with the child's eating behavior at a critical age period of the child's early development.

METHODS

Parents of 511 preschool children (aged 2-6 years) completed the Children Eating Behavior Questionnaire and the Alabama Parenting Questionnaire.

RESULTS

Analyses revealed that different dimensions of negative parenting styles were associated with eating behavior of the child. In details, inconsistent parenting showed a consistent association with eating behavior of a child (i.e. higher emotional eating, higher food responsiveness, higher food fussiness, higher satiety responsiveness and more enjoyment of food), whereas corporal punishment was associated with more emotional overeating and more food responsiveness but less satiety responsiveness. Further, powerful implementation was related to higher food responsiveness and less enjoyment of food and low monitoring was associated with higher emotional overeating and more slowness in eating. There was no such consistent association of positive parenting and eating behavior.

CONCLUSIONS

More negative parenting styles were associated with eating behavior which is more often related to potential weight problems in a long term, whereas positive parenting did not show such a consistent relationship with eating behavior. Negative parenting should be in the focus of prevention and treatment of eating behavior problems in young children.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

ISRCTN41045021 (06/05/2014).

Parental Self-Efficacy and Child Diet Quality between Ages 2 and 5: The STEPS Study

Parental self-efficacy (PSE), a measure of the subjective competence in the parental role, has been linked with child well-being and health. Research on the influence of PSE on child eating habits is scarce, and the few studies have concentrated on certain food groups, such as vegetables or fruits, and have mostly included only maternal PSE. Thus, the aim of this study was to explore the associations between PSE (separately for mothers and fathers and as a total family-level score) and child diet quality in a cross-sectional and longitudinal study setting. PSE was measured at child ages of 1.5 and 5 years, and diet quality was measured at ages 2 and 5. Participants are from the Steps to Healthy Development (STEPS) Study (n = 270-883). We found that maternal PSE and family level PSE score were associated with child diet quality. Paternal PSE was not, but the dimension Routines was associated with child diet quality. PSE was similarly associated with child diet quality at both age points. Our results suggest that PSE is an important construct in the development of healthy dietary habits in children, and supporting parenting programs aimed at higher PSE could promote healthy diet quality in children.

Parenting Styles and Their Associations with Children's Body Composition, Activity Patterns, Fitness, Diet, Health, and Academic Achievement

Background: Evidence regarding the impact of parenting style on health and other outcomes is inconsistent and limited by measurement quality and type. This study will examine associations between parenting style and children's objectively assessed activity patterns, body composition, fitness, diet, health, and academic achievement. Methods: Two hundred fifty-five children (mean age: 9.4 years) from Adelaide, Australia, were included. Parenting style (items from Child Rearing Questionnaire and National Longitudinal Survey of Children and Youth to assess Authoritative, Authoritarian, Permissive, Disengaged parenting), diet, and health were proxy-reported by parents. Body composition, fitness, and 24 hour activity patterns were objectively measured, and children reported screen-time. Academic achievement was measured using standardized tests in reading and mathematics. Mixed models were used to regress parenting style against activity patterns, body composition, fitness, diet, health, and academic achievement, adjusted for age, sex, socioeconomic position, and pubertal stage. Results: Children with Disengaged parents had poorer activity patterns: less moderate to vigorous physical activity (standard mean difference [SMD] relative to grand mean = -0.23), light physical activity (SMD = -0.13) and sleep (SMD = -0.18), more sitting (SMD = 0.45), later bedtime (SMD = 0.18), lower overall energy expenditure (SMD = -0.23), and poorer overall self-reported health (SMD = -0.30). Children with Permissive parents had generally better activity patterns (SMD = 0.25-0.32). Children with Authoritative parents were more likely to meet dietary guidelines for fruit intake (SMD = 0.12). There were no associations for Authoritarian parenting style or for academic achievement, body composition, or fitness. Conclusions: Disengaged parenting was detrimental, while Permissive parenting was beneficial for activity patterns. As parenting styles may be malleable, future interventions may target Permissive parenting to improve children's activity patterns. Trial registration: Australia New Zealand Clinical Trials Registry, identifier ACTRN12618002008202. Retrospectively registered on 14 December 2018.

Dietary Outcomes of the 'Healthy Youngsters, Healthy Dads' Randomised Controlled Trial

