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Alcantara JMA, Hausen M, Itaborahy A, Freire R. Impact of Equation Choice on Resting Metabolic Rate Ratio in High-Level Men and Women Athletes. JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN NUTRITION ASSOCIATION 2024; 43:421-429. [PMID: 38194347 DOI: 10.1080/27697061.2023.2301405] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2023] [Accepted: 12/27/2023] [Indexed: 01/10/2024]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To examine the impact of the RMR ratio cutoff point selected on the categorization of prevalence/absence of low energy availability among predictive equations in high-level athletes (n = 241 [99 women]; 52% competed at the World Championship and Olympic Games), and whether this categorization is influenced by sex and the predictive equation used. METHODS We assessed RMR using indirect calorimetry, predicted the RMR using the equations proposed by Harris-Benedict, FAO/WHO/UNU, de Lorenzo, ten Haaf and Wejis, Wong, Jagim, Cunningham, and Freire, and computed the RMR ratio for each equation. RESULTS We observed that the cumulative percentage of RMR ratio values increased at a faster rate using Jagim, ten Haaf and Wejis, and Cunningham equations compared to the other equations. At the 0.90 value (the most used cutoff point in literature), the Jagim equation categorized ≥ 50% of the athletes into "low energy availability". No Sex × Equation × Sport interaction effect was observed (F = 0.10, p = 1.0). There was a significant main effect to Sex (F = 11.7, p < 0.001, ES = 0.05), Sport (F = 16.4, p < 0.001, ES = 0.01), and Equation (F = 64.1, p < 0.001, ES = 0.19). Wong and FAO/WHO/UNU equations yielded the largest errors (assessed vs. predicted RMR) in men and women, respectively. CONCLUSION The selected RMR ratio cutoff point influences the prevalence/absence of low energy availability characterization in high-level athletes and suggests that certain equations could bias its assessment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan M A Alcantara
- Institute for Innovation & Sustainable Food Chain Development, Department of Health Sciences, Public University of Navarre, Pamplona, Spain
- Navarra Institute for Health Research, IdiSNA, Pamplona, Spain
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red Fisiopatología de la Obesidad y Nutrición (CIBERobn), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
| | - Matheus Hausen
- Olympic Laboratory, Brazil Olympic Committee, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Alex Itaborahy
- Olympic Laboratory, Brazil Olympic Committee, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Raul Freire
- Olympic Laboratory, Brazil Olympic Committee, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
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Agudo-Ortega A, Talsnes RK, Eid H, Sandbakk Ø, Solli GS. Sex Differences in Self-Reported Causes, Symptoms, and Recovery Strategies Associated With Underperformance in Endurance Athletes. Int J Sports Physiol Perform 2024:1-9. [PMID: 38862109 DOI: 10.1123/ijspp.2024-0131] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2024] [Revised: 04/22/2024] [Accepted: 04/24/2024] [Indexed: 06/13/2024]
Abstract
PURPOSE This study investigated sex differences in self-reported causes, symptoms, and recovery strategies associated with underperformance in endurance athletes. METHODS A total of 82 athletes (40 women) meeting the inclusion criteria (performance level ≥tier 3, used training diaries, and experienced 1 or more periods of underperformance during their career) completed an online questionnaire. The questionnaire encompassed inquiries regarding load monitoring and experiences with underperformance, focusing on causes, symptoms, and recovery strategies. RESULTS The most frequently reported symptoms associated with underperformance included psychological (31%), physiological (23%), and health-related (12%) symptoms. Notably, female athletes were more likely to report psychological symptoms associated with underperformance (38% vs 25%, P = .01) compared with male athletes. The leading causes of underperformance comprised illness (21%), mental/emotional challenges (20%), training errors (12%), lack of recovery (10%), and nutritional challenges (5%). Female athletes reported nutritional challenges more frequently as the cause of underperformance compared with males (9% vs 1%, P = .01), whereas male athletes more often attributed underperformance to training errors (15% vs 9%, P = .03). Overall, 67% of athletes reported recovering from underperformance, with a tendency for more male than female athletes to recover (76% vs 58%, P = .07). Furthermore, a higher proportion of male than female athletes reported implementing changes in the training process as a recovery strategy (62% vs 35%, P = .02). CONCLUSIONS This study offers valuable insights into sex differences in experiences with underperformance in endurance athletes. The findings could inform coaches and athletes in both the prevention and treatment of such incidents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aarón Agudo-Ortega
- Sports Training Laboratory, Faculty of Sports Sciences, University of Castilla-La Mancha, Toledo, Spain
| | - Rune Kjøsen Talsnes
- Center for Elite Sport Research, Department of Neuromedicine and Movement Science, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Hanna Eid
- Center for Elite Sport Research, Department of Neuromedicine and Movement Science, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Øyvind Sandbakk
- Center for Elite Sport Research, Department of Neuromedicine and Movement Science, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Guro Strøm Solli
- Department of Sport Science and Physical Education, Nord University, Bodø, Norway
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Baskerville R, Castell L, Bermon S. Sports and Immunity, from the recreational to the elite athlete. Infect Dis Now 2024; 54:104893. [PMID: 38531477 DOI: 10.1016/j.idnow.2024.104893] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2024] [Accepted: 03/22/2024] [Indexed: 03/28/2024]
Abstract
The pivotal role of the immune system in physical activity is well-established. While interactions are complex, they tend to constitute discrete immune responses. Moderate intensity exercise causes leukocytosis with a mild anti-inflammatory cytokine profile and immunoenhancement. Above a threshold of intensity, lactate-mediated IL-6 release causes a proinflammatory state followed by a depressed inflammatory state, which stimulates immune adaptation and longer term cardiometabolic enhancement. Exercise-related immune responses are modulated by sex, age and immunonutrition. At all ability levels, these factors collectively affect the immune balance between enhancement or overload and dysfunction. Excessive training, mental stress or insufficient recovery risks immune cell exhaustion and hypothalamic pituitary axis (HPA) stress responses causing immunodepression with negative impacts on performance or general health. Participation in sport provides additional immune benefits in terms of ensuring regularity, social inclusion, mental well-being and healthier life choices in terms of diet and reduced smoking and alcohol, thereby consolidating healthy lifestyles and longer term health. Significant differences exist between recreational and professional athletes in terms of inherent characteristics, training resilience and additional stresses arising from competition schedules, travel-related infections and stress. Exercise immunology examines the central role of immunity in exercise physiology and straddles multiple disciplines ranging from neuroendocrinology to nutrition and genetics, with the aim of guiding athletes to train optimally and safely. This review provides a brief outline of the main interactions of immunity and exercise, some influencing factors, and current guidance on maintaining immune health.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Linda Castell
- Green Templeton College, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Stéphane Bermon
- World Athletics Health and Science Department, Monaco and LAMHESS, University Côte d'Azur, Nice, France
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Geiger S, Esser AJ, Marsall M, Muehlbauer T, Skoda EM, Teufel M, Bäuerle A. Association between eHealth literacy and health outcomes in German athletes using the GR-eHEALS questionnaire: a validation and outcome study. BMC Sports Sci Med Rehabil 2024; 16:117. [PMID: 38790069 PMCID: PMC11127337 DOI: 10.1186/s13102-024-00902-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2023] [Accepted: 05/09/2024] [Indexed: 05/26/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Athletes face various sports-related stressors, which may increase their risk for physical and mental health symptoms. With the internet as an important source of (health) information, it is important for athletes to have eHealth literacy, i.e. the ability to access, understand and use electronic health information and services. However, it is presently uncertain whether eHealth literacy of athletes is linked to better health outcomes such as reduced injury frequency and behaviours like decreased substance abuse. METHODS A cross-sectional study was conducted with N = 373 German athletes (229 females) from different types of sport (e.g., ball sports and water sports) who were included in the statistical analyses. The survey included medical, socio-demographic, eHealth- and sports-related data as well as the eHealth Literacy Scale (GR-eHEALS) questionnaire, which measures eHealth literacy. Confirmatory factor analyses and correlational analyses were performed to determine the convergent and discriminant (compared to the 8-item Impulsive Behavior-8 Scale) validity of the GR-eHEALS and to assess the relation between eHealth literacy scores and health outcomes. RESULTS The more frequently athletes had sustained minor or moderate injuries in the past, the higher the level of eHealth literacy they reported. Furthermore, consumption frequency of painkillers (r = .18, p = .002), sedatives (r = .12, p = .040), and cannabis (r = .29, p = .000) was significantly correlated with eHealth literacy scores. The confirmatory factor analysis of the GR-eHEALS showed an acceptable model fit with a 2-factor solution (information seeking and information appraisal). The GR-eHEALS showed good discriminant (r = - .09, p = .21) and convergent validity (digital confidence; r = .28, p < .001). CONCLUSION The GR-eHEALS is a valid instrument to assess eHealth literacy within the cohort of German athletes. Potential dangers of dealing with injury and psychological strain without reaching out for professional help should be considered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sheila Geiger
- Clinic for Psychosomatic Medicine and Psychotherapy, LVR-University Hospital Essen, University of Duisburg-Essen, Essen, Germany.
- Centre for Translational Neuro- and Behavioral Sciences (C-TNBS), University of Duisburg- Essen, 45147, Essen, Germany.
| | - Anna Julia Esser
- Clinic for Psychosomatic Medicine and Psychotherapy, LVR-University Hospital Essen, University of Duisburg-Essen, Essen, Germany
- Centre for Translational Neuro- and Behavioral Sciences (C-TNBS), University of Duisburg- Essen, 45147, Essen, Germany
| | - Matthias Marsall
- Institute for Patient Safety (IfPS), University Hospital Bonn, Bonn, Germany
| | - Thomas Muehlbauer
- Division of Movement and Training Sciences, Biomechanics of Sport, University of Duisburg- Essen, Essen, Germany
| | - Eva-Maria Skoda
- Clinic for Psychosomatic Medicine and Psychotherapy, LVR-University Hospital Essen, University of Duisburg-Essen, Essen, Germany
- Centre for Translational Neuro- and Behavioral Sciences (C-TNBS), University of Duisburg- Essen, 45147, Essen, Germany
| | - Martin Teufel
- Clinic for Psychosomatic Medicine and Psychotherapy, LVR-University Hospital Essen, University of Duisburg-Essen, Essen, Germany
- Centre for Translational Neuro- and Behavioral Sciences (C-TNBS), University of Duisburg- Essen, 45147, Essen, Germany
| | - Alexander Bäuerle
- Clinic for Psychosomatic Medicine and Psychotherapy, LVR-University Hospital Essen, University of Duisburg-Essen, Essen, Germany
- Centre for Translational Neuro- and Behavioral Sciences (C-TNBS), University of Duisburg- Essen, 45147, Essen, Germany
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W Constantini N, Alves E, L Mountjoy M, E Ackerman K. Relative energy deficiency in military (RED-M). BMJ Mil Health 2024; 170:191-192. [PMID: 36702526 DOI: 10.1136/military-2022-002341] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 01/15/2023] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Naama W Constantini
- Orthopaedics, Heidi Rothberg Sport Medicine Center, Jerusalem, Israel
- Cardiology, Shaare Zedek Medical Center, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - E Alves
- Medicina Física e de Reabilitação, Centro Hospitalar Universitário de Lisboa Norte EPE, Lisboa, Portugal
| | - M L Mountjoy
- Family Medicine, McMaster University Michael G DeGroote School of Medicine, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada
- International Olympic Committee Games Group, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - K E Ackerman
- Wu Tsai Female Athlete Program, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Sports Medicine, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
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Oxfeldt M, Marsi D, Christensen PM, Andersen OE, Johansen FT, Bangshaab M, Risikesan J, Jeppesen JS, Hellsten Y, Phillips SM, Melin AK, Ørtenblad N, Hansen M. Low Energy Availability Followed by Optimal Energy Availability Does Not Benefit Performance in Trained Females. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2024; 56:902-916. [PMID: 38181220 DOI: 10.1249/mss.0000000000003370] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2024]
Abstract
PURPOSE Short periods of reduced energy availability are commonly undertaken by athletes to decrease body mass, possibly improve the power-to-mass ratio, and enhance physical performance. Our primary aim was to investigate the impact of 10 d of low energy availability (LEA) followed by 2 d of optimal energy availability (OEA) on physical performance parameters in trained females. Second, physiological markers at the whole-body and molecular level related to performance were evaluated. METHODS Thirty young trained eumenorrheic females were matched in pairs based on training history and randomized to a 10-d intervention period of LEA (25 kcal·fat-free mass (FFM) -1 ·d -1 ) or OEA (50 kcal·FFM -1 ·d -1 ) along with supervised exercise training. Before the intervention, participants underwent a 5-d run-in period with OEA + supervised exercise training. After the LEA intervention, 2 d of recovery with OEA was completed. Participants underwent muscle biopsies, blood sampling, physical performance tests, body composition measurements, and resting metabolic rate measurements. A linear mixed model was used with group and time as fixed effects and subject as random effects. RESULTS Compared with OEA, LEA resulted in reduced body mass, muscle glycogen content, repeated sprint ability, 4-min time-trial performance, and rate of force development of the knee extensors (absolute values; P < 0.05). Two days of recovery restored 4-min time-trial performance and partly restored repeated sprint ability, but performance remained inferior to the OEA group. When the performance data were expressed relative to body mass, LEA did not enhance performance. CONCLUSIONS Ten days of LEA resulted in impaired performance (absolute values), with concomitant reductions in muscle glycogen. Two days of recovery with OEA partially restored these impairments, although physical performance (absolute values) was still inferior to being in OEA. Our findings do not support the thesis that LEA giving rise to small reductions in body mass improves the power-to-mass ratio and thus increases physical performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mikkel Oxfeldt
- Department of Public Health, Aarhus University, Aarhus C, DENMARK
| | - Daniel Marsi
- Department of Public Health, Aarhus University, Aarhus C, DENMARK
| | | | | | | | | | - Jeyanthini Risikesan
- Department of Child and Adolescent Medicine, Regional Hospital Gødstrup, Gødstrup, DENMARK
| | - Jan S Jeppesen
- Department of Nutrition, Exercise and Sports (NEXS), University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, DENMARK
| | - Ylva Hellsten
- Department of Nutrition, Exercise and Sports (NEXS), University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, DENMARK
| | - Stuart M Phillips
- Department of Kinesiology, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, CANADA
| | - Anna K Melin
- Department of Sport Science, Linnaeus University, Växjö/Kalmar, SWEDEN
| | - Niels Ørtenblad
- Department of Sports Science and Clinical Biomechanics, University of Southern Denmark, Odense M, DENMARK
| | - Mette Hansen
- Department of Public Health, Aarhus University, Aarhus C, DENMARK
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7
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Õnnik L, Mooses M, Suvi S, Haile DW, Ojiambo R, Lane AR, Hackney AC. Influence of energy availability on metabolic hormonal profiles in east African female and male distance runners. J Sports Med Phys Fitness 2024; 64:490-495. [PMID: 38305005 DOI: 10.23736/s0022-4707.23.15253-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Energy availability (EA) and relative energy deficiency in sport (RED-S) are understudied in East African endurance athletes, both females (F) and males (M). This study assessed the metabolic hormonal profiles of such athletes relative to their EA status. METHODS Forty athletes (F=16, M=24) had their EA status, training, maximal oxygen uptake, and resting blood samples assessed using standard research practices. Subjects were stratified into two groups, high EA (HiEA) and low EA (LoEA) based on combined median value. RESULTS Cortisol (P=0.034) and insulin (P=0.044) were significantly elevated in the LoEA group, while growth hormone (P=0.045) was significantly suppressed; and, prolactin (P=0.078) trended towards suppression, respectively compared to the HiEA group. All other hormonal comparison were non-significant. CONCLUSIONS Metabolic hormonal profiles of female and male African distance runners are affected by their EA status. Aspects of these alterations agree in part with published findings based upon White populations, although some differences exist and need further investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Robert Ojiambo
- Moi University, Eldoret, Kenya
- University of Global Health Equity, Butaro, Rwanda
| | - Amy R Lane
- University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
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Mikkonen RS, Ihalainen JK, Hackney AC, Häkkinen K. Perspectives on Concurrent Strength and Endurance Training in Healthy Adult Females: A Systematic Review. Sports Med 2024; 54:673-696. [PMID: 37948036 PMCID: PMC10978686 DOI: 10.1007/s40279-023-01955-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 10/16/2023] [Indexed: 11/12/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Both strength and endurance training are included in global exercise recommendations and are the main components of training programs for competitive sports. While an abundance of research has been published regarding concurrent strength and endurance training, only a small portion of this research has been conducted in females or has addressed their unique physiological circumstances (e.g., hormonal profiles related to menstrual cycle phase, menstrual dysfunction, and hormonal contraceptive use), which may influence training responses and adaptations. OBJECTIVE The aim was to complete a systematic review of the scientific literature regarding training adaptations following concurrent strength and endurance training in apparently healthy adult females. METHODS A systematic electronic search for articles was performed in July 2021 and again in December 2022 using PubMed and Medline. This review followed, where applicable, the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. The quality of the included studies was assessed using a modified Downs and Black checklist. Inclusion criteria were (1) fully published peer-reviewed publications; (2) study published in English; (3) participants were healthy normal weight or overweight females of reproductive age (mean age between > 18 and < 50) or presented as a group (n > 5) in studies including both females and males and where female results were reported separately; (4) participants were randomly assigned to intervention groups, when warranted, and the study included measures of maximal strength and endurance performance; and (5) the duration of the intervention was ≥ 8 weeks to ensure a meaningful training duration. RESULTS Fourteen studies met the inclusion criteria (seven combined strength training with running, four with cycling, and three with rowing or cross-country skiing). These studies indicated that concurrent strength and endurance training generally increases parameters associated with strength and endurance performance in female participants, while several other health benefits such as, e.g., improved body composition and blood lipid profile were reported in individual studies. The presence of an "interference effect" in females could not be assessed from the included studies as this was not the focus of any included research and single-mode training groups were not always included alongside concurrent training groups. Importantly, the influence of concurrent training on fast-force production was limited, while the unique circumstances affecting females were not considered/reported in most studies. Overall study quality was low to moderate. CONCLUSION Concurrent strength and endurance training appears to be beneficial in increasing strength and endurance capacity in females; however, multiple research paradigms must be explored to better understand the influence of concurrent training modalities in females. Future research should explore the influence of concurrent strength and endurance training on fast-force production, the possible presence of an "interference effect" in athletic populations, and the influence of unique circumstances, such as hormone profile, on training responses and adaptations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ritva S Mikkonen
- Sports Technology Unit, Biology of Physical Activity, Faculty of Sport and Health Sciences, University of Jyväskylä, Kidekuja 2, 88610, Vuokatti, Finland.
| | - Johanna K Ihalainen
- Biology of Physical Activity, Faculty of Sport and Health Sciences, University of Jyväskylä, Jyvaskyla, Finland
| | - Anthony C Hackney
- Department of Exercise and Sport Science, and Department of Nutrition, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Keijo Häkkinen
- Biology of Physical Activity, Faculty of Sport and Health Sciences, University of Jyväskylä, Jyvaskyla, Finland
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9
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Melin AK, Areta JL, Heikura IA, Stellingwerff T, Torstveit MK, Hackney AC. Direct and indirect impact of low energy availability on sports performance. Scand J Med Sci Sports 2024; 34:e14327. [PMID: 36894187 DOI: 10.1111/sms.14327] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2022] [Revised: 01/27/2023] [Accepted: 02/01/2023] [Indexed: 03/11/2023]
Abstract
Low energy availability (LEA) occurs inadvertently and purposefully in many athletes across numerous sports; and well planned, supervised periods with moderate LEA can improve body composition and power to weight ratio possibly enhancing performance in some sports. LEA however has the potential to have negative effects on a multitude of physiological and psychological systems in female and male athletes. Systems such as the endocrine, cardiovascular, metabolism, reproductive, immune, mental perception, and motivation as well as behaviors can all be impacted by severe (serious and/or prolonged or chronic) LEA. Such widely diverse effects can influence the health status, training adaptation, and performance outcomes of athletes leading to both direct changes (e.g., decreased strength and endurance) as well as indirect changes (e.g., reduced training response, increased risk of injury) in performance. To date, performance implications have not been well examined relative to LEA. Therefore, the intent of this narrative review is to characterize the effects of short-, medium-, and long-term exposure to LEA on direct and indirect sports performance outcomes. In doing so we have focused both on laboratory settings as well as descriptive athletic case-study-type experiential evidence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna K Melin
- Department of Sport Science, Faculty of Social Sciences, Swedish Olympic Committee Research Fellow, Linnaeus University, Växjö/Kalmar, Sweden
| | - José L Areta
- School of Sport and Exercise Sciences, Faculty of Science, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, UK
| | - Ida A Heikura
- Canadian Sport Institute - Pacific, Victoria, British Columbia, Canada
- Exercise Science, Physical & Health Education, University of Victoria, Victoria, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Trent Stellingwerff
- Canadian Sport Institute - Pacific, Victoria, British Columbia, Canada
- Exercise Science, Physical & Health Education, University of Victoria, Victoria, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Monica Klungland Torstveit
- Department of Sport Science and Physical Education, Faculty of Health and Sport Science, University of Agder, Kristiansand, Norway
| | - Anthony C Hackney
- Department of Exercise & Sport Science, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
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Van Hooren B, Souren T, Bongers BC. Accuracy of respiratory gas variables, substrate, and energy use from 15 CPET systems during simulated and human exercise. Scand J Med Sci Sports 2024; 34:e14490. [PMID: 37697640 DOI: 10.1111/sms.14490] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2023] [Revised: 08/07/2023] [Accepted: 08/25/2023] [Indexed: 09/13/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE Various systems are available for cardiopulmonary exercise testing (CPET), but their accuracy remains largely unexplored. We evaluate the accuracy of 15 popular CPET systems to assess respiratory variables, substrate use, and energy expenditure during simulated exercise. Cross-comparisons were also performed during human cycling experiments (i.e., verification of simulation findings), and between-session reliability was assessed for a subset of systems. METHODS A metabolic simulator was used to simulate breath-by-breath gas exchange, and the values measured by each system (minute ventilation [V̇E], breathing frequency [BF], oxygen uptake [V̇O2 ], carbon dioxide production [V̇CO2 ], respiratory exchange ratio [RER], energy from carbs and fats, and total energy expenditure) were compared to the simulated values to assess the accuracy. The following manufacturers (system) were assessed: COSMED (Quark CPET, K5), Cortex (MetaLyzer 3B, MetaMax 3B), Vyaire (Vyntus CPX, Oxycon Pro), Maastricht Instruments (Omnical), MGC Diagnostics (Ergocard Clinical, Ergocard Pro, Ultima), Ganshorn/Schiller (PowerCube Ergo), Geratherm (Ergostik), VO2master (VO2masterPro), PNOĒ (PNOĒ), and Calibre Biometrics (Calibre). RESULTS Absolute percentage errors during the simulations ranged from 1.15%-44.3% for V̇E, 1.05-3.79% for BF, 1.10%-13.3% for V̇O2 , 1.07%-18.3% for V̇CO2 , 0.62%-14.8% for RER, 5.52%-99.0% for Kcal from carbs, 5.13%-133% for Kcal from fats, and 0.59%-12.1% for total energy expenditure. Between-session variation ranged from 0.86%-21.0% for V̇O2 and 1.14%-20.2% for V̇CO2 , respectively. CONCLUSION The error of respiratory gas variables, substrate, and energy use differed substantially between systems, with only a few systems demonstrating a consistent acceptable error. We extensively discuss the implications of our findings for clinicians, researchers and other CPET users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bas Van Hooren
- Department of Nutrition and Movement Sciences, NUTRIM School of Nutrition and Translational Research in Metabolism, Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - Tjeu Souren
- Independent Consultant, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Bart C Bongers
- Department of Nutrition and Movement Sciences, NUTRIM School of Nutrition and Translational Research in Metabolism, Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands
- Department of Surgery, NUTRIM School of Nutrition and Translational Research in Metabolism, Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands
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Coates AM, Thompson KMA, Grigore MM, Baker RE, Pignanelli C, Robertson AA, Frangos SM, Cheung CP, Burr JF. Altered carbohydrate oxidation during exercise in overreached endurance athletes is applicable to training monitoring with continuous glucose monitors. Scand J Med Sci Sports 2024; 34:e14551. [PMID: 38093477 DOI: 10.1111/sms.14551] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2023] [Revised: 12/04/2023] [Accepted: 12/08/2023] [Indexed: 01/26/2024]
Abstract
PURPOSE The purpose of the study was to investigate whether carbohydrate utilization is altered during exercise in overreached endurance athletes and examine the utility of continuous glucose monitors (CGM) to detect overreaching status. METHODS Eleven endurance athletes (M:8, F:3) completed a 5-week training block consisting of 1 week of reduced training (PRE), 3 weeks of high-intensity overload training (POST), and 1 week of recovery training (REC). Participants completed a Lamberts and Lambert Submaximal Cycling Test (LSCT) and 5 km time-trial at PRE, POST, and REC time points, 15 min following the ingestion of a 50 g glucose beverage with glucose recorded each minute via CGM. RESULTS Performance in the 5 km time-trial was reduced at POST (∆-7 ± 10 W, p = 0.04,η p 2 = 0.35) and improved at REC (∆12 ± 9 W from PRE, p = 0.01,η p 2 = 0.66), with reductions in peak lactate (∆-3.0 ± 2.0 mmol/L, p = 0.001,η p 2 = 0.71), peak HR (∆-6 ± 3 bpm, p < 0.001,η p 2 = 0.86), and Hooper-Mackinnon well-being scores (∆10 ± 5 a.u., p < 0.001,η p 2 = 0.79), indicating athletes were functionally overreached. The respiratory exchange ratio was suppressed at POST relative to REC during the 60% (POST: 0.80 ± 0.05, REC: 0.87 ± 0.05, p < 0.001,η p 2 = 0.74), and 80% (POST: 0.93 ± 0.05, REC: 1.00 ± 0.05, p = 0.003,η p 2 = 0.68) of HR-matched submaximal stages of the LSCT. CGM glucose was reduced during HR-matched submaximal exercise in the LSCT at POST (p = 0.047,η p 2 = 0.36), but not the 5 km time-trial (p = 0.07,η p 2 = 0.28) in overreached athletes. CONCLUSION This preliminary investigation demonstrates a reduction in CGM-derived glucose and carbohydrate oxidation during submaximal exercise in overreached athletes. The use of CGM during submaximal exercise following standardized nutrition could be employed as a monitoring tool to detect overreaching in endurance athletes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandra M Coates
- The Human Performance and Health Research Laboratory, Department of Human Health and Nutritional Sciences, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
| | - Kyle M A Thompson
- The Human Performance and Health Research Laboratory, Department of Human Health and Nutritional Sciences, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
| | - Monica M Grigore
- The Human Performance and Health Research Laboratory, Department of Human Health and Nutritional Sciences, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
| | - Ryleigh E Baker
- The Human Performance and Health Research Laboratory, Department of Human Health and Nutritional Sciences, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
| | - Christopher Pignanelli
- The Human Performance and Health Research Laboratory, Department of Human Health and Nutritional Sciences, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
| | - Alexa A Robertson
- The Human Performance and Health Research Laboratory, Department of Human Health and Nutritional Sciences, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
| | - Sara M Frangos
- Mitochondrial Metabolism Laboratory, Department of Human Health and Nutritional Sciences, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
| | - Christian P Cheung
- The Human Performance and Health Research Laboratory, Department of Human Health and Nutritional Sciences, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
| | - Jamie F Burr
- The Human Performance and Health Research Laboratory, Department of Human Health and Nutritional Sciences, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
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12
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Brenner JS, Watson A. Overuse Injuries, Overtraining, and Burnout in Young Athletes. Pediatrics 2024; 153:e2023065129. [PMID: 38247370 DOI: 10.1542/peds.2023-065129] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/21/2023] [Indexed: 01/23/2024] Open
Abstract
Sports participation can have tremendous physical and mental health benefits for children. Properly implemented progressive training programs can yield a broad range of beneficial physiologic adaptations, but imbalances of training load and recovery can have important negative consequences. Overuse injuries, for example, can result from repetitive stress without sufficient recovery that leads to accumulated musculoskeletal damage. In addition, extended periods of increased training loads that exceed the intervening recovery can have systemic consequences such as overtraining syndrome, which results in decreased performance, increased injury and illness risk, and derangement of endocrine, neurologic, cardiovascular, and psychological systems. Burnout represents one of the primary reasons for attrition in youth sports. Broadly defined as physical or mental exhaustion and a reduced sense of accomplishment that leads to devaluation of sport, burnout represents a direct threat to the goal of lifelong physical activity and the wide-ranging health benefits that it provides. This clinical report is intended to provide pediatricians with information regarding the risk factors, diagnosis, management, and prevention of these conditions to assist in the identification of at-risk children, the treatment of young athletes, and the guidance of families in the promotion of safe and healthy sport participation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joel S Brenner
- Sports Medicine Program, Children's Hospital of The King's Daughters; Department of Pediatrics, Eastern Virginia Medical School; Division of Sports Medicine, Children's Specialty Group, PLLC, Norfolk, Virginia
| | - Andrew Watson
- Division of Sports Medicine, Department of Orthopedics and Rehabilitation, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, Wisconsin
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13
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King A, Kwan K, Jukic I, Zinn C, Helms E. The general nutrition practices of competitive powerlifters vary by competitive calibre and sex, weight, and age class. Eur J Nutr 2023; 62:3297-3310. [PMID: 37584786 PMCID: PMC10611852 DOI: 10.1007/s00394-023-03233-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2022] [Accepted: 08/08/2023] [Indexed: 08/17/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE To characterise self-reported nutrition practices and beliefs of powerlifters. METHODS Actively competing male (n = 240) and female (n = 65) powerlifters completed a cross-sectional online survey of self-reported nutrition practices across the competitive cycle, within specific competitive phases, and hard and easy training days. Data are presented as number (n) and percentage (%) of all powerlifters practicing a given strategy followed by a % of responses reporting various practices or beliefs within this strategy. Differences in categorical sub-groups (sex, age, and weight class; and competitive calibre) were analysed with a chi-square test and denoted where significant (p ≤ 0.05). RESULTS Most powerlifters reported following a specific diet long-term (n = 203, 66.6%) of which If It Fits Your Macros (IIFYM)/flexible dieting was most common (n = 159, 78.3%). Over half reported introducing a special diet for a competitive phase (n = 162, 53.1%), of which IIFYM/flexible dieting was most followed for competition preparation (n = 80, 63%) and off-season (n = 48, 71.6%). Compared to normal dietary intake, most reported eating more on harder training days (n = 219, 71.8%) and refraining from eating less on easier training days (n = 186, 61%). CONCLUSIONS IIFYM/flexible dieting is commonly followed by powerlifters to support performance and body composition goals. Females seemed to report more often restricting energy and dieting for body composition reasons than males. Powerlifters tailor their energy intake on harder training days to the higher training demands but refrain from reducing energy intake on rest/easier training days.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew King
- Sport Performance Research Institute New Zealand (SPRINZ), Auckland University of Technology, 17 Antares Place, Mairangi Bay, Auckland, 0632, New Zealand.
| | - Kedric Kwan
- Sport Performance Research Institute New Zealand (SPRINZ), Auckland University of Technology, 17 Antares Place, Mairangi Bay, Auckland, 0632, New Zealand
| | - Ivan Jukic
- Sport Performance Research Institute New Zealand (SPRINZ), Auckland University of Technology, 17 Antares Place, Mairangi Bay, Auckland, 0632, New Zealand
- School of Engineering, Computer and Mathematical Sciences, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Caryn Zinn
- Sport Performance Research Institute New Zealand (SPRINZ), Auckland University of Technology, 17 Antares Place, Mairangi Bay, Auckland, 0632, New Zealand
| | - Eric Helms
- Sport Performance Research Institute New Zealand (SPRINZ), Auckland University of Technology, 17 Antares Place, Mairangi Bay, Auckland, 0632, New Zealand
- Department of Exercise Science and Health Promotion, Muscle Physiology Laboratory, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA
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14
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Wyatt PM, Drager K, Groves EM, Stellingwerff T, Billington EO, Boyd SK, Burt LA. Comparison of Bone Quality Among Winter Endurance Athletes with and Without Risk Factors for Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport (REDs): A Cross-Sectional Study. Calcif Tissue Int 2023; 113:403-415. [PMID: 37578531 DOI: 10.1007/s00223-023-01120-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2023] [Accepted: 07/29/2023] [Indexed: 08/15/2023]
Abstract
Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport (REDs) is a syndrome describing the relationship between prolonged and/or severe low energy availability and negative health and performance outcomes. The high energy expenditures incurred during training and competition put endurance athletes at risk of REDs. The objective of this study was to investigate differences in bone quality in winter endurance athletes classified as either low-risk versus at-risk for REDs. Forty-four participants were recruited (M = 18; F = 26). Bone quality was assessed at the distal radius and tibia using high resolution peripheral quantitative computed tomography (HR-pQCT), and at the hip and spine using dual X-ray absorptiometry (DXA). Finite element analysis was used to estimate bone strength. Participants were grouped using modified criteria from the REDs Clinical Assessment Tool Version 1. Fourteen participants (M = 3; F = 11), were classified as at-risk of REDs (≥ 3 risk factors). Measured with HR-pQCT, cortical bone area (radius) and bone strength (radius and tibia) were 6.8%, 13.1% and 10.3% lower (p = 0.025, p = 0.033, p = 0.027) respectively, in at-risk compared with low-risk participants. Using DXA, femoral neck areal bone density was 9.4% lower in at-risk compared with low-risk participants (p = 0.005). At-risk male participants had 21.9% lower femoral neck areal bone density (via DXA) than low-risk males (p = 0.020) with no significant differences in females. Overall, 33.3% of athletes were at-risk for REDs and had lower bone quality than those at low-risk.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paige M Wyatt
- McCaig Institute for Bone and Joint Health, University of Calgary, 3280 Hospital Drive NW, Calgary, AB, T2N 4Z6, Canada
- Canadian Sport Institute Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
| | - Kelly Drager
- Canadian Sport Institute Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
| | - Erik M Groves
- Canadian Sport Institute Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
| | - Trent Stellingwerff
- Canadian Sport Institute Pacific, Victoria, BC, Canada
- Department of Exercise Science, Physical and Health Education, University of Victoria, Victoria, BC, Canada
| | - Emma O Billington
- McCaig Institute for Bone and Joint Health, University of Calgary, 3280 Hospital Drive NW, Calgary, AB, T2N 4Z6, Canada
- Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, 3280 Hospital Drive NW, Calgary, AB, T2N 4Z6, Canada
| | - Steven K Boyd
- McCaig Institute for Bone and Joint Health, University of Calgary, 3280 Hospital Drive NW, Calgary, AB, T2N 4Z6, Canada
- Department of Radiology, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
| | - Lauren A Burt
- McCaig Institute for Bone and Joint Health, University of Calgary, 3280 Hospital Drive NW, Calgary, AB, T2N 4Z6, Canada.
- Department of Radiology, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada.
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15
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Mao YH, Wang M, Yuan Y, Yan JK, Peng Y, Xu G, Weng X. Konjac Glucomannan Counteracted the Side Effects of Excessive Exercise on Gut Microbiome, Endurance, and Strength in an Overtraining Mice Model. Nutrients 2023; 15:4206. [PMID: 37836491 PMCID: PMC10574454 DOI: 10.3390/nu15194206] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2023] [Revised: 09/25/2023] [Accepted: 09/26/2023] [Indexed: 10/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Excessive exercise without adequate rest can lead to overtraining syndrome, which manifests a series of side effects, including fatigue, gut dysbiosis, and decremental sports performance. Konjac glucomannan (KGM) is a plant polysaccharide with numerous health-improving effects, but few studies reported its effects on the gut microbiome, endurance, and strength in an overtraining model. This study assessed the effect of KGM on gut microbiome, endurance, and strength in mice with excessive exercise. Three doses of KGM (1.25, 2.50, and 5.00 mg/mL) were administrated in drinking water to mice during 42 days of a treadmill overtraining program. The results showed that excessive exercise induced a significant microbial shift compared with the control group, while a high dose (5.00 mg/mL) of KGM maintained the microbial composition. The proportion of Sutterella in feces was significantly increased in the excessive exercise group, while the moderate dose (2.50 mg/mL) of KGM dramatically increased the relative abundance of Lactobacillus and SCFA production in feces. Additionally, the moderate dose and high dose of KGM counteracted the negative effects of excessive exercise on strength or/and endurance (43.14% and 39.94% increase through a moderate dose of KGM, Bonferroni corrected p < 0.05, compared with the excessive exercise group). Therefore, it suggests that KGM could prevent overtraining and improve sports performance in animal models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu-Heng Mao
- School of Exercise and Health, Guangzhou Sport University, Guangzhou 510500, China (Y.Y.); (Y.P.); (G.X.)
| | - Minghan Wang
- School of Exercise and Health, Guangzhou Sport University, Guangzhou 510500, China (Y.Y.); (Y.P.); (G.X.)
| | - Yu Yuan
- School of Exercise and Health, Guangzhou Sport University, Guangzhou 510500, China (Y.Y.); (Y.P.); (G.X.)
| | - Jing-Kun Yan
- Engineering Research Center of Health Food Design & Nutrition Regulation, Dongguan Key Laboratory of Typical Food Precision Design, China National Light Industry Key Laboratory of Healthy Food Development and Nutrition Regulation, School of Life and Health Technology, Dongguan University of Technology, Dongguan 523808, China;
| | - Yanqun Peng
- School of Exercise and Health, Guangzhou Sport University, Guangzhou 510500, China (Y.Y.); (Y.P.); (G.X.)
| | - Guoqin Xu
- School of Exercise and Health, Guangzhou Sport University, Guangzhou 510500, China (Y.Y.); (Y.P.); (G.X.)
| | - Xiquan Weng
- School of Exercise and Health, Guangzhou Sport University, Guangzhou 510500, China (Y.Y.); (Y.P.); (G.X.)
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16
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Stellingwerff T, Mountjoy M, McCluskey WT, Ackerman KE, Verhagen E, Heikura IA. Review of the scientific rationale, development and validation of the International Olympic Committee Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport Clinical Assessment Tool: V.2 (IOC REDs CAT2)-by a subgroup of the IOC consensus on REDs. Br J Sports Med 2023; 57:1109-1118. [PMID: 37752002 DOI: 10.1136/bjsports-2023-106914] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 08/14/2023] [Indexed: 09/28/2023]
Abstract
Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport (REDs) has various different risk factors, numerous signs and symptoms and is heavily influenced by one's environment. Accordingly, there is no singular validated diagnostic test. This 2023 International Olympic Committee's REDs Clinical Assessment Tool-V.2 (IOC REDs CAT2) implements a three-step process of: (1) initial screening; (2) severity/risk stratification based on any identified REDs signs/symptoms (primary and secondary indicators) and (3) a physician-led final diagnosis and treatment plan developed with the athlete, coach and their entire health and performance team. The CAT2 also introduces a more clinically nuanced four-level traffic-light (green, yellow, orange and red) severity/risk stratification with associated sport participation guidelines. Various REDs primary and secondary indicators have been identified and 'weighted' in terms of scientific support, clinical severity/risk and methodological validity and usability, allowing for objective scoring of athletes based on the presence or absence of each indicator. Early draft versions of the CAT2 were developed with associated athlete-testing, feedback and refinement, followed by REDs expert validation via voting statements (ie, online questionnaire to assess agreement on each indicator). Physician and practitioner validity and usability assessments were also implemented. The aim of the IOC REDs CAT2 is to assist qualified clinical professionals in the early and accurate diagnosis of REDs, with an appropriate clinical severity and risk assessment, in order to protect athlete health and prevent prolonged and irreversible outcomes of REDs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Trent Stellingwerff
- Canadian Sport Institute Pacific, Victoria, British Columbia, Canada
- Exercise Science, Physical & Health Education, University of Victoria, Victoria, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Margo Mountjoy
- Association for Summer Olympic International Federations (ASOIF), Lausanne, Switzerland
- Department of Family Medicine, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada
| | | | - Kathryn E Ackerman
- Wu Tsai Female Athlete Program, Division of Sports Medicine, Boston Children's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Evert Verhagen
- Amsterdam Collaboration on Health and Safety in Sports and Department of Public and Occupational Health, VU University Medical Centre Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Ida A Heikura
- Canadian Sport Institute Pacific, Victoria, British Columbia, Canada
- Exercise Science, Physical & Health Education, University of Victoria, Victoria, British Columbia, Canada
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17
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Mountjoy M, Ackerman KE, Bailey DM, Burke LM, Constantini N, Hackney AC, Heikura IA, Melin A, Pensgaard AM, Stellingwerff T, Sundgot-Borgen JK, Torstveit MK, Jacobsen AU, Verhagen E, Budgett R, Engebretsen L, Erdener U. 2023 International Olympic Committee's (IOC) consensus statement on Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport (REDs). Br J Sports Med 2023; 57:1073-1097. [PMID: 37752011 DOI: 10.1136/bjsports-2023-106994] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 45.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 08/20/2023] [Indexed: 09/28/2023]
Abstract
Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport (REDs) was first introduced in 2014 by the International Olympic Committee's expert writing panel, identifying a syndrome of deleterious health and performance outcomes experienced by female and male athletes exposed to low energy availability (LEA; inadequate energy intake in relation to exercise energy expenditure). Since the 2018 REDs consensus, there have been >170 original research publications advancing the field of REDs science, including emerging data demonstrating the growing role of low carbohydrate availability, further evidence of the interplay between mental health and REDs and more data elucidating the impact of LEA in males. Our knowledge of REDs signs and symptoms has resulted in updated Health and Performance Conceptual Models and the development of a novel Physiological Model. This Physiological Model is designed to demonstrate the complexity of either problematic or adaptable LEA exposure, coupled with individual moderating factors, leading to changes in health and performance outcomes. Guidelines for safe and effective body composition assessment to help prevent REDs are also outlined. A new REDs Clinical Assessment Tool-Version 2 is introduced to facilitate the detection and clinical diagnosis of REDs based on accumulated severity and risk stratification, with associated training and competition recommendations. Prevention and treatment principles of REDs are presented to encourage best practices for sports organisations and clinicians. Finally, methodological best practices for REDs research are outlined to stimulate future high-quality research to address important knowledge gaps.
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Affiliation(s)
- Margo Mountjoy
- Family Medicine, McMaster University Michael G DeGroote School of Medicine, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada
- Games Group, International Olympic Committee, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Kathryn E Ackerman
- Wu Tsai Female Athlete Program, Harvard Medical School, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | | | - Louise M Burke
- Mary MacKillop Institute for Health Research, Australian Catholic University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Naama Constantini
- Sports Medicine Center, Shaare Zedek Medical Center, The Hebrew University, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Anthony C Hackney
- Exercise and Sport Science, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
| | - Ida Aliisa Heikura
- Canada Sport Institute Pacific, Victoria, British Columbia, Canada
- Exercise Science, Physical & Health Education, University of Victoria, Victoria, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Anna Melin
- Department of Sport Science - Swedish Olympic Committee Research Fellow, Linnaeus University, Kalmar, Sweden
| | - Anne Marte Pensgaard
- Department of Sport and Social Sciences, Norwegian School of Sports Sciences, Oslo, Norway
| | - Trent Stellingwerff
- Canada Sport Institute Pacific, Victoria, British Columbia, Canada
- Exercise Science, Physical & Health Education, University of Victoria, Victoria, British Columbia, Canada
| | | | | | | | - Evert Verhagen
- Amsterdam Collaboration on Health & Safety in Sports, Department of Public and Occupational Health, Amsterdam Movement Science, Amsterdam UMC Locatie VUmc, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Richard Budgett
- Medical and Scientific Department, International Olympic Committee, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Lars Engebretsen
- Medical and Scientific Department, International Olympic Committee, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Uğur Erdener
- Department of Ophthalmology, Hacettepe University, Ankara, Turkey
- World Archery, Lausanne, Switzerland
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18
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Mountjoy M, Ackerman KE, Bailey DM, Burke LM, Constantini N, Hackney AC, Heikura IA, Melin A, Pensgaard AM, Stellingwerff T, Sundgot-Borgen J, Klungland Torstveit M, Jacobsen AU, Verhagen E, Budgett R, Engebretsen L, Erdener U. Avoiding the 'REDs Card'. We all have a role in the mitigation of REDs in athletes. Br J Sports Med 2023; 57:1063-1064. [PMID: 38155734 PMCID: PMC10753193 DOI: 10.1136/bjsports-2023-106749] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Margo Mountjoy
- Family Medicine, McMaster University Michael G DeGroote
School of Medicine, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada
- Games Group, International Olympic Committee, Lausanne,
Vaud, Switzerland
| | - Kathryn E Ackerman
- Boston Children’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School,
Wu Tsai Female Athlete Program, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | | | - Louise M Burke
- Mariy MacKillop Institute for Health Research, Australian
Catholic University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Naama Constantini
- Shaare Zedek Medical Center, The Hebrew University,
Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Anthony C Hackney
- Exercise and Sport Science, University of North Carolina,
Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
| | - Ida Aliisa Heikura
- Canadian Sport Institute Pacific, Victoria, British
Columbia, Canada
- Exercise Science, Physical & Health Education,
University of Victoria, Victoria, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Anna Melin
- Swedish Olympic Committee Research Fellow, Department of
Sport Science, Linnaeus University, Kalmar, Sweden
| | - Anne Marte Pensgaard
- Institute of Sport and Social Sciences, Norwegian School
of Sport Sciences, Oslo, Norway
| | - Trent Stellingwerff
- Canadian Sport Institute, Victoria, British Columbia,
Canada
- Department of Exercise Science, Physical & Health
Education, University of Victoria, Victoria, British Columbia, Canada
| | | | - Monica Klungland Torstveit
- Universitetet i Agder Fakultet for Helse og
Idrettsvitenskap, Kristiansand, Norway
- Department of Sport Science and Physical Education,
University of Agder, Kristiansand, Norway
| | | | - Evert Verhagen
- Amsterdam Collaboration on Health & Safety in Sports,
Department of Public and Occupational Health, Amsterdam Movement Science, Amsterdam
UMC Locatie VUmc, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Richard Budgett
- Medical and Scientific Department, International Olympic
Committee, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Lars Engebretsen
- Medical and Scientific Department, International Olympic
Committee, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Uğur Erdener
- International Olympic Committee, Lausanne,
Switzerland
- Department of Ophthalmology, Hacettepe Universitesi,
Ankara, Turkey
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19
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Burke LM, Ackerman KE, Heikura IA, Hackney AC, Stellingwerff T. Mapping the complexities of Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport (REDs): development of a physiological model by a subgroup of the International Olympic Committee (IOC) Consensus on REDs. Br J Sports Med 2023; 57:1098-1108. [PMID: 37752007 DOI: 10.1136/bjsports-2023-107335] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 08/20/2023] [Indexed: 09/28/2023]
Abstract
The 2023 International Olympic Committee (IOC) consensus statement on Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport (REDs) notes that exposure to low energy availability (LEA) exists on a continuum between adaptable and problematic LEA, with a range of potential effects on both health and performance. However, there is variability in the outcomes of LEA exposure between and among individuals as well as the specific manifestations of REDs. We outline a framework for a 'systems biology' examination of the effect of LEA on individual body systems, with the eventual goal of creating an integrated map of body system interactions. We provide a template that systematically identifies characteristics of LEA exposure (eg, magnitude, duration, origin) and a variety of moderating factors (eg, medical history, diet and training characteristics) that could exacerbate or attenuate the type and severity of impairments to health and performance faced by an individual athlete. The REDs Physiological Model may assist the diagnosis of underlying causes of problems associated with LEA, with a personalised and nuanced treatment plan promoting compliance and treatment efficacy. It could also be used in the strategic prevention of REDs by drawing attention to scenarios of LEA in which impairments of health and performance are most likely, based on knowledge of the characteristics of the LEA exposure or moderating factors that may increase the risk of harmful outcomes. We challenge researchers and practitioners to create a unifying and dynamic physiological model for each body system that can be continuously updated and mapped as knowledge is gained.
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Affiliation(s)
- Louise M Burke
- Mary MacKillop Institute for Health Research, Australian Catholic University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Kathryn E Ackerman
- Wu Tsai Female Athlete Program, Division of Sports Medicine, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Neuroendocrine Unit, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Ida A Heikura
- Canadian Sport Institute Pacific, Victoria, British Columbia, Canada
- Exercise Science, Physical & Health Education, University of Victoria, Victoria, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Anthony C Hackney
- Department of Exercise & Sport Science, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
| | - Trent Stellingwerff
- Canadian Sport Institute Pacific, Victoria, British Columbia, Canada
- Exercise Science, Physical & Health Education, University of Victoria, Victoria, British Columbia, Canada
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20
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Ackerman KE, Rogers MA, Heikura IA, Burke LM, Stellingwerff T, Hackney AC, Verhagen E, Schley S, Saville GH, Mountjoy M, Holtzman B. Methodology for studying Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport (REDs): a narrative review by a subgroup of the International Olympic Committee (IOC) consensus on REDs. Br J Sports Med 2023; 57:1136-1147. [PMID: 37752010 DOI: 10.1136/bjsports-2023-107359] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 08/18/2023] [Indexed: 09/28/2023]
Abstract
In the past decade, the study of relationships among nutrition, exercise and the effects on health and athletic performance, has substantially increased. The 2014 introduction of Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport (REDs) prompted sports scientists and clinicians to investigate these relationships in more populations and with more outcomes than had been previously pursued in mostly white, adolescent or young adult, female athletes. Much of the existing physiology and concepts, however, are either based on or extrapolated from limited studies, and the comparison of studies is hindered by the lack of standardised protocols. In this review, we have evaluated and outlined current best practice methodologies to study REDs in an attempt to guide future research.This includes an agreement on the definition of key terms, a summary of study designs with appropriate applications, descriptions of best practices for blood collection and assessment and a description of methods used to assess specific REDs sequelae, stratified as either Preferred, Used and Recommended or Potential Researchers can use the compiled information herein when planning studies to more consistently select the proper tools to investigate their domain of interest. Thus, the goal of this review is to standardise REDs research methods to strengthen future studies and improve REDs prevention, diagnosis and care.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kathryn E Ackerman
- Wu Tsai Female Athlete Program, Division of Sports Medicine, Boston Children's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Margot Anne Rogers
- Australian Institute of Sport, Bruce, South Australia, Australia
- University of Canberra Research Institute for Sport and Exercise (UCRISE), Canberra, Australian Capital Territory, Australia
| | - Ida A Heikura
- Canadian Sport Institute-Pacific, Victoria, British Columbia, Canada
- Department of Exercise Science, Physical & Health Education, University of Victoria, Victoria, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Louise M Burke
- Mary McKillop Institute for Health Research, Australian Catholic University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Trent Stellingwerff
- Canadian Sport Institute-Pacific, Victoria, British Columbia, Canada
- Department of Exercise Science, Physical & Health Education, University of Victoria, Victoria, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Anthony C Hackney
- Exercise and Sport Science, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
| | - Evert Verhagen
- Amsterdam Collaboration on Health and Safety in Sports and Department of Public and Occupational Health, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Stacey Schley
- Wu Tsai Female Athlete Program, Division of Sports Medicine, Boston Children's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Grace H Saville
- Wu Tsai Female Athlete Program, Division of Sports Medicine, Boston Children's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Margo Mountjoy
- Family Medicine, McMaster University Michael G DeGroote School of Medicine, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada
- Games Group, International Olympic Committee, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Bryan Holtzman
- Wu Tsai Female Athlete Program, Division of Sports Medicine, Boston Children's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Department of Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Department of Pediatrics, Mass General for Children, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
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21
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Paludo AC, Gimunová M, Michaelides M, Kobus M, Parpa K. Description of the menstrual cycle status, energy availability, eating behavior and physical performance in a youth female soccer team. Sci Rep 2023; 13:11194. [PMID: 37433829 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-37967-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2023] [Accepted: 06/30/2023] [Indexed: 07/13/2023] Open
Abstract
The aim of the study was to describe the menstrual status and perception, risk of low energy availability (LEA) and the presence of orthorexia nervosa (ON) in youth female from a soccer team. Also, verify the possible effect of LEA and ON on physical performance. Data from 19 female players (14.6 ± 1.42 yr) belonging to a soccer team from Cyprus was taken during pre-season. The menstrual cycle status was evaluated by specific questions, LEA by the Low Energy Availability in Females Questionnaire (LEAF-Q), ON by the ORTO-R questionnaire and physical performance by jump, handgrip and cardiorespiratory exercise tests. Players were separated into the risk of LEA and ON. Comparison and correlation tests were performed with a significance set at p < 0.05. As the main results, 66.7% of players perceived that the menstrual period affects their performance in the game, 83.3% did not communicate with coaches about their menstrual cycle; the prevalence of risk of LEA was 26.3%; players with risk of LEA also presented higher scores ON; neither LEA nor ON presented a significant association with players performance. The findings highlighted that youth players perceived an impact of the menstrual period on performance, but did not communicate with the coach about it. Players with the risk of LEA and high values of ON seem not to be associated with a decrease in physical performance during the pre-season evaluation. Attention is required as the players were assessed once. Monitoring these parameters throughout the sports season is recommended to obtain better clarification about the topic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Carolina Paludo
- Incubator of Kinanthropology Research, Faculty of Sports Studies, Masaryk University, Kamenice 753/5, Bohunice, Brno, Czech Republic.
| | - Marta Gimunová
- Department of Physical Activities and Health Science, Faculty of Sports Studies, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Marcos Michaelides
- Faculty of Sports and Exercise Science, UCLan University of Cyprus, Pyla, Cyprus
| | - Magdalena Kobus
- Department of Anthropology, Faculty of Biology and Environmental Protection, University of Lodz, 90-237, Lodz, Poland
- Institute of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Biology and Environmental Sciences, Cardinal Stefan Wyszyński University in Warsaw, 01-938, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Koulla Parpa
- Faculty of Sports and Exercise Science, UCLan University of Cyprus, Pyla, Cyprus
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22
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Bruyère O, Kaux JF. How much sport is too much? A focus on musculoskeletal health of the adult. Aging Clin Exp Res 2023:10.1007/s40520-023-02448-1. [PMID: 37237096 DOI: 10.1007/s40520-023-02448-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2023] [Accepted: 05/17/2023] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Olivier Bruyère
- WHO Collaborating Center for Public Health Aspects of Musculoskeletal Health and Ageing, University of Liège, Liège, Belgium.
| | - Jean-François Kaux
- Physical and Rehabilitation Medicine & Sports Traumatology, FIFA Medical Centre of Excellence, IOC Research Centre for Prevention of Injury and Protection of Athlete Health, FIMS Collaborative Center of Sports Medicine, University and University Hospital of Liège, Liège, Belgium
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23
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Van Hooren B, Cox M, Rietjens G, Plasqui G. Determination of energy expenditure in professional cyclists using power data: Validation against doubly labeled water. Scand J Med Sci Sports 2023; 33:407-419. [PMID: 36404133 DOI: 10.1111/sms.14271] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2022] [Revised: 09/14/2022] [Accepted: 11/10/2022] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Accurate determination of total daily energy expenditure (TDEE) in athletes is important for optimal performance and injury prevention, but current approaches are insufficiently accurate. We therefore developed an approach to determine TDEE in professional cyclists based on power data, basal metabolic rate (BMR), and a non-exercise physical activity level (PAL) value, and compared energy expenditure (EE) between multi-day and single-day races. METHODS Twenty-one male professional cyclists participated. We measured: (1) BMR, (2) the relationship between power output and EE during an incremental cycling test, which was used to determine EE during exercise (EEE ), and (3) TDEE using doubly labeled water (DLW). A non-exercise PAL-value was obtained by subtracting EEE from TDEE and dividing this by BMR. RESULTS Measured BMR was 7.9 ± 0.8 MJ/day, which was significantly higher than predicted by the Oxford equations. A new BMR equation for elite endurance athletes was therefore developed. Mean TDEE was 31.7 ± 2.8 and 27.3 ± 2.8 MJ/day during the Vuelta a España and Ardennes classics, while EEE was 17.4 ± 1.8 and 10.1 ± 1.4 MJ/day, respectively. Non-exercise PAL-values were 1.8 and 2.0 for the Vuelta and Ardennes classics, respectively, which is substantially higher than currently used generic PAL-values. CONCLUSION We show that the proposed approach leads to a more accurate estimation of non-exercise EE than the use of a generic PAL-value in combination with BMR predictive equations developed for non-elite athletes, with the latter underestimating non-exercise EE by ~28%. The proposed approach may therefore improve nutritional strategies in professional cyclists.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bas Van Hooren
- Department of Nutrition and Movement Sciences, NUTRIM School of Nutrition and Translational Research in Metabolism, Maastricht University Medical Centre+, Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - Maartje Cox
- Department of Nutrition and Movement Sciences, NUTRIM School of Nutrition and Translational Research in Metabolism, Maastricht University Medical Centre+, Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - Gerard Rietjens
- Human Physiology and Sports Physiotherapy Research Group, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Guy Plasqui
- Department of Nutrition and Movement Sciences, NUTRIM School of Nutrition and Translational Research in Metabolism, Maastricht University Medical Centre+, Maastricht, The Netherlands
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24
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Sadhir S, Pontzer H. Impact of energy availability and physical activity on variation in fertility across human populations. J Physiol Anthropol 2023; 42:1. [PMID: 36829218 PMCID: PMC9951524 DOI: 10.1186/s40101-023-00318-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2022] [Accepted: 02/08/2023] [Indexed: 02/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Human reproduction is energetically costly, even more so than other primates. In this review, we consider how the energy cost of physical activity impacts reproductive tasks. Daily energy expenditure appears to be constrained, leading to trade-offs between activity and reproduction expenditures in physically active populations. High workloads can lead to suppression of basal metabolic rate and low gestational weight gain during pregnancy and longer interbirth intervals. These responses lead to variation in fertility, including age at first reproduction and interbirth interval. The influence of energetics is evident even in industrialized populations, where cultural and economic factors predominate. With the decoupling of skills acquisition from food procurement, extrasomatic resources and investment in individual offspring becomes very costly. The result is greater investment in fewer offspring. We present a summary of age at first reproduction and interbirth interval trends across a diverse, global sample representing 44 countries and two natural fertility populations. While economic factors impact fertility, women in energy-rich, industrialized populations are capable of greater reproductive output than women in energy-stressed populations. Thus, energetic factors can be disentangled from cultural and economic impacts on fertility. Future research should focus on objective measurements of energy intake, energy expenditure, and physical activity in a broader sample of populations to elucidate the role of energetics in shaping reproductive outcomes and health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Srishti Sadhir
- Department of Evolutionary Anthropology, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA.
| | - Herman Pontzer
- grid.26009.3d0000 0004 1936 7961Department of Evolutionary Anthropology, Duke University, Durham, NC USA ,grid.26009.3d0000 0004 1936 7961Duke Global Health Institute, Duke University, Durham, NC USA
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25
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Tarnowski CA, Wardle SL, O’Leary TJ, Gifford RM, Greeves JP, Wallis GA. Measurement of Energy Intake Using the Principle of Energy Balance Overcomes a Critical Limitation in the Assessment of Energy Availability. SPORTS MEDICINE - OPEN 2023; 9:16. [PMID: 36811697 PMCID: PMC9947205 DOI: 10.1186/s40798-023-00558-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2022] [Accepted: 02/04/2023] [Indexed: 02/24/2023]
Abstract
Prolonged low energy availability, which is the underpinning aetiology of the Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport and the Female and Male Athlete Triad frameworks, can have unfavourable impacts on both health and performance in athletes. Energy availability is calculated as energy intake minus exercise energy expenditure, expressed relative to fat free mass. The current measurement of energy intake is recognized as a major limitation for assessing energy availability due to its reliance on self-report methods, in addition to its short-term nature. This article introduces the application of the energy balance method for the measurement of energy intake, within the context of energy availability. The energy balance method requires quantification of the change in body energy stores over time, with concurrent measurement of total energy expenditure. This provides an objective calculation of energy intake, which can then be used for the assessment of energy availability. This approach, the Energy Availability - Energy Balance (EAEB) method, increases the reliance on objective measurements, provides an indication of energy availability status over longer periods and removes athlete burden to self-report energy intake. Implementation of the EAEB method could be used to objectively identify and detect low energy availability, with implications for the diagnosis and management of Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport and the Female and Male Athlete Triad.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caroline A. Tarnowski
- grid.6572.60000 0004 1936 7486School of Sport, Exercise and Rehabilitation Sciences, College of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, B15 2TT UK
| | - Sophie L. Wardle
- Army Health and Performance Research, Army Headquarters, Andover, UK ,grid.83440.3b0000000121901201Division of Surgery and Interventional Science, Department of Targeted Intervention, University College London, London, UK
| | - Thomas J. O’Leary
- Army Health and Performance Research, Army Headquarters, Andover, UK ,grid.83440.3b0000000121901201Division of Surgery and Interventional Science, Department of Targeted Intervention, University College London, London, UK
| | - Robert M. Gifford
- grid.511172.10000 0004 0613 128XBritish Heart Foundation Centre for Cardiovascular Science, Queen’s Medical Research Institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK ,grid.415490.d0000 0001 2177 007XResearch and Clinical Innovation, Royal Centre of Defence Medicine, Birmingham, UK
| | - Julie P. Greeves
- Army Health and Performance Research, Army Headquarters, Andover, UK ,grid.83440.3b0000000121901201Division of Surgery and Interventional Science, Department of Targeted Intervention, University College London, London, UK ,grid.8273.e0000 0001 1092 7967Norwich Medical School, University of East Anglia, Norwich, UK
| | - Gareth A. Wallis
- grid.6572.60000 0004 1936 7486School of Sport, Exercise and Rehabilitation Sciences, College of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, B15 2TT UK
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26
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Tsukahara Y, Kamada H, Torii S, Yamasawa F. Association between Self-reported Overtraining Syndrome and Symptoms in High School Track and Field Athletes. Int J Sports Med 2023; 44:138-144. [PMID: 36195264 DOI: 10.1055/a-1954-9239] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/10/2022]
Abstract
Diagnosing overtraining syndrome is challenging and it is often correlated with other diseases, especially those related to low energy availability. Therefore, we investigated the prevalence of overtraining syndrome-like symptoms and correlative factors in 389 female and 572 male national-level high school track and field athletes. They were asked to complete a survey regarding their history of overtraining syndrome-like symptoms, injuries, and diseases. The survey results revealed that 13.4% (52/389) of female and 13.3% (76/572) of male athletes had a history of overtraining syndrome-like symptoms. Logistic regression analysis showed that training hours per day (odds ratio, 1.74; 95% confidence interval, 1.12-2.71) was an associated factor in female athletes, while rest days per week (odds ratio, 0.61; 95% confidence interval, 0.37-1.00), skipping meals (odds ratio, 3.73; 95% confidence interval, 1.50-9.29), and having snacks/light meals on a regular basis (odds ratio, 0.46; 95% confidence interval, 0.26-0.83) were the associated factors in male athletes. In conclusion, athletes with overtraining syndrome-like symptoms may be prone to injuries and diseases. Hence, although overtraining syndrome is difficult to diagnose, further attention should be paid to minimize overtraining syndrome-related risks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuka Tsukahara
- Graduate School of Sports Science, Waseda University - Tokorozawa Campus, Tokorozawa, Japan.,Department of Sports Medicine, Tokyo Women's College of Physical Education
| | - Hiroshi Kamada
- Department of Othopaedic sugery, University of Tsukuba Faculty of Medicine, Tsukuba, Japan
| | - Suguru Torii
- Faculty of Sport Sciences, Waseda University, Tokorozawa, Japan
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27
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Talsnes RK, Moxnes EF, Nystad T, Sandbakk Ø. The return from underperformance to sustainable world-class level: A case study of a male cross-country skier. Front Physiol 2023; 13:1089867. [PMID: 36699686 PMCID: PMC9870290 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2022.1089867] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2022] [Accepted: 12/22/2022] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Purpose: To determine the main factors associated with unexpected underperformance and prospectively describe the holistic process of returning to sustainable world-class level in a male cross-country skier. Methods: Longitudinal training data was retrospectively analyzed across nine seasons (2012-2013 to 2020-2021), and categorized into training forms (endurance, strength, and speed), intensities [low- (LIT), moderate- (MIT), and high-intensity training (HIT)], and modes (specific and non-specific). Performance data was obtained from the International Ski and Snowboard Federation. Following two seasons of unexpected underperformance (2019-2020 and 2020-2021), the participant was prospectively followed in the process of returning to sustainable world-class level (2021-2022). Day-to-day training data and physiological tests were analyzed, and interviews with the participant and the head coach conducted. Results: Longitudinal training data from 2012-2013 to 2018-2019 demonstrated a non-linear 30% increase in total training volume (from 772 to 1,002 h), mainly caused by increased volume of ski-specific endurance training without changes in intensity distribution. Coincidingly, the participant gradually reached a world-class performance level. After two seasons of unexpected underperformance with relatively similar training volumes and intensity distributions as in the preceding seasons, the possible contributing factors were identified: lack of training periodization, limited monitoring and intensity control, particularly in connection with a "extreme" regime of training with low carbohydrate availability and days including two MIT sessions, as well as lack of systematic technique training and follow-up by coaches on a daily basis. Consequently, the return to world-class level included the introduction of a clear micro-cycle periodization, more systematic physiological monitoring and testing, more accurate intensity control, increased carbohydrate intake during and between sessions, as well as increased emphasize on technique training and an assistant coach present during day-to-day training. Conclusion: These longitudinal data describe the main factors leading to unexpected underperformance, in addition to providing unique insights into the corresponding process of returning to sustainable world-class level in a male cross-country skier. The holistic approach described in this case study may serve as a theoretical framework for future studies and practical work with underperforming endurance athletes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rune Kjøsen Talsnes
- Department of Sports Science and Physical Education, Nord University, Bodø, Norway,Meråker High School, Trøndelag County Council, Steinkjer, Norway,*Correspondence: Rune Kjøsen Talsnes,
| | - Einar Flaktveit Moxnes
- Centre for Elite Sports Research, Department of Neuromedicine and Movement Science, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Trond Nystad
- Centre for Elite Sports Research, Department of Neuromedicine and Movement Science, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Øyvind Sandbakk
- Centre for Elite Sports Research, Department of Neuromedicine and Movement Science, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
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28
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NUUTTILA OLLIPEKKA, NUMMELA ARI, KORHONEN ELISA, HÄKKINEN KEIJO, KYRÖLÄINEN HEIKKI. Individualized Endurance Training Based on Recovery and Training Status in Recreational Runners. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2022; 54:1690-1701. [PMID: 35975912 PMCID: PMC9473708 DOI: 10.1249/mss.0000000000002968] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE Long-term development of endurance performance requires a proper balance between strain and recovery. Because responses and adaptations to training are highly individual, this study examined whether individually adjusted endurance training based on recovery and training status would lead to greater adaptations compared with a predefined program. METHODS Recreational runners were divided into predefined (PD; n = 14) or individualized (IND; n = 16) training groups. In IND, the training load was decreased, maintained, or increased twice a week based on nocturnal heart rate variability, perceived recovery, and heart rate-running speed index. Both groups performed 3-wk preparatory, 6-wk volume, and 6-wk interval periods. Incremental treadmill tests and 10-km running tests were performed before the preparatory period ( T0 ) and after the preparatory ( T1 ), volume ( T2 ), and interval ( T3 ) periods. The magnitude of training adaptations was defined based on the coefficient of variation between T0 and T1 tests (high >2×, low <0.5×). RESULTS Both groups improved ( P < 0.01) their maximal treadmill speed and 10-km time from T1 to T3 . The change in the 10-km time was greater in IND compared with PD (-6.2% ± 2.8% vs -2.9% ± 2.4%, P = 0.002). In addition, IND had more high responders (50% vs 29%) and fewer low responders (0% vs 21%) compared with PD in the change of maximal treadmill speed and 10-km performance (81% vs 23% and 13% vs 23%), respectively. CONCLUSIONS PD and IND induced positive training adaptations, but the individualized training seemed more beneficial in endurance performance. Moreover, IND increased the likelihood of high response and decreased the occurrence of low response to endurance training.
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Affiliation(s)
- OLLI-PEKKA NUUTTILA
- Faculty of Sport and Health Sciences, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, FINLAND
| | - ARI NUMMELA
- Finnish Institute of High Performance Sport KIHU, Jyväskylä, FINLAND
| | - ELISA KORHONEN
- Faculty of Sport and Health Sciences, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, FINLAND
| | - KEIJO HÄKKINEN
- Faculty of Sport and Health Sciences, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, FINLAND
| | - HEIKKI KYRÖLÄINEN
- Faculty of Sport and Health Sciences, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, FINLAND
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29
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Bernaciková M, Kumstát M, Burešová I, Kapounková K, Struhár I, Sebera M, Paludo AC. Preventing chronic fatigue in Czech young athletes: The features description of the “SmartTraining” mobile application. Front Physiol 2022; 13:919982. [PMID: 36203938 PMCID: PMC9531124 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2022.919982] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2022] [Accepted: 08/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
This study describes a beta version of a mobile application (app) that focuses on preventing chronic fatigue in Czech youth athletes. The first version of the SmartTraining app was developed for athletes as a way to prevent chronic fatigue via alertness and education. For alertness, a multistage process was developed using a combination of parameters about training responses, such as tiredness, well-being, heart rate, energy balance and psychological, and health-related aspects. According to the combination of the multistage parameter outcomes, the algorithm classifies the risk of fatigue based on semaphore light: green corresponds to low, yellow to moderate and red to high risk. The education presented in the app consisted of written and “animated videos” material about the variables involved in training, such as training demands and athletes’ responses, regeneration, nutrition and communication between athletes, coaches, and parents. Subsequently, a beta version of the app was created and freely available to download for Android or iOS mobile. The app can be used in daily routines to reduce the risk of chronic fatigue from inadequate training dose response. Prevention can minimise the risk of injury or physical and emotional burnout in youth. Informing athletes on how to carefully handle the training factors can improve athletes’ awareness of their performance and health status. Collaboration between sports scientists and the commercial sector allows for the efficient development of an easy-to-use and low-cost tool for use in sports settings. Future steps should be performed to validate the app’s accuracy in its alertness and in the efficiency of the educational process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martina Bernaciková
- Department of Kinesiology, Faculty of Sports Studies, Masaryk University, Brno, Czechia
- *Correspondence: Martina Bernaciková, ; Ana Carolina Paludo,
| | - Michal Kumstát
- Department of Health Promotion, Faculty of Sports Studies, Masaryk University, Brno, Czechia
| | - Iva Burešová
- Department of Kinesiology, Faculty of Sports Studies, Masaryk University, Brno, Czechia
| | - Kateřina Kapounková
- Department of Health Promotion, Faculty of Sports Studies, Masaryk University, Brno, Czechia
| | - Ivan Struhár
- Department of Health Promotion, Faculty of Sports Studies, Masaryk University, Brno, Czechia
| | - Martin Sebera
- Department of Kinesiology, Faculty of Sports Studies, Masaryk University, Brno, Czechia
| | - Ana Carolina Paludo
- Incubator of Kinanthropology Research, Faculty of Sports Studies, Masaryk University, Brno, Czechia
- *Correspondence: Martina Bernaciková, ; Ana Carolina Paludo,
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30
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Abstract
Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport (RED-S) refers to a condition in which energy imbalance leads to impaired physiological function of multiple organ systems and expands on the diagnosis previously known as the Female Athlete Triad. Researchers attribute the medical complications of RED-S to low energy availability, in which energy availability is defined as dietary energy intake minus exercise energy expenditure divided by fat-free mass. This article reviews the history of this diagnosis, the changing terminology, and the reasons for the expansion. Accepted definitions of each part of the energy availability equation are considered and the difficulties that exist using these equations in practice or comparatively in the literature are assessed. The review analyzes the broad spectrum of health consequences of RED-S, especially as it relates to hypoestrogenemia and menstrual function, gives guidance to those caring for athletes on the identification and management of RED-S, and sheds lights on the important role of coaches, athletic trainers, and families in recognizing this diagnosis and in helping getting patients to care.
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31
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Margolis LM, Hatch-McChesney A, Allen JT, DiBella MN, Carrigan CT, Murphy NE, Karl JP, Gwin JA, Hennigar SR, McClung JP, Pasiakos SM. Circulating and skeletal muscle microRNA profiles are more sensitive to sustained aerobic exercise than energy balance in males. J Physiol 2022; 600:3951-3963. [PMID: 35822542 DOI: 10.1113/jp283209] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2022] [Accepted: 06/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
KEY POINTS Circulating and skeletal muscle miRNA profiles are more sensitive to high levels of aerobic exercise-induced energy expenditures compared to energy status Changes in circulating miRNA in response to high levels of daily sustained aerobic exercise are not reflective of changes in skeletal muscle miRNA. ABSTRACT MicroRNA (miRNA) regulate molecular processes governing muscle metabolism. Physical activity and energy balance influence both muscle anabolism and metabolism, but whether circulating and skeletal muscle miRNA mediate those effects remains unknown. This study assessed the impact of sustained physical activity with participants in energy balance (BAL) or deficit (DEF) on circulating and skeletal muscle miRNA. Using a randomized cross-over design, 10 recreational active healthy males (mean ± SD; 22±5 yrs, 87±11 kg) completed 72 hours of high aerobic exercise-induced energy expenditures in BAL (689±852 kcal/d) or DEF (-2047±920 kcal/d). Blood and muscle samples were collected under rested/fasted conditions before (PRE) and immediately after 120-min load carriage exercise bout at the end (POST) of the 72 hours. Trials were separated by 7 days. Circulating and skeletal muscle miRNA were measured using microarray RT-qPCR. Independent of energy status, 36 circulating miRNA decreased (P<0.05), while 10 miRNA increased and 3 miRNA decreased in skeletal muscle (P<0.05) at POST compared to PRE. Of these, miR-122-5p, miR-221-3p, miR-222-3p, and miR-24-3p decreased in circulation and increased in skeletal muscle. Two circulating (miR-145-5p and miR-193a-5p) and 4 skeletal muscle (miR-21-5p, miR-372-3p, miR-34a-5p, and miR-9-5p) miRNA had time-by-treatment effects (P<0.05). These data suggest that changes in miRNA profiles are more sensitive to increased physical activity compared to energy status, and that changes in circulating miRNA in response to high levels of daily aerobic exercise are not reflective of changes in skeletal muscle miRNA. Graphical abstract legend In response to 72 hours of high aerobic exercise, circulating miRNA decreased and miRNA in skeletal muscle primarily increased. The changes in miRNA occurred independent of energy status (i.e., exercise-induced energy defcit or exercise plus increased energy intake to achieve energy balance), and circulating miRNA did not refect changes in skeletal muscle. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lee M Margolis
- Military Nutrition Division, U.S. Army Research Institute of Environmental Medicine, Natick, MA
| | | | - Jillian T Allen
- Military Nutrition Division, U.S. Army Research Institute of Environmental Medicine, Natick, MA.,Oak Ridge Institute of Science and Technology, Belcamp, MD, USA
| | - Marissa N DiBella
- Military Nutrition Division, U.S. Army Research Institute of Environmental Medicine, Natick, MA.,Oak Ridge Institute of Science and Technology, Belcamp, MD, USA
| | - Christopher T Carrigan
- Military Nutrition Division, U.S. Army Research Institute of Environmental Medicine, Natick, MA
| | - Nancy E Murphy
- Military Nutrition Division, U.S. Army Research Institute of Environmental Medicine, Natick, MA
| | - J Philip Karl
- Military Nutrition Division, U.S. Army Research Institute of Environmental Medicine, Natick, MA
| | - Jess A Gwin
- Military Nutrition Division, U.S. Army Research Institute of Environmental Medicine, Natick, MA
| | - Stephen R Hennigar
- Department of Nutrition and Integrative Physiology, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, USA
| | - James P McClung
- Military Nutrition Division, U.S. Army Research Institute of Environmental Medicine, Natick, MA
| | - Stefan M Pasiakos
- Military Performance Division, U.S. Army Research Institute of Environmental Medicine, Natick, MA
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32
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Markers of Low Energy Availability in Overreached Athletes: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. Sports Med 2022; 52:2925-2941. [PMID: 35819582 DOI: 10.1007/s40279-022-01723-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/06/2022] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Overreaching is the transient reduction in performance that occurs following training overload and is driven by an imbalance between stress and recovery. Low energy availability (LEA) may drive underperformance by compounding training stress; however, this has yet to be investigated systematically. OBJECTIVE The aim of this study was to quantify changes in markers of LEA in athletes who demonstrated underperformance, and exercise performance in athletes with markers of LEA. METHODS Studies using a ≥ 2-week training block with maintained or increased training loads that measured exercise performance and markers of LEA were identified using a systematic search following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses guidelines. Changes from pre- to post-training were analyzed for (1) markers of LEA in underperforming athletes and (2) performance in athletes with ≥ 2 markers of LEA. RESULTS From 56 identified studies, 14 separate groups of athletes demonstrated underperformance, with 50% also displaying ≥ 2 markers of LEA post-training. Eleven groups demonstrated ≥ 2 markers of LEA independent of underperformance and 37 had no performance reduction or ≥ 2 markers of LEA. In underperforming athletes, fat mass (d = - 0.29, 95% confidence interval [CI] - 0.54 to - 0.04; p = 0.02), resting metabolic rate (d = - 0.63, 95% CI - 1.22 to - 0.05; p = 0.03), and leptin (d = - 0.72, 95% CI - 1.08 to - 0.35; p < 0.0001) were decreased, whereas body mass (d = - 0.04, 95% CI - 0.21 to 0.14; p = 0.70), cortisol (d = - 0.06, 95% CI - 0.35 to 0.23; p = 0.68), insulin (d = - 0.12, 95% CI - 0.43 to 0.19; p = 0.46), and testosterone (d = - 0.31, 95% CI - 0.69 to 0.08; p = 0.12) were unaltered. In athletes with ≥ 2 LEA markers, performance was unaffected (d = 0.09, 95% CI - 0.30 to 0.49; p = 0.6), and the high heterogeneity in performance outcomes (I2 = 84.86%) could not be explained by the performance tests used or the length of the training block. CONCLUSION Underperforming athletes may present with markers of LEA, but overreaching is also observed in the absence of LEA. The lack of a specific effect and high variability of outcomes with LEA on performance suggests that LEA is not obligatory for underperformance.
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Pontzer H, McGrosky A. Balancing growth, reproduction, maintenance, and activity in evolved energy economies. Curr Biol 2022; 32:R709-R719. [PMID: 35728556 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2022.05.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Economic models predominate in life history research, which investigates the allocation of an organism's resources to growth, reproduction, and maintenance. These approaches typically employ a heuristic Y model of resource allocation, which predicts trade-offs among tasks within a fixed budget. The common currency among tasks is not always specified, but most models imply that metabolic energy, either from food or body stores, is the critical resource. Here, we review the evidence for metabolic energy as the common currency of growth, reproduction, and maintenance, focusing on studies in humans and other vertebrates. We then discuss the flow of energy to competing physiological tasks (physical activity, maintenance, and reproduction or growth) and its effect on life history traits. We propose a Ψ model of energy flow to these tasks, which provides an integrative framework for examining the influence of environmental factors and the expansion and contraction of energy budgets in the evolution of life history strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Herman Pontzer
- Department of Evolutionary Anthropology, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA; Duke Global Health Institute, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA.
| | - Amanda McGrosky
- Department of Evolutionary Anthropology, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA
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Overtraining Syndrome Symptoms and Diagnosis in Athletes: Where Is the Research? A Systematic Review. Int J Sports Physiol Perform 2022; 17:675-681. [PMID: 35320774 DOI: 10.1123/ijspp.2021-0448] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2021] [Revised: 02/13/2022] [Accepted: 02/13/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
CONTEXT To understand overtraining syndrome (OTS), it is important to detail the physiological and psychological changes that occur in athletes. OBJECTIVES To systematically establish and detail the physiological and psychological changes that occur as a result of OTS in athletes. METHODS Databases were searched for studies that were (1) original investigations; (2) English, full-text articles; (3) published in peer-reviewed journals; (4) investigations into adult humans and provided (5) objective evidence that detailed changes in performance from prior to the onset of OTS diagnosis and that performance was suppressed for more than 4 weeks and (6) objective evidence of psychological symptoms. RESULTS Zero studies provided objective evidence of detailed changes in performance from prior to the onset of OTS diagnosis and demonstrated suppressed performance for more than 4 weeks accompanied by changes in psychological symptoms. CONCLUSIONS All studies failed to provide evidence of changes in performance and mood from "healthy" to an overtrained state with evidence of prolonged suppression of performance. While OTS may be observed in the field, little data is available describing how physiological and psychological symptoms manifest. This stems from vague terminology, difficulties in monitoring for prolonged periods of time, and the need for prospective testing. Real-world settings may facilitate the collection of such data, but the ideal testing battery that can easily be conducted on a regular basis does not yet exist. Consequently, it must be concluded that an evidence base of sufficient scientific quality for understanding OTS in athletes is lacking.
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Allan J, Buss LA, Draper N, Currie MJ. Exercise in People With Cancer: A Spotlight on Energy Regulation and Cachexia. Front Physiol 2022; 13:836804. [PMID: 35283780 PMCID: PMC8914107 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2022.836804] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2021] [Accepted: 02/07/2022] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Exercise is increasingly becoming a standard of cancer care, with well-documented benefits for patients including improved mental wellbeing and reduced treatment-related side effects. However, important gaps in knowledge remain about how to optimise exercise prescription for people with cancer. Importantly, it remains unclear how exercise affects the progression of cancer cachexia (a wasting disease stemming from energy imbalance, and a common manifestation of advanced malignant disease), particularly once the condition has already developed. It was recently suggested that the anti-tumour effect of exercise might come from improved energetic capacity. Here, we highlight the possible effect of exercise on energetic capacity and energy regulation in the context of cancer, and how this might affect the progression of cancer cachexia. We suggest that due to the additional energy demand caused by the tumour and associated systemic inflammation, overreaching may occur more easily in people with cancer. Importantly, this could result in impaired anti-tumour immunity and/or the exacerbation of cancer cachexia. This highlights the importance of individualised exercise programs for people with cancer, with special consideration for the regulation of energy balance, ongoing monitoring and possible nutritional supplementation to support the increased energy demand caused by exercise.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica Allan
- School of Health Sciences, Health and Human Development, University of Canterbury, Christchurch, New Zealand
- Mackenzie Cancer Research Group, Department of Pathology and Biomedical Science, University of Otago, Christchurch, New Zealand
| | - Linda A. Buss
- Department of Medicine, Christchurch Heart Institute, University of Otago, Christchurch, New Zealand
- *Correspondence: Linda A. Buss,
| | - Nick Draper
- School of Health Sciences, Health and Human Development, University of Canterbury, Christchurch, New Zealand
| | - Margaret J. Currie
- Mackenzie Cancer Research Group, Department of Pathology and Biomedical Science, University of Otago, Christchurch, New Zealand
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Jagim AR, Fields J, Magee MK, Kerksick CM, Jones MT. Contributing Factors to Low Energy Availability in Female Athletes: A Narrative Review of Energy Availability, Training Demands, Nutrition Barriers, Body Image, and Disordered Eating. Nutrients 2022; 14:nu14050986. [PMID: 35267961 PMCID: PMC8912784 DOI: 10.3390/nu14050986] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2022] [Revised: 02/22/2022] [Accepted: 02/23/2022] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Relative Energy Deficiency in sport is experiencing remarkable popularity of late, particularly among female athletes. This condition is underpinned by low energy availability, which is a byproduct of high energy expenditure, inadequate energy intake, or a combination of the two. Several contributing factors exist that may predispose an athlete to low energy availability, and therefore a holistic and comprehensive assessment may be required to identify the root causes. The focus of the current narrative review is to discuss the primary contributing factors as well as known risk factors for low energy availability among female athletes to help practitioners increase awareness on the topic and identify future areas of focus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew R. Jagim
- Sports Medicine, Mayo Clinic Health System, La Crosse, WI 54601, USA
- Exercise & Sport Science Department, University of Wisconsin-La Crosse, La Crosse, WI 54601, USA
- Patriot Performance Laboratory, Frank Pettrone Center for Sports Performance, Intercollegiate Athletics, George Mason University, Fairfax, VA 22030, USA; (J.F.); (M.K.M.); (M.T.J.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +1-608-392-5280
| | - Jennifer Fields
- Patriot Performance Laboratory, Frank Pettrone Center for Sports Performance, Intercollegiate Athletics, George Mason University, Fairfax, VA 22030, USA; (J.F.); (M.K.M.); (M.T.J.)
- Exercise Science and Athletic Training, Springfield College, Springfield, MA 01109, USA
| | - Meghan K. Magee
- Patriot Performance Laboratory, Frank Pettrone Center for Sports Performance, Intercollegiate Athletics, George Mason University, Fairfax, VA 22030, USA; (J.F.); (M.K.M.); (M.T.J.)
- Sport, Recreation, and Tourism Management, George Mason University, Manassas, VA 22030, USA
| | - Chad M. Kerksick
- Exercise & Performance Nutrition Laboratory, Lindenwood University, St. Charles, MO 63301, USA;
| | - Margaret T. Jones
- Patriot Performance Laboratory, Frank Pettrone Center for Sports Performance, Intercollegiate Athletics, George Mason University, Fairfax, VA 22030, USA; (J.F.); (M.K.M.); (M.T.J.)
- Sport, Recreation, and Tourism Management, George Mason University, Manassas, VA 22030, USA
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New Horizons in Carbohydrate Research and Application for Endurance Athletes. Sports Med 2022; 52:5-23. [PMID: 36173597 PMCID: PMC9734239 DOI: 10.1007/s40279-022-01757-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 08/11/2022] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
The importance of carbohydrate as a fuel source for exercise and athletic performance is well established. Equally well developed are dietary carbohydrate intake guidelines for endurance athletes seeking to optimize their performance. This narrative review provides a contemporary perspective on research into the role of, and application of, carbohydrate in the diet of endurance athletes. The review discusses how recommendations could become increasingly refined and what future research would further our understanding of how to optimize dietary carbohydrate intake to positively impact endurance performance. High carbohydrate availability for prolonged intense exercise and competition performance remains a priority. Recent advances have been made on the recommended type and quantity of carbohydrates to be ingested before, during and after intense exercise bouts. Whilst reducing carbohydrate availability around selected exercise bouts to augment metabolic adaptations to training is now widely recommended, a contemporary view of the so-called train-low approach based on the totality of the current evidence suggests limited utility for enhancing performance benefits from training. Nonetheless, such studies have focused importance on periodizing carbohydrate intake based on, among other factors, the goal and demand of training or competition. This calls for a much more personalized approach to carbohydrate recommendations that could be further supported through future research and technological innovation (e.g., continuous glucose monitoring). Despite more than a century of investigations into carbohydrate nutrition, exercise metabolism and endurance performance, there are numerous new important discoveries, both from an applied and mechanistic perspective, on the horizon.
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Anemia in Sports: A Narrative Review. Life (Basel) 2021; 11:life11090987. [PMID: 34575136 PMCID: PMC8472039 DOI: 10.3390/life11090987] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2021] [Revised: 09/06/2021] [Accepted: 09/16/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Recent years have brought about new understandings regarding the pathogenesis of anemia in sports. From hemodilution and redistribution considered to contribute to the so-called “sports anemia” to iron deficiency caused by increased demands, dietary restrictions, decreased absorption, increased losses, hemolysis, and sequestration, to genetic determinants of different types of anemia (some related to sport), the anemia in athletes deserves a careful and multifactorial approach. Dietary factors that reduce iron absorption (e.g., phytate, polyphenols) and that augment iron’s bioavailability (e.g., ascorbic acid) should be considered. Celiac disease, more prevalent in female athletes, may underlie an unexplained iron deficiency anemia. Iron loss during exercise occurs in several ways: sweating, hematuria, gastrointestinal bleeding, inflammation, and intravascular and extravascular hemolysis. From a practical point of view, assessing iron status, especially in the athletes at risk for iron deficiency (females, adolescents, in sports with dietary restrictions, etc.), may improve the iron balance and possibly the performance. Hemoglobin and serum ferritin are measures that are easily employable for the evaluation of patients’ iron status. Cutoff values should probably be further assessed with respect to the sex, age, and type of sport. A healthy gut microbiome influences the iron status. Athletes at risk of iron deficiency should perform non-weight-bearing, low-intensity sports to avoid inducing hemolysis.
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Armstrong LE, Bergeron MF, Lee EC, Mershon JE, Armstrong EM. Overtraining Syndrome as a Complex Systems Phenomenon. FRONTIERS IN NETWORK PHYSIOLOGY 2021; 1:794392. [PMID: 36925581 PMCID: PMC10013019 DOI: 10.3389/fnetp.2021.794392] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2021] [Accepted: 12/13/2021] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
The phenomenon of reduced athletic performance following sustained, intense training (Overtraining Syndrome, and OTS) was first recognized more than 90 years ago. Although hundreds of scientific publications have focused on OTS, a definitive diagnosis, reliable biomarkers, and effective treatments remain unknown. The present review considers existing models of OTS, acknowledges the individualized and sport-specific nature of signs/symptoms, describes potential interacting predisposing factors, and proposes that OTS will be most effectively characterized and evaluated via the underlying complex biological systems. Complex systems in nature are not aptly characterized or successfully analyzed using the classic scientific method (i.e., simplifying complex problems into single variables in a search for cause-and-effect) because they result from myriad (often non-linear) concomitant interactions of multiple determinants. Thus, this review 1) proposes that OTS be viewed from the perspectives of complex systems and network physiology, 2) advocates for and recommends that techniques such as trans-omic analyses and machine learning be widely employed, and 3) proposes evidence-based areas for future OTS investigations, including concomitant multi-domain analyses incorporating brain neural networks, dysfunction of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal responses to training stress, the intestinal microbiota, immune factors, and low energy availability. Such an inclusive and modern approach will measurably help in prevention and management of OTS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lawrence E Armstrong
- Human Performance Laboratory, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT, United States
| | - Michael F Bergeron
- Sport Sciences and Medicine and Performance Health, WTA Women's Tennis Association, St. Petersburg, FL, United States
| | - Elaine C Lee
- Human Performance Laboratory, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT, United States
| | - James E Mershon
- Department of Energy and Renewables, Heriot-Watt University, Stromness, United Kingdom
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