The Potential Role of Smartphone-Based Microfluidic Systems for Rapid Detection of COVID-19 Using Saliva Specimen

Microfluidics-Based Nanobiosensors for Healthcare Monitoring

Efficient healthcare management demands prompt decision-making based on fast diagnostics tools, astute data analysis, and informatics analysis. The rapid detection of analytes at the point of care is ensured using microfluidics in synergy with nanotechnology and biotechnology. The nanobiosensors use nanotechnology for testing, rapid disease diagnosis, monitoring, and management. In essence, nanobiosensors detect biomolecules through bioreceptors by modulating the physicochemical signals generating an optical and electrical signal as an outcome of the binding of a biomolecule with the help of a transducer. The nanobiosensors are sensitive and selective and play a significant role in the early identification of diseases. This article reviews the detection method used with the microfluidics platform for nanobiosensors and illustrates the benefits of combining microfluidics and nanobiosensing techniques by various examples. The fundamental aspects, and their application are discussed to illustrate the advancement in the development of microfluidics-based nanobiosensors and the current trends of these nano-sized sensors for point-of-care diagnosis of various diseases and their function in healthcare monitoring.

A Survey on harnessing the Applications of Mobile Computing in Healthcare during the COVID-19 Pandemic: Challenges and Solutions

The COVID-19 pandemic ravaged almost every walk of life but it triggered many challenges for the healthcare system, globally. Different cutting-edge technologies such as Internet of things (IoT), machine learning, Virtual Reality (VR), Big data, Blockchain etc. have been adopted to cope with this menace. In this regard, various surveys have been conducted to highlight the importance of these technologies. However, among these technologies, the role of mobile computing is of paramount importance which is not found in the existing literature. Hence, this survey in mainly targeted to highlight the significant role of mobile computing in alleviating the impacts of COVID-19 in healthcare sector. The major applications of mobile computing such as software-based solutions, hardware-based solutions and wireless communication-based support for diagnosis, prevention, self-symptom reporting, contact tracing, social distancing, telemedicine and treatment related to coronavirus are discussed in detailed and comprehensive fashion. A state-of-the-art work is presented to identify the challenges along with possible solutions in adoption of mobile computing with respect to COVID-19 pandemic. Hopefully, this research will help the researchers, policymakers and healthcare professionals to understand the current research gaps and future research directions in this domain. To the best level of our knowledge, this is the first survey of its type to address the COVID-19 pandemic by exploring the holistic contribution of mobile computing technologies in healthcare area.

Smartphone-based corona virus detection using saliva: A mini-review

During the ongoing worldwide epidemic, SARS-CoV-2 has infected millions of individuals and taken the lives of numerous victims. It is clear that early detection of infected individuals, especially asymptomatic carriers, is possible with the development of innovative analytical tools for rapid identification of COVID-19 present in nasopharyngeal swabs, serum, and saliva. The saliva, as a diagnostic sample, can be easily collected by the patient with almost no discomfort and needs specialized healthcare personnel to manage, which reduces the risks for the operator. Moreover, smartphone-based sensing systems are one of the most attractive techniques that can speed up the detection time of COVID-19 agents without the need for professional staff and clinical centers. In this review, recent advances in precise salivary-based SARS-CoV-2 diagnosis using smartphones via viral RNA detection, antibody identification, and viral antigen identification were summarized. Finally, the conclusion and future perspective of this field are described in brief.

Taguchi method: artificial neural network approach for the optimization of high-efficiency microfluidic biosensor for COVID-19

COVID-19 is a pandemic disease caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). This virus is mainly spread by droplets, respiratory secretions, and direct contact. Caused by the huge spread of the COVID-19 epidemic, research is focused on the study of biosensors as it presents a rapid solution for reducing incidents and fatality rates. In this paper, a microchip flow confinement method for the rapid transport of small sample volumes to sensor surfaces is optimized in terms of the confinement coefficient β, the position of the confinement flow X, and its inclination α relative to the main channel. A numerical simulation based on two-dimensional Navier-Stokes equations has been used. Taguchi's L₉(3³) orthogonal array was adopted to design the numerical assays taking into account the confining flow parameters (α, β, and X) on the response time of microfluidic biosensors. Analyzing the signal-to-noise ratio allowed us to determine the most effective combinations of control parameters for reducing the response time. The contribution of the control factors to the detection time was determined via analysis of variance (ANOVA). Numerical predictive models using multiple linear regression (MLR) and an artificial neural network (ANN) were developed to accurately predict microfluidic biosensor response time. This study concludes that the best combination of control factors is α 3 β 3 X 2 that corresponds to α = 90 ∘ , β = 25 and X = 40 µm. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) shows that the position of the confinement channel (62% contribution) is the factor most responsible for the reduction in response time. Based on the correlation coefficient (R ²), and value adjustment factor (VAF), the ANN model performed better than the MLR model in terms of prediction accuracy.