(1) Background: The effect of fathers on dietary intake in preschool-aged children is under-explored. The aims were to: (i) evaluate the efficacy of a family-based lifestyle intervention, Healthy Youngsters, Healthy Dads, on change in dietary intake in fathers and their preschool-aged children post-intervention (10 weeks) and at 9 months follow-up compared to a waitlist control group and (ii) investigate associations in father-child dietary intakes. (2) Methods: Linear mixed models estimated group-by-time effects for all dietary outcomes, measured by food frequency questionnaires. Cohen's d determined effect sizes, while correlation tests determined associations in father-child dietary intakes. (3) Results: For children, medium group-by-time effects sizes were identified at 10 weeks for sodium intake (d = 0.38) and percentage energy from core foods (d = 0.43), energy-dense, nutrient-poor (EDNP) foods (d = 0.43) and prepacked snacks (d = 0.45). These findings were sustained at 9 months follow-up. For fathers, medium to large, group-by-time effect sizes were identified at 10 weeks for energy intake (d = 0.55), sodium intake (d = 0.64) and percentage energy from core foods (d = 0.49), EDNP foods (d = 0.49), and confectionary (d = 0.36). For all of these dietary variables, except sodium, effects were sustained at 9 months. Moderate to strong associations existed in father-child dietary intakes for some of the dietary variables. (4) Conclusions: Although further research is required, this study provides preliminary support for targeting fathers as agents of change to improve dietary intakes in their preschool-aged children.

Examining the Moderating Effect of Parenting Style and Parental Guidance on Children's Beliefs about Food: A Test of the Parenting Style-as-Context Model

Research examining the effect of parenting practices on child food consumption has often neglected the role in which global aspects of parenting - such as parenting style - play in shaping children's dietary behaviors. To address this gap, the parenting style-as-context model was used to examine the moderating effects of parenting style - defined as the perceived emotional climate communicated to children by their parents - on the association between parental guidance of food consumption and children's beliefs surrounding food. A cross-sectional survey of 1,113 child/adolescent participants between the ages of 9 and 18 was conducted to test the theoretical propositions derived from the parenting style-as-context model. Results suggest desirable relationships between different dimensions of parental guidance of food consumption on children's beliefs surrounding foods were stronger among children who were under an authoritative parenting style compared to other parenting styles. The results offer some support for the parenting style-as-context model and has theoretical and practical implications for research targeted at understanding the role parents play in inculcating healthy dietary habits among children.

Dutch Preadolescents' Food Consumption at School: Influence of Autonomy, Competence and Parenting Practices

Eating habits appear to become less healthy once children move into adolescence. Adolescence is characterized by increasing independence and autonomy. Still, parents continue influencing adolescents' eating habits. This cross-sectional study used a Self-Determination Theory perspective to examine how parents can support preadolescents' food-related autonomy and competence and how these factors are associated with healthy eating motivation and food consumption at school. In addition, the effect of relative healthy food availability at home on preadolescents' food consumption at school was explored. In total, 142 Dutch preadolescents (mean age 12.18) and 81 parents completed questionnaires. The results showed that preadolescents perceived themselves as having higher food-related autonomy and lower competence to eat healthily as compared to their parents' perceptions. A path analysis was conducted to test the hypothesized model. Although parental support was positively associated with food-related autonomy, higher food-related autonomy was related to less healthy food intake at school. On the other hand, competence to eat healthily indirectly affected preadolescents' healthy intake ratio through their healthy eating motivation. Finally, the relative availability of healthy options at home was positively associated with preadolescents' healthy intake ratio outside the home. Findings from the study advance the understanding of individual and environmental factors that influence eating habits during the key life period of early adolescence. The results may inform interventions aiming to guide preadolescents to make healthy food choices on their own.

Does Examining the Childhood Food Experiences Help to Better Understand Food Choices in Adulthood?

Impact of parental feeding practices on children’s eating behaviors is well-documented in the literature. Nevertheless, little is known about how many of these behaviors might persist into adulthood. There is a lack of a tool measuring childhood feeding experiences recollected by adults, while the Comprehensive Feeding Practices Questionnaire (CFPQ) is used to measure parental feeding practices applied towards children. The aim of the study was to adapt the CFPQ to measure adults’ recollections of their childhood (5–10 years old) feeding experiences, to examine its discriminant validity and then to assess if these practices are related to adults’ food choices. In 2020, the modified version of CFPQ (mCFPQ) and questions on current food consumption were administered in a group of 500 adults twice over a two-week interval. The analysis included 443 participants whose questionnaires were correctly completed in both stages of the study. The Q-sorting procedure was used to test for discriminant validity of the questionnaire, i.e., confirmatory and exploratory factor analysis (EFA), Cronbach’s alpha, correlations coefficients, and the analysis of the differences between groups according to the intake of certain food products. Test–retest reliability was examined by calculating interclass correlation coefficients (ICC) for each obtained factor. As a result of EFA, five subscales were identified: “Restrictions”, “Healthy Eating Guidance”, “Pressure and Food Reward”, “Monitoring”, and “Child Control”. Items from these subscales created a new tool—Adults’ Memories of Feeding in Childhood (AMoFiC). Test for internal consistency, factor correlations, and discriminant validity proved satisfactory psychometric parameters of AMoFiC. “Pressure and Food Reward” and “Child Control” were associated with higher intake of sweets and salty snacks, whereas “Healthy Eating Guidance”, “Monitoring”, and “Restrictions” were associated with higher consumption of fresh fruits and vegetables. Despite the fact that the AMoFiC questionnaire requires further research, the findings of the study might be of practical use in counseling addressed to the parents.