FK506 increases permeability in rat intestine by inhibiting mitochondrial function

Akkermansia muciniphila and Faecalibacterium prausnitzii in Immune-Related Diseases

Probiotics and synbiotics are used to treat chronic illnesses due to their roles in immune system modulation and anti-inflammatory response. They have been shown to reduce inflammation in a number of immune-related disorders, including systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), and chronic inflammatory skin conditions such as psoriasis and atopic dermatitis (AD). Akkermansia muciniphila (A. muciniphila) and Faecalibacterium prausnitzii (F. prausnitzii) are two different types of bacteria that play a significant part in this function. It has been established that Akkermansia and Faecalibacterium are abundant in normal populations and have protective benefits on digestive health while also enhancing the immune system, metabolism, and gut barrier of the host. They have the potential to be a therapeutic target in diseases connected to the microbiota, such as immunological disorders and cancer immunotherapy. There has not been a review of the anti-inflammatory effects of Akkermansia and Faecalibacterium, particularly in immunological diseases. In this review, we highlight the most recent scientific findings regarding A. muciniphila and F. prausnitzii as two significant gut microbiota for microbiome alterations and seek to provide cutting-edge insight in terms of microbiome-targeted therapies as promising preventive and therapeutic tools in immune-related diseases and cancer immunotherapy.

Loss of Gut Barrier Integrity In Lupus

Systemic Lupus Erythematosus is a complex autoimmune disease and its etiology remains unknown. Increased gut permeability has been reported in lupus patients, yet whether it promotes or results from lupus progression is unclear. Recent studies indicate that an impaired intestinal barrier allows the translocation of bacteria and bacterial components into systemic organs, increasing immune cell activation and autoantibody generation. Indeed, induced gut leakage in a mouse model of lupus enhanced disease characteristics, including the production of anti-dsDNA antibody, serum IL-6 as well as cell apoptosis. Gut microbiota dysbiosis has been suggested to be one of the factors that decreases gut barrier integrity by outgrowing harmful bacteria and their products, or by perturbation of gut immune homeostasis, which in turn affects gut barrier integrity. The restoration of microbial balance eliminates gut leakage in mice, further confirming the role of microbiota in maintaining gut barrier integrity. In this review, we discuss recent advances on the association between microbiota dysbiosis and leaky gut, as well as their influences on the progression of lupus. The modifications on host microbiota and gut integrity may offer insights into the development of new lupus treatment.

De Novo Food Allergy in Pediatric Recipients of Liver Transplant

ABSTRACT

Allergic and atopic conditions, including food allergy, asthma, eczema and eosinophilic disease of the gastrointestinal tract after liver transplant in previously non-allergic children have been increasingly described. After a liver transplant, children can present mild to severe reactions to food allergens (ie, from urticaria-angioedema to life-threatening anaphylactic reactions). De novo post-transplant food allergy may become clinically evident in children who undergo liver transplant between a few months and a few years of transplant. The present narrative review aims to describe the spectrum of de novo post-transplant food allergy development, the current theories of pathogenesis, risk factors and to suggest possible clinical management strategies.

Enteric dysbiosis in liver and kidney transplant recipients: a systematic review

Several factors mediate intestinal microbiome (IM) alterations in transplant recipients, including immunosuppressive (IS) and antimicrobial drugs. Studies on the structure and function of the IM in the post-transplant scenario and its role in the development of metabolic abnormalities, infection, and cancer are limited. We conducted a systematic review to study the taxonomic changes in liver (LT) and kidney (KT) transplantation, and their potential contribution to post-transplant complications. The review also includes pre-transplant taxa, which may play a critical role in microbial alterations post-transplant. Two reviewers independently screened articles, and assessed risk of bias. The review identified 13 clinical studies, which focused on adult kidney and liver transplant recipients. Patient characteristics and methodologies varied widely between studies. Ten studies reported increased an abundance of opportunistic pathogens (Enterobacteriaceae, Enterococcaceae, Fusobacteriaceae, and Streptococcaceae) followed by butyrate-producing bacteria (Lachnospiraceae and Ruminococcaceae) in nine studies in post-transplant conditions. The current evidence is mostly based on observational data and studies with no proof of causality. Therefore, further studies exploring the bacterial gene functions rather than taxonomic changes alone are in demand to better understand the potential contribution of the IM in post-transplant complications.

Effect of liver transplantation on intestinal permeability and correlation with infection episodes

Background

Liver cirrhosis has been known to be associated with increased intestinal permeability (IP); however, little is known about the modification of IP after liver transplantation (LT). The present study was aimed to assess IP after LT and evaluated its association with laboratory tests and clinical parameters, as well as with the development of infections.

Methods

LT recipients were consecutively enrolled and compared with an equal number of patients with liver cirrhosis and healthy subjects. IP was assessed by urinary excretion of chromium-51 ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (⁵¹Cr-EDTA).

Results

The median ⁵¹Cr-EDTA excretion was found to be higher in 35 LT recipients as compared with that in the healthy controls [4.77% (2.79–6.03) vs. 2.07% (1.57–2.42), p<0.0001], and comparable to that in the cirrhotic patients [3.69% (2.34–6.57), p = 0.445]. ⁵¹Cr-EDTA excretion was not associated with clinical variables, the type of immunosuppressive therapy, donor-related factors, comorbidities and incidence of infections [infection/no infection: 4.97% (3.14–7.03) vs 4.62% (2.79–5.82), p = 0.938].

Conclusion

LT recipients show an increased IP, similar to that in patients with liver cirrhosis. However, it is not associated with a high risk of infections. Further investigations into the pathogenesis of this persistent impairment of the intestinal barrier are warranted.

Pathological Mechanisms Underlying Myalgic Encephalomyelitis/Chronic Fatigue Syndrome

The underlying molecular basis of myalgic encephalomyelitis/chronic fatigue syndrome (ME/CFS) is not well understood. Characterized by chronic, unexplained fatigue, a disabling payback following exertion ("post-exertional malaise"), and variably presenting multi-system symptoms, ME/CFS is a complex disease, which demands a concerted biomedical investigation from disparate fields of expertise. ME/CFS research and patient treatment have been challenged by the lack of diagnostic biomarkers and finding these is a prominent direction of current work. Despite these challenges, modern research demonstrates a tangible biomedical basis for the disorder across many body systems. This evidence is mostly comprised of disturbances to immunological and inflammatory pathways, autonomic and neurological dysfunction, abnormalities in muscle and mitochondrial function, shifts in metabolism, and gut physiology or gut microbiota disturbances. It is possible that these threads are together entangled as parts of an underlying molecular pathology reflecting a far-reaching homeostatic shift. Due to the variability of non-overlapping symptom presentation or precipitating events, such as infection or other bodily stresses, the initiation of body-wide pathological cascades with similar outcomes stemming from different causes may be implicated in the condition. Patient stratification to account for this heterogeneity is therefore one important consideration during exploration of potential diagnostic developments.

Microbiota and the liver

The gut microbiome outnumbers the human genome by 150-fold and plays important roles in metabolism, immune system education, tolerance development, and prevention of pathogen colonization. Dysbiosis has been associated with nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH), and alcoholic liver disease (ALD) as well as cirrhosis and complications. This article provides an overview of this relationship. Liver Transplantation 24 539-550 2018 AASLD.

Post-transplantation Development of Food Allergies

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

The development of food allergies is increasingly being recognized as a post-solid organ transplant complication. In this article, we review the spectrum of post-transplant food allergy development and the proposed mechanisms for de novo food allergies and the clinical significance they pose.

RECENT FINDINGS

The development of new food allergies is disproportionately associated with pediatric liver transplants, where it occurs in up to 38% of select populations. The mechanism of food allergy development is not completely understood; however, it is likely promoted by unbalanced immune suppression. De novo food allergy development is a common complication of solid organ transplants with the highest risk occurring in pediatric liver transplant recipients. There are likely multiple mechanisms for food allergy development including passive transfer of membrane-bound IgE and lymphocytes from donor to recipient, as well as loss of food tolerance and active development of new food allergies. The optimal management of food allergies following organ transplants has not been well researched but may include changing the immune suppression regimen if the food allergy does not resolve without intervention.

Transplant-acquired food allergy: current perspectives

Mechanisms that regulate the tolerance to dietary proteins or the loss of this and subsequent development of disease are poorly understood. In food allergy, there is growing awareness of the urgency in understanding these events to aid in the development of next-generation therapies and interventions. This review focuses on the accumulating evidence related to food allergy that develops after transplantation. This intriguing immunological phenomenon has been described in several different types of transplant settings and to variety of different foods. We outline these studies and the evidence from them that support transplant-acquired food allergy being a process regulated by both the donor allergic status and the recipient genetics and treatments. A number of key risk factors seem prevalent throughout transplant-acquired food allergy and include type of transplant, age and general health of the recipient, modality of immunosuppression and potentially the genetics of both donor and recipient. Importantly, these studies provide a window into better general understanding of food allergy, and facilitate clearer understanding of the critical immunological and epidemiological factors needed to allow the adoptive transfer of a food-specific allergic disease from one individual to another.

Absence of the NOD2 protein renders epithelia more susceptible to barrier dysfunction due to mitochondrial dysfunction

Irregular mitochondria structure and reduced ATP in some patients with IBD suggest that metabolic stress contributes to disease. Loss-of-function mutation in the nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain (NOD)-2 gene is a major susceptibility trait for IBD. Hence, we assessed if loss of NOD2 further impairs the epithelial barrier function instigated by disruption of mitochondrial ATP synthesis via the hydrogen ionophore dinitrophenol (DNP). NOD2 protein (virtually undetectable in epithelia under basal conditions) was increased in T84 (human colon cell line) cells treated with noninvasive Escherichia coli + DNP (16 h). Increased intracellular bacteria in wild-type (WT) and NOD2 knockdown (KD) cells and colonoids from NOD2^-/- mice were mediated by reactive oxygen species (ROS) and the MAPK ERK1/2 pathways as determined by cotreatment with the antioxidant mitoTEMPO and the ERK inhibitor U0126: ROS was upstream of ERK1/2 activation. Despite increased E. coli in DNP-treated NOD2 KD compared with WT cells, there were no differences in the internalization of fluorescent inert beads or dead E. coli particles. This suggests that lack of killing in the NOD2 KD cells was responsible for the increased numbers of viable intracellular bacteria; a conclusion supported by evidence of reduced autophagy in NOD2 KD T84 epithelia. Thus, in a two-hit hypothesis, decreased barrier function due to dysfunctional mitochondrial is amplified by lack of NOD2 in transporting enterocytes: subsequently, greater numbers of bacteria entering the mucosa would be a significant inflammatory threat especially since individuals with NOD2 mutations have compromised macrophage and Paneth cell responses to bacteria.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Increased internalization of bacteria by epithelia with dysfunctional mitochondria (reduced ATP) is potentiated if the cells lack nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain 2 (NOD2), mutations in which are inflammatory bowel disease-susceptibility traits. Uptake of bacteria was dependent on reactive oxygen species and MAP-kinase activity, and the increased viable intracellular bacteria in NOD2^-/- cells likely reflect a reduced ability to recognize and kill bacteria. Thus a significant barrier defect occurs with NOD2 deficiency in conjunction with metabolic stress that could contribute to inflammation.

Impact of environmental factors on alloimmunity and transplant fate

Although gene-environment interactions have been investigated for many years to understand people's susceptibility to autoimmune diseases or cancer, a role for environmental factors in modulating alloimmune responses and transplant outcomes is only now beginning to emerge. New data suggest that diet, hyperlipidemia, pollutants, commensal microbes, and pathogenic infections can all affect T cell activation, differentiation, and the kinetics of graft rejection. These observations reveal opportunities for novel therapeutic interventions to improve graft outcomes as well as for noninvasive biomarker discovery to predict or diagnose graft deterioration before it becomes irreversible. In this Review, we will focus on the impact of these environmental factors on immune function and, when known, on alloimmune function, as well as on transplant fate.

The Influence of Some Immunosuppressive Drugs on the Metabolic Activity of Human Phagocytes and Lymphocytes in vitro

The effect of azathioprine, cyclosporine A and FK 506 on the production of reactive oxygen species by polymorphonuclear leukocytes (Iuminol-dependent chemiluminescence) and on the blast transformation of lymphocytes ([3H]thymidine incorporation) was studied in dose-response experiments under in vitro conditions. Although there were no significant effects of immunosuppressives on non-stimulated blast transformation, FK 506 and cyclosporine A significantly inhibited the blast transformation stimulated by concanavaline A and protein A and the effects made it possible to build 2nd-order polynomial dose-response models. Azathioprine was found to be a relatively weak inhibitor of [3H]thymidine incorporation in lymphocytes (76% of control value). Spontaneous production of reactive oxygen species by polymorphonuclear leukocytes was significantly inhibited, particularly by FK 506 (1–100 ng.ml−1) in comparison to the control value, while there was no effect of the immunosuppressives on this system activated either by starch grains or zymosan. Only the highest applied concentrations of azathioprine (100 ng.ml−1) and cyclosporine A (1000 ng.ml−1) led to a significant decline in spontaneous phagocytosis. The direct effect of immunosuppressives on activated production of reactive oxygen species by neutrophiles was not proved.

Eosinophilic density in graft biopsies positive for rejection and blood eosinophil count can predict development of post-transplant digestive tract eosinophilia

EGID is a known post-transplant complication. Its etiology has been related to antirejection medication, but other factors may also play a role as only few transplant recipients develop EGID despite standardized treatment. This study aimed to determine whether EGID is associated with rejection events and with a specific phenotype of the rejection-positive graft biopsies in children with solid organ transplant. All patients with liver, heart, and kidney transplant followed at our institution were included in the study. Digestive tract eosinophilia was more common in heart and liver recipients and was a rare event after renal transplantation. Subjects with EGID had higher incidence of rejection and elevated peripheral blood AEC. The first rejection event and high AEC values preceded EGID diagnosis in the majority of patients. Histologically, the initial rejection-positive graft biopsy revealed accentuated eosinophilia in EGID patients compared with non-EGID cohort, which correlated with higher blood eosinophil counts at the time of first rejection episode. Prominent graft tissue and peripheral blood eosinophilia prior to EGID diagnosis suggests a predisposition for eosinophil activation in patients with post-transplant digestive eosinophilic disorder. These parameters can be used as markers for subsequent development of EGID.

The Intestinal Microbiome and the Liver Transplant Recipient: What We Know and What We Need to Know

The intestinal microbiome and immune system are in close symbiotic relationship in health. Gut microbiota plays a role in many chronic liver diseases and cirrhosis. However, alterations in the gut microbiome after liver transplantation and the implications for liver transplant recipients are not well understood and rely mainly on experimental animal studies. Recent advances in molecular techniques have identified that increased intestinal permeability, decreased beneficial bacteria, and increased pathogenic species may play important roles in the early posttransplant period. The associations between microbiota perturbation and postliver transplant infections and acute rejection are evolving. The link with metabolic syndrome, obesity, and cardiac disease in the general population require translation into the transplant recipient. This review focuses on our current knowledge of the known and potential interaction of the microbiome in the liver transplant recipient. Future human studies focused on microbiota changes in liver transplant patients are warranted and expected.

Food allergies developing after solid organ transplant

The development of food allergy is an increasingly recognized form of morbidity after solid organ transplant. It occurs more commonly in liver transplant recipients, although it has also been reported in heart, lung, kidney, and intestinal transplants. Pediatric transplant recipients are more likely to develop symptoms compared to adults, and reports of frequency vary widely from 5% to 38% in pediatric liver transplant recipients. Multiple mechanisms have been proposed in the literature, although no single mechanism can yet account for all reported observations. As food allergy can have at worst potentially fatal consequences, and at best require lifestyle adjustment through food avoidance, it is important for recipients to be aware of the donor's food allergies and particularly in pediatrics, the possibility of completely de novo allergies. This review explores the recent reports surrounding food allergy after solid organ transplant, including epidemiology, proposed mechanisms, and implications for practice.

Abnormal epithelial cell energy metabolism influences pathogenesis of inflammatory bowel disease

Etiology and pathogenesis of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) are not clear, but colonic mucosal damage is known to be a critical factor. In recent decades, many studies suggest that interfering with the energy metabolism of epithelial tissue could result in the widening of intestinal epithelial cell gap, increased bacterial translocation across the epithelium, decreased mucus secretion, and intestinal mucosal barrier dysfunction. Bacteria and antigens adhere to the intestinal mucosa, enter into the lamina propria, activate inflammation, and initiate the pathogenesis of IBD. The lack of energy fuel butyrate and mitochondrial dysfunction are the causes of abnormal energy metabolism of the intestinal epithelium. Improving energy metabolism and protection of mitochondrial function can alleviate the seriousness of IBD, reduce recurrence, and provides a new strategy for the treatment of IBD.

Acquired IgE-mediated food allergy after liver transplantation in children

BACKGROUND

In recent years, the number of studies regarding newly-diagnosed food allergies after liver transplantation has been increasing. In this study, we aimed to investigate the frequency, aetiology, risk factors, and severity of IgE-mediated food allergies after liver transplantation in children.

METHODS

Paediatric patients who underwent liver transplantation at Inonu University Faculty of Medicine, Organ Transplantation Institute were included in the study.

RESULTS

Forty-nine paediatric patients were enrolled in the study; 26 (53.1%) were female, the median age at transplantation was five years, and median follow-up time after transplantation was 16 months. Six patients (12.2%) developed IgE-mediated food allergies after transplantation; four had urticaria and/or angio-oedema and two developed anaphylaxis after food intake. Patients with and without IgE-mediated food allergies were similar in terms of sex, age at transplantation, comorbid atopic disease, immunosuppressant therapy with tacrolimus, and blood tacrolimus level (p>0.05 for each). Serum total IgE levels ≥100 IU/mL (p=0.02) and peripheral eosinophilia (p=0.026) were more common in the patients who developed IgE-mediated food allergies. In five of the six patients who developed IgE-mediated food allergies, reaction occurred within the first year after transplantation; the risk of developing a reaction was 2.7 times higher within the first year after transplantation than in subsequent years (95% CI, 1.546-4.914; p=0.026). No Epstein-Barr virus or cytomegalovirus infections were detected in any of the patients who developed IgE-mediated food allergies after liver transplantation.

CONCLUSION

The risk of developing IgE-mediated food allergies is approximately three times higher within the first year after transplantation than in subsequent years.

Tacrolimus and mycophenolate mofetil associations

Gastrointestinal risk factors after organ transplantation are prevalent, due to the chronic use of immunosuppressant. The immunosuppressive drugs such as tacrolimus/mycophenolate mofetil (TAC/MMF) association are the most commonly used therapy. TAC and MMF have been implicated in gastrotoxicity, but their direct effects, alone and combined, on intestinal cells are not completely elucidated. This study investigated the effect of TAC and MMF alone and combined on human colon carcinoma cells. Our results demonstrated that TAC and MMF individually inhibit clearly cells proliferation, enhanced free radicals, lipid peroxidation production, induced DNA lesions and reduced mitochondrial membrane potential. In this study, we also showed that the two molecules TAC and MMF combined at high concentrations amplified the cell damage. Furthermore, the TAC (5 µM) prevented cell death induced by MMF (half maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50)). Also, MMF (50 µM) induced cytoprotection in HCT116 cells against TAC (IC50) toxicity. Our findings provide additional evidence that oxidative damage is the major contribution of TAC and MMF combined toxicities. In fact, MMF and TAC exert a gastroprotective effect by modulating reactive oxygen species production. These data underscore the pleiotropic effect of TAC and MMF on HCT116 cells that play a preventive and critical role on intestinal function.

Acquired atopic disease after liver transplantation in children; similarities to and differences from adults: a preliminary study

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study was to determine the similarities and differences in the frequency and follow-ups of newly diagnosed atopic diseases after liver transplantation in pediatric and adult patients.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Patients who underwent liver transplants between 2005 and 2013 and who are still alive were enrolled in the study. Patients who came for checkups filled out a survey evaluating atopic diseases. Those who had an atopic disease before transplantation were excluded from the study.

RESULTS

A total of 165 patients were enrolled in this study; 114 (69.1%) were males and 29 (17.6%) were children. The average transplantation age was 40.8 (0.3-67) years, and the most frequent reason for transplantation was chronic viral hepatitis. In 22 patients, atopic diseases [allergic rhinitis in nine patients (5.5%), asthma in six patients (3.9%), atopic eczema in six patients (3.9%), food allergy in six patients (3.9%), and drug allergy in one patient (0.6%)] developed after transplantation. Atopic diseases after transplantation were more common in children (P=0.03). When the atopic diseases were examined on a case-by-case basis, there were no differences between children and adults with respect to asthma (P=0.284), allergic rhinitis (P=1.0), or atopic eczema (P=0.284), but food allergy (P=0.009) and peripheral eosinophilia (P=0.002) were more common in children. The periodicity of allergic diseases after transplantation (P=0.192) and total IgE levels (P=0.086) were similar.

CONCLUSION

Atopic diseases developed after liver transplantation and had a greater impact on children than adults. Therefore, after undergoing liver transplantation, patients should be monitored closely for signs of atopic diseases.

Nrf2 deficiency impairs the barrier function of mouse oesophageal epithelium

OBJECTIVE

As a major cellular defence mechanism, the Nrf2/Keap1 pathway regulates expression of genes involved in detoxification and stress response. Here we hypothesise that Nrf2 is involved in oesophageal barrier function and plays a protective role against gastro-oesophageal reflux disease (GERD).

DESIGN

Human oesophageal biopsy samples, mouse surgical models and Nrf2(-/-) mice were used to assess the role of the Nrf2/Keap1 pathway in oesophageal barrier function. Trans-epithelial electrical resistance (TEER) was measured with mini-Ussing chambers. HE staining and transmission electron microscopy were used to examine tissue morphology, while gene microarray, immunohistochemistry, western blotting and chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) analysis were used to assess gene expression.

RESULTS

Nrf2 was expressed in normal oesophageal epithelium and activated in GERD of both humans and mice. Nrf2 deficiency and gastro-oesophageal reflux in mice, alone or in combination, reduced TEER and increased intercellular space in oesophageal epithelium. Nrf2 target genes and gene sets associated with oxidoreductase activity, mitochondrial biogenesis and energy production were downregulated in the oesophageal epithelium of Nrf2(-/-) mice. Consistent with the antioxidative function of Nrf2, a DNA oxidative damage marker (8OHdG) dramatically increased in oesophageal epithelial cells of Nrf2(-/-) mice compared with those of wild-type mice. Interestingly, ATP biogenesis, Cox IV (a mitochondrial protein) and Claudin 4 (Cldn4) expression were downregulated in the oesophageal epithelium of Nrf2(-/-) mice, suggesting that energy-dependent tight junction integrity was subject to Nrf2 regulation. ChIP analysis confirmed the binding of Nrf2 to Cldn4 promoter.

CONCLUSIONS

Nrf2 deficiency impairs oesophageal barrier function through disrupting energy-dependent tight junction.

The usefulness and limitations of the diabetic macaque model in evaluating long-term porcine islet xenograft survival

BACKGROUND

  Various groups have reported prolonged diabetes reversal and graft function after porcine islet transplantation into diabetic macaques using different experimental designs (macaque source, islet source, type of immunosuppression): subsequently, the International Xenotransplantation Association has published recommendations for entering a clinical trial. Our experiments showed limitations that affected consistent achievement of long-term survival. We aimed to identify these limitations and underlying causes to emphasize the translational value of this highly relevant type 1 diabetic macaque model.

METHODS

  We reviewed data from our institution and literature data on long-term porcine islet xenograft survival in the diabetic macaque model, especially focusing on aspects of incomplete diabetes reversal relative to macaque normal values. This phenomenon was compared with diabetes reversal in an allo-islet transplant model in macaques and with chronic insulin treatment of diabetic macaques, all with 180-day follow-up. This comparison enabled to identify potential model limitations and underlying causative factors.

RESULTS

  Especially in the xenograft model, the achievement of long-term graft survival revealed limitations including chronic, mild hyperglycemia and absence of body weight (BW) gain or even progressive BW loss. Metabolic incompatibilities in glycemic control (i.e., insulin kinetics) between the pig and macaque species underlie chronic, mild hyperglycemia. This phenomenon might not bear relevance for the pig-to-human species combination because the glycemic control in pigs and humans is similar and differs from that in nonhuman primates (NHP). Weight loss could be related to changes in the gastrointestinal tract related with local high exposure to orally administered immunosuppressants; these must be given at higher dose levels because of low bioavailability in macaques to achieve systemic exposure at therapeutic levels. This is aggravated by insufficient graft insulin production in proportion to the needs of macaques: this model limitation has no translational value to the pig-to-human setting. Nutritional deficits can result in incorrect interpretation of blood glucose levels and C-peptide levels regarding graft function. Likewise, nutritional status alters physiologic responses, influencing susceptibility to infectious and noninfectious complications.

CONCLUSION

  THE model-induced confounding described interferes with accurate interpretation of safety and efficacy studies, which affects the translational value of pig-to-NHP islet cell transplant studies to the pig-to-human transplant condition.

Is metabolic stress a common denominator in inflammatory bowel disease?

The enteric epithelium represents the major boundary between the outside world and the body, and in the colon it is the interface between the host and a vast and diverse microbiota. A common feature of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is decreased epithelial barrier function, and while a cause-and-effect relationship can be debated, prolonged loss of epithelial barrier function (whether this means the ability to sense bacteria or exclude them) would contribute to inflammation. While there are undoubtedly individual nuances in IBD, we review data in support of metabolic stress--that is, perturbed mitochondrial function--in the enterocyte as a contributing factor to the initiation of inflammation and relapses in IBD. The postulate is presented that metabolic stress, which can arise as a consequence of a variety of stimuli (e.g., infection, bacterial dysbiosis, and inflammation also), will reduce epithelial barrier function and perturb the enterocyte-commensal flora relationship and suggest that means to negate enterocytic metabolic stress should be considered as a prophylactic or adjuvant therapy in IBD.

Pediatric food allergy and mucosal tolerance

The gastrointestinal (GI) mucosal immune response is characterized by an intricate balance between host defense and immunoregulation. A principal element of this normal response is acquisition of oral tolerance. Aberrations in oral tolerance induction can lead to food allergy, an increasingly prevalent disorder that causes significant medical and psychosocial stressors for patients and families. At present there is no definitive therapy for food allergy and the mainstays of treatment are allergen avoidance, nutritional support, and ready access to emergency medications. Significant progress toward an active therapy for food allergy has been made with the advent of novel therapies such as oral immunotherapy (OIT) and sublingual immunotherapy (SLIT), which modulate the GI mucosal immune response with the goal of promoting oral tolerance. In this review, we will examine the mechanisms of oral tolerance induction and its relation to food allergy and explore novel immunotherapeutic strategies for treatment and prevention of food allergy.

Metabolic stress evokes decreases in epithelial barrier function

The epithelial lining of the gastrointestinal tract is the major interface between the external world (e.g., the gut lumen) and the body, and as such the proper maintenance and regulation of epithelial barrier function is a key determinant of digestive health and host well-being. Many enteropathies are associated with increased gut permeability, including inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). Maintaining the barrier function of the epithelium, independent of whether paracellular or transcellular permeation pathways are considered, is an energy-dependent process. Here we present an overview of the impact that metabolic stress (e.g., reductions in epithelial ATP synthesis) can have on permeability characteristics of epithelial monolayers and show that metabolic stress in the presence of a commensal flora results in a significant loss of epithelial integrity, and that this increase in epithelial permeability can be enhanced by the presence of tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNFalpha). We speculate that the combination of these factors in vivo would result in significant perturbations in epithelial barrier function that could be of pathophysiological significance and contribute to the initiation of IBD or the induction of disease relapses.

Intestinal barrier function: molecular regulation and disease pathogenesis

The intestinal epithelium is a single-cell layer that constitutes the largest and most important barrier against the external environment. It acts as a selectively permeable barrier, permitting the absorption of nutrients, electrolytes, and water while maintaining an effective defense against intraluminal toxins, antigens, and enteric flora. The epithelium maintains its selective barrier function through the formation of complex protein-protein networks that mechanically link adjacent cells and seal the intercellular space. The protein networks connecting epithelial cells form 3 adhesive complexes: desmosomes, adherens junctions, and tight junctions. These complexes consist of transmembrane proteins that interact extracellularly with adjacent cells and intracellularly with adaptor proteins that link to the cytoskeleton. Over the past decade, there has been increasing recognition of an association between disrupted intestinal barrier function and the development of autoimmune and inflammatory diseases. In this review we summarize the evolving understanding of the molecular composition and regulation of intestinal barrier function. We discuss the interactions between innate and adaptive immunity and intestinal epithelial barrier function, as well as the effect of exogenous factors on intestinal barrier function. Finally, we summarize clinical and experimental evidence demonstrating intestinal epithelial barrier dysfunction as a major factor contributing to the predisposition to inflammatory diseases, including food allergy, inflammatory bowel diseases, and celiac disease.

IL-9- and mast cell-mediated intestinal permeability predisposes to oral antigen hypersensitivity

Previous mouse and clinical studies demonstrate a link between Th2 intestinal inflammation and induction of the effector phase of food allergy. However, the mechanism by which sensitization and mast cell responses occurs is largely unknown. We demonstrate that interleukin (IL)-9 has an important role in this process. IL-9-deficient mice fail to develop experimental oral antigen-induced intestinal anaphylaxis, and intestinal IL-9 overexpression induces an intestinal anaphylaxis phenotype (intestinal mastocytosis, intestinal permeability, and intravascular leakage). In addition, intestinal IL-9 overexpression predisposes to oral antigen sensitization, which requires mast cells and increased intestinal permeability. These observations demonstrate a central role for IL-9 and mast cells in experimental intestinal permeability in oral antigen sensitization and suggest that IL-9-mediated mast cell responses have an important role in food allergy.

Impaired barrier function by dietary fructo-oligosaccharides (FOS) in rats is accompanied by increased colonic mitochondrial gene expression

Background

Dietary non-digestible carbohydrates stimulate the gut microflora and are therefore presumed to improve host resistance to intestinal infections. However, several strictly controlled rat infection studies showed that non-digestible fructo-oligosaccharides (FOS) increase, rather than decrease, translocation of Salmonella towards extra-intestinal sites. In addition, it was shown that FOS increases intestinal permeability already before infection. The mechanism responsible for this adverse effect of FOS is unclear. Possible explanations are altered mucosal integrity due to changes in tight junctions or changes in expression of defense molecules such as antimicrobials and mucins. To examine the mechanisms underlying weakening of the intestinal barrier by FOS, a controlled dietary intervention study was performed. Two groups of 12 rats were adapted to a diet with or without FOS. mRNA was collected from colonic mucosa and changes in gene expression were assessed for each individual rat using Agilent rat whole genome microarrays.

Results

Among the 997 FOS induced genes we observed less mucosal integrity related genes than expected with the clear permeability changes. FOS did not induce changes in tight junction genes and only 8 genes related to mucosal defense were induced by FOS. These small effects are unlikely the cause for the clear increase in intestinal permeability that is observed. FOS significantly increased expression of 177 mitochondria-related genes. More specifically, induced expression of genes involved in all five OXPHOS complexes and the TCA cycle was observed. These results indicate that dietary FOS influences intestinal mucosal energy metabolism. Furthermore, increased expression of 113 genes related to protein turnover, including proteasome genes, ribosomal genes and protein maturation related genes, was seen. FOS upregulated expression of the peptide hormone proglucagon gene, in agreement with previous studies, as well as three other peptide hormone genes; peptide YY, pancreatic polypeptide and cholecystokinin.

Conclusion

We conclude that altered energy metabolism may underly colonic barrier function disruption due to FOS feeding in rats.

Decreased epithelial barrier function evoked by exposure to metabolic stress and nonpathogenic E. coli is enhanced by TNF-alpha

A defect in mitochondrial activity contributes to many diseases. We have shown that monolayers of the human colonic T84 epithelial cell line exposed to dinitrophenol (DNP, uncouples oxidative phosphorylation) and nonpathogenic Escherichia coli (E. coli) (strain HB101) display decreased barrier function. Here the impact of DNP on macrophage activity and the effect of TNF-alpha, DNP, and E. coli on epithelial permeability were assessed. DNP treatment of the human THP-1 macrophage cell line resulted in reduced ATP synthesis, and, although hyporesponsive to LPS, the metabolically stressed macrophages produced IL-1beta, IL-6, and TNF-alpha. Given the role of TNF-alpha in inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and the association between increased permeability and IBD, recombinant TNF-alpha (10 ng/ml) was added to the DNP (0.1 mM) + E. coli (10(6) colony-forming units), and this resulted in a significantly greater loss of T84 epithelial barrier function than that elicited by DNP + E. coli. This increased epithelial permeability was not due to epithelial death, and the enhanced E. coli translocation was reduced by pharmacological inhibitors of NF-kappabeta signaling (pyrrolidine dithiocarbamate, NF-kappabeta essential modifier-binding peptide, BAY 11-7082, and the proteosome inhibitor, MG132). In contrast, the drop in transepithelial electrical resistance was unaffected by the inhibitors of NF-kappabeta. Thus, as an integrative model system, our findings support the induction of a positive feedback loop that can severely impair epithelial barrier function and, as such, could contribute to existing inflammation or trigger relapses in IBD. Thus metabolically stressed epithelia display increased permeability in the presence of viable nonpathogenic E. coli that is exaggerated by TNF-alpha released by activated immune cells, such as macrophages, that retain this ability even if