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Nanomaterials and metal-organic frameworks for biosensing applications of mutations of the emerging viruses

The world today lives in a state of terrible fear due to the mutation of the emerging COVID-19. With the continuation of this pandemic, there is an urgent need for fast, accurate testing devices to detect the emerging SARS-CoV-2 pandemic in terms of biosensors and point-of-care testing. Besides, the urgent development in personal defense tools, anti-viral surfaces and wearables, and smartphones open the door for simplifying the self-diagnosis process everywhere. This review introduces a quick COVID-19 overview: definition, transmission, pathophysiology, the identification and diagnosis, mutation and transformation, and the global situation. It also focuses on an overview of the rapidly advanced technologies based on nanomaterials and MOFs for biosensing, diagnosing, and viral control of the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic. Finally, highlight the latest technologies, applications, existing achievements, and preventive diagnostic strategies to control this epidemic and combat the emerging coronavirus. This humble effort aims to provide a helpful survey that can be used to develop a creative solution and to lay down the future vision of diagnosis against COVID-19.

When smartphone enters food safety: A review in on-site analysis for foodborne pathogens using smartphone-assisted biosensors

Pathogens are one of the supreme threats for the public health around the world in food supply chain. The on-site monitoring is an emerging trend for screening pathogens during the food processing and preserving. Traditional analytical tools have been unable to satisfy the current demands. Smartphones have enormous potentials for achieving on-site detection of foodborne pathogens, with intrinsic advantages such as small size, high accessibility, fast processing speed, and powerful imaging capacity. This review aims to synthesize the current advances in smartphone-assisted biosensors (SABs) for sensing foodborne pathogens, and briefly put forward the problem that consist in the research. We present the role of nanotechnology and recognition modes targeting foodborne pathogens in SABs, and discuss the signal conversion platforms coupling with smartphone. The challenges and perspectives in SABs are also proposed. The smartphone analytics area is moving forward, and it much be subject to careful quality standards and validation.

SaliVISION: a rapid saliva-based COVID-19 screening and diagnostic test with high sensitivity and specificity

The Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic-caused by the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2)– has posed a global threat and presented with it a multitude of economic and public-health challenges. Establishing a reliable means of readily available, rapid diagnostic testing is of paramount importance in halting the spread of COVID-19, as governments continue to ease lockdown restrictions. The current standard for laboratory testing utilizes reverse transcription quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR); however, this method presents clear limitations in requiring a longer run-time as well as reduced on-site testing capability. Therefore, we investigated the feasibility of a reverse transcription looped-mediated isothermal amplification (RT-LAMP)-based model of rapid COVID-19 diagnostic testing which allows for less invasive sample collection, named SaliVISION. This novel, two-step, RT-LAMP assay utilizes a customized multiplex primer set specifically targeting SARS-CoV-2 and a visual report system that is ready to interpret within 40 min from the start of sample processing and does not require a BSL-2 level testing environment or special laboratory equipment. When compared to the SalivaDirect and Thermo Fisher Scientific TaqPath RT-qPCR testing platforms, the respective sensitivities of the SaliVISION assay are 94.29% and 98.28% while assay specificity was 100% when compared to either testing platform. Our data illustrate a robust, rapid diagnostic assay in our novel RT-LAMP test design, with potential for greater testing throughput than is currently available through laboratory testing and increased on-site testing capability.

Microfluidic Point-of-Care (POC) Devices in Early Diagnosis: A Review of Opportunities and Challenges

The early diagnosis of infectious diseases is critical because it can greatly increase recovery rates and prevent the spread of diseases such as COVID-19; however, in many areas with insufficient medical facilities, the timely detection of diseases is challenging. Conventional medical testing methods require specialized laboratory equipment and well-trained operators, limiting the applicability of these tests. Microfluidic point-of-care (POC) equipment can rapidly detect diseases at low cost. This technology could be used to detect diseases in underdeveloped areas to reduce the effects of disease and improve quality of life in these areas. This review details microfluidic POC equipment and its applications. First, the concept of microfluidic POC devices is discussed. We then describe applications of microfluidic POC devices for infectious diseases, cardiovascular diseases, tumors (cancer), and chronic diseases, and discuss the future incorporation of microfluidic POC devices into applications such as wearable devices and telemedicine. Finally, the review concludes by analyzing the present state of the microfluidic field, and suggestions are made. This review is intended to call attention to the status of disease treatment in underdeveloped areas and to encourage the researchers of microfluidics to develop standards for these devices.

Deep Learning-Enabled Technologies for Bioimage Analysis

Deep learning (DL) is a subfield of machine learning (ML), which has recently demonstrated its potency to significantly improve the quantification and classification workflows in biomedical and clinical applications. Among the end applications profoundly benefitting from DL, cellular morphology quantification is one of the pioneers. Here, we first briefly explain fundamental concepts in DL and then we review some of the emerging DL-enabled applications in cell morphology quantification in the fields of embryology, point-of-care ovulation testing, as a predictive tool for fetal heart pregnancy, cancer diagnostics via classification of cancer histology images, autosomal polycystic kidney disease, and chronic kidney diseases.

Addressing the global challenges of COVID-19 and other pulmonary diseases with microfluidic technology

COVID-19, an infectious pulmonary disease caused by the SARS-CoV-2 virus, has profoundly impacted the world, motivating researchers across a broad spectrum of academic disciplines to gain a deeper understanding and develop effective therapies to this disease. This article presents an engineering perspective on how microfluidic technologies may address some of the challenges presented by COVID-19 and other pulmonary diseases. In particular, this article highlights urgent needs in pulmonary medicine, with an emphasis on technological innovations in the microfluidic manipulation of particles and fluids, and how these innovations may contribute to the study, diagnosis, and therapy of pulmonary diseases.

Sensing and 3D printing technologies in personalized healthcare for the management of health crises including the COVID-19 outbreak

A major threat that has surrounded human civilization since the beginning of the year 2020 is the outbreak of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). It has been declared a pandemic by the World Health Organization and significantly affected populations globally, causing medical and economic despair. Healthcare chains across the globe have been under grave stress owing to shortages of medical equipments necessary to address a pandemic. Furthermore, personal protective equipment supplies, mandatory for healthcare staff for treating severely ill patients, have been in short supply. To address the necessary requisites during the pandemic, several researchers, hospitals, and industries collaborated to meet the demand for these medical equipments in an economically viable manner. In this context, 3D printing technologies have provided enormous potential in creating personalized healthcare equipment, including face masks, face shields, rapid detection kits, testing swabs, biosensors, and various ventilator components. This has been made possible by capitalizing on centralized large-scale manufacturing using 3D printing and local distribution of verified and tested computer-aided design files. The primary focus of this study is, "How 3D printing is helpful in developing these equipments, and how it can be helpful in the development and deployment of various sensing and point-of-care-testing (POCTs) devices for the commercialization?" Further, the present study also takes care of patient safety by implementing novel 3D printed health equipment used for COVID-19 patients. Moreover, the study helps identify and highlight the efforts made by various organizations toward the usage of 3D printing technologies, which are helpful in combating the ongoing pandemic.

ATR-FTIR spectrum analysis of saliva samples from COVID-19 positive patients

The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is the latest biological hazard for the novel severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). Even though numerous diagnostic tests for SARS-CoV-2 have been proposed, new diagnosis strategies are being developed, looking for less expensive methods to be used as screening. This study aimed to establish salivary vibrational modes analyzed by attenuated total reflection-Fourier transform infrared (ATR-FTIR) spectroscopy to detect COVID-19 biological fingerprints that allow the discrimination between COVID-19 and healthy patients. Clinical dates, laboratories, and saliva samples of COVID-19 patients (N = 255) and healthy persons (N = 1209) were obtained and analyzed through ATR-FTIR spectroscopy. Then, a multivariate linear regression model (MLRM) was developed. The COVID-19 patients showed low SaO2, cough, dyspnea, headache, and fever principally. C-reactive protein, lactate dehydrogenase, fibrinogen, D-dimer, and ferritin were the most important altered laboratory blood tests, which were increased. In addition, changes in amide I and immunoglobulin regions were evidenced in the FTIR spectra analysis, and the MLRM showed clear discrimination between both groups. Specific salivary vibrational modes employing ATR-FTIR spectroscopy were established; moreover, the COVID-19 biological fingerprint in saliva was characterized, allowing the COVID-19 detection using an MLRM, which could be helpful for the development of new diagnostic devices.

Conventional and microfluidic methods for airborne virus isolation and detection

With the COVID-19 pandemic, the threat of infectious diseases to public health and safety has become much more apparent. Viral, bacterial and fungal diseases have led to the loss of millions of lives, especially in the developing world. Diseases caused by airborne viruses like SARS-CoV-2 are difficult to control, as these viruses are easily transmissible and can circulate in the air for hours. To contain outbreaks of viruses such as SARS-CoV-2 and institute targeted precautions, it is important to detect them in air and understand how they infect their targets. Point-of-care (PoC) diagnostics and point-of-need (PoN) detection methods are necessary to rapidly test patient and environmental samples, so precautions can immediately be applied. Traditional benchtop detection methods such as ELISA, PCR and culture are not suitable for PoC and PoN monitoring, because they can take hours to days and require specialized equipment. Microfluidic devices can be made at low cost to perform such assays rapidly and at the PoN. They can also be integrated with air- and liquid-based sampling technologies to capture and analyze viruses from air and body fluids. Here, conventional and microfluidic virus detection methods are reviewed and compared. The use of air sampling devices to capture and concentrate viruses is discussed first, followed by a review of analysis methods such as immunoassays, RT-PCR and isothermal amplification in conventional and microfluidic platforms. This review provides an overview of the capabilities of microfluidics in virus handling and detection, which will be useful to infectious disease researchers, biomedical engineers, and public health agencies.

Loop-Mediated Isothermal Amplification Detection of SARS-CoV-2 and Myriad Other Applications

As the second year of the COVID-19 pandemic begins, it remains clear that a massive increase in the ability to test for SARS-CoV-2 infections in a myriad of settings is critical to controlling the pandemic and to preparing for future outbreaks. The current gold standard for molecular diagnostics is the polymerase chain reaction (PCR), but the extraordinary and unmet demand for testing in a variety of environments means that both complementary and supplementary testing solutions are still needed. This review highlights the role that loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) has had in filling this global testing need, providing a faster and easier means of testing, and what it can do for future applications, pathogens, and the preparation for future outbreaks. This review describes the current state of the art for research of LAMP-based SARS-CoV-2 testing, as well as its implications for other pathogens and testing. The authors represent the global LAMP (gLAMP) Consortium, an international research collective, which has regularly met to share their experiences on LAMP deployment and best practices; sections are devoted to all aspects of LAMP testing, including preanalytic sample processing, target amplification, and amplicon detection, then the hardware and software required for deployment are discussed, and finally, a summary of the current regulatory landscape is provided. Included as well are a series of first-person accounts of LAMP method development and deployment. The final discussion section provides the reader with a distillation of the most validated testing methods and their paths to implementation. This review also aims to provide practical information and insight for a range of audiences: for a research audience, to help accelerate research through sharing of best practices; for an implementation audience, to help get testing up and running quickly; and for a public health, clinical, and policy audience, to help convey the breadth of the effect that LAMP methods have to offer.

Proposal for Tier-Based Resumption of Dental Practice Determined by COVID-19 Rate, Testing and COVID-19 Vaccination: A Narrative Perspective

Since the emergence of the new coronavirus disease (COVID-19), profound alterations in general and specialist dental practice have been imposed to provide safe dental care. The guidelines introduced in response to the COVID-19 pandemic to mitigate healthcare disruption are inconsistent regarding the dental practice re-installation, particularly during a transitional time. Despite the successful mass vaccination campaigns rolled out in 2021, the presence of more than 80 genotypes of COVID-19, rapid neutralisation of antibodies within a short period of seropositivity, and the likelihood of recurrent infection raise some doubts on whether vaccination alone will provide long-term immunity against COVID-19 and its variants. Here, from this perspective, we aim to provide an initial proposal for dental services reinstallation, easily applicable in various care settings. We discuss the potential options for the transition of dental services, as well as challenges and opportunities to adapt to new circumstances after mass COVID-19 vaccination. The proposal of the universal three-tier system of dental services resumption, determined by regional COVID-19 rates, testing accessibility, and vaccination rollout has been presented. Following herd COVID-19 immunity enhancement, it would be prudent to confer various preventative measures until virus spread naturally diminishes or becomes less virulent. Based on modelling data, dental practices may not return to normal, routine operation even after global vaccination as there would still be a significant risk of outbreaks of infection. Variable, multi-level measures will still be required, depending on the local COVID-19 cases rate, to secure safe dental care provision, despite predicted success of vaccination agendas. This approach can be implemented by achievable, practical means as a part of risk assessment, altered work pattern, and re-arrange of dental surgery facilities. The adequate standard operating procedure, with the support of rapid point-of-care testing at workplace, would vastly intensify the uninterrupted recovery of the dental care sector.

Thin-film-transistor digital microfluidics for high value in vitro diagnostics at the point of need

The latest developments in thin-film-transistor digital-microfluidics (TFT-DMF, also known by the commercial name aQdrop™) are reported, and proof of concept application to molecular diagnostics (e.g. for coronavirus disease, COVID-19) at the point-of-need demonstrated. The TFT-DMF array has 41 thousand independently addressable electrodes that are capable of manipulating large numbers of droplets of any size and shape, along any pathway to perform multiple parallel reactions. Droplets are continually tracked and adjusted through closed-loop feedback enabled by TFT based sensors at each array element. The sample-to-answer molecular in vitro diagnostic (IVD) test for severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) includes nucleic acid extractions from saliva, removal of dsDNA and quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). This proof of concept illustrates how the highly configurable TFT-DMF technology can perform many reactions in parallel and thus support the processing of a range of sample types followed by multiple complex multi-step assays.

Diagnostic Salivary Tests for SARS-CoV-2

The diagnosis of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection relies on the detection of viral RNA by real-time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (rRT-PCR) performed with respiratory specimens, especially nasopharyngeal swabs. However, this procedure requires specialized medical personnel, centralized laboratory facilities, and time to provide results (from several hours up to 1 d). In addition, there is a non-negligible risk of viral transmission for the operator who performs the procedure. For these reasons, several studies have suggested the use of other body fluids, including saliva, for the detection of SARS-CoV-2. The use of saliva as a diagnostic specimen has numerous advantages: it is easily self-collected by the patient with almost no discomfort, it does not require specialized health care personnel for its management, and it reduces the risks for the operator. In the past few months, several scientific papers, media, and companies have announced the development of new salivary tests to detect SARS-CoV-2 infection. Posterior oropharyngeal saliva should be distinguished from oral saliva, since the former is a part of respiratory secretions, while the latter is produced by the salivary glands, which are outside the respiratory tract. Saliva can be analyzed through standard (rRT-PCR) or rapid molecular biology tests (direct rRT-PCR without extraction), although, in a hospital setting, these procedures may be performed only in addition to nasopharyngeal swabs to minimize the incidence of false-negative results. Conversely, the promising role of saliva in the diagnosis of SARS-CoV-2 infection is highlighted by the emergence of point-of-care technologies and, most important, point-of-need devices. Indeed, these devices can be directly used in workplaces, airports, schools, cinemas, and shopping centers. An example is the recently described Rapid Salivary Test, an antigen test based on the lateral flow assay, which detects the presence of the virus by identifying the spike protein in the saliva within a few minutes.

Mobile Health (mHealth) Viral Diagnostics Enabled with Adaptive Adversarial Learning

Deep-learning (DL)-based image processing has potential to revolutionize the use of smartphones in mobile health (mHealth) diagnostics of infectious diseases. However, the high variability in cellphone image data acquisition and the common need for large amounts of specialist-annotated images for traditional DL model training may preclude generalizability of smartphone-based diagnostics. Here, we employed adversarial neural networks with conditioning to develop an easily reconfigurable virus diagnostic platform that leverages a dataset of smartphone-taken microfluidic chip photos to rapidly generate image classifiers for different target pathogens on-demand. Adversarial learning was also used to augment this real image dataset by generating 16,000 realistic synthetic microchip images, through style generative adversarial networks (StyleGAN). We used this platform, termed smartphone-based pathogen detection resource multiplier using adversarial networks (SPyDERMAN), to accurately detect different intact viruses in clinical samples and to detect viral nucleic acids through integration with CRISPR diagnostics. We evaluated the performance of the system in detecting five different virus targets using 179 patient samples. The generalizability of the system was confirmed by rapid reconfiguration to detect SARS-CoV-2 antigens in nasal swab samples (n = 62) with 100% accuracy. Overall, the SPyDERMAN system may contribute to epidemic preparedness strategies by providing a platform for smartphone-based diagnostics that can be adapted to a given emerging viral agent within days of work.

An overview of the use of biomaterials, nanotechnology, and stem cells for detection and treatment of COVID-19: towards a framework to address future global pandemics

A novel SARS-like coronavirus (severe acute respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus-2, SARS-CoV-2) outbreak has recently become a worldwide pandemic. Researchers from various disciplinary backgrounds (social to natural science, health and medicine, etc.) have studied different aspects of the pandemic. The current situation has revealed how the ongoing development of nanotechnology and nanomedicine can accelerate the fight against the novel viruses. A comprehensive solution to this and future pandemic outbreaks includes preventing the spread of the virus through anti-viral personal protective equipment (PPE) and anti-viral surfaces, plus efforts to encourage behavior to minimize risks. Studies of previously introduced anti-viral biomaterials and their optimization to fight against SARS-CoV-2 is the foundation of most of the recent progress. The identification of non-symptomatic patients and symptomatic patients is vital. Reviewing published research highlights the pivotal roles of nanotechnology and biomaterials in the development and efficiency of detection techniques, e.g., by applying nanotechnology and nanomedicine as part of the road map in the treatment of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) patients. In this review, we discuss efforts to deploy nanotechnology, biomaterials, and stem cells in each step of the fight against SARS-CoV-2, which may provide a framework for future efforts in combating global pandemics.

Bioluminescent detection of isothermal DNA amplification in microfluidic generated droplets and artificial cells

Microfluidic droplet generation affords precise, low volume, high throughput opportunities for molecular diagnostics. Isothermal DNA amplification with bioluminescent detection is a fast, low-cost, highly specific molecular diagnostic technique that is triggerable by temperature. Combining loop-mediated isothermal nucleic acid amplification (LAMP) and bioluminescent assay in real time (BART), with droplet microfluidics, should enable high-throughput, low copy, sequence-specific DNA detection by simple light emission. Stable, uniform LAMP–BART droplets are generated with low cost equipment. The composition and scale of these droplets are controllable and the bioluminescent output during DNA amplification can be imaged and quantified. Furthermore these droplets are readily incorporated into encapsulated droplet interface bilayers (eDIBs), or artificial cells, and the bioluminescence tracked in real time for accurate quantification off chip. Microfluidic LAMP–BART droplets with high stability and uniformity of scale coupled with high throughput and low cost generation are suited to digital DNA quantification at low template concentrations and volumes, where multiple measurement partitions are required. The triggerable reaction in the core of eDIBs can be used to study the interrelationship of the droplets with the environment and also used for more complex chemical processing via a self-contained network of droplets, paving the way for smart soft-matter diagnostics.

Development of Diagnostic Tests for Detection of SARS-CoV-2

One of the most effective ways to prevent the spread of the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) is to develop accurate and rapid diagnostic tests. There are a number of molecular, serological, and imaging methods that are used to diagnose this infection in hospitals and clinical settings. The purpose of this review paper is to present the available approaches for detecting SARS-CoV-2 and address the advantages and limitations of each detection method. This work includes studies from recent literature publications along with information from the manufacturer's manuals of commercially available SARS-CoV-2 diagnostic products. Furthermore, supplementary information from the Food & Drug Administration (FDA), Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), and World Health Organization (WHO) is cited. The viral components targeted for virus detection, the principles of each diagnostic technique, and the detection efficiency of each approach are discussed. The potential of using diagnostic tests that were originally developed for previous epidemic viruses is also presented.

The practice of oral and maxillofacial radiology during COVID-19 outbreak

The current coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) outbreak has brought substantial challenges to the world health system, including the practice of dental and maxillofacial radiology (DMFR). DMFR will carry on an imperative role in healthcare during this crisis. This rapid communication has collected and evaluated all the best current evidence and published guidelines as well as professional recommendations to help maxillofacial radiologists and dental practitioners for safer radiological and imaging examinations on healthy, suspected, or confirmed COVID-19 patients during outbreak. Some strategies have been depicted including procedural indications, infection control, and correct employment of personal protection equipment along with evoking the proper practice environment during and after the COVID-19 outbreak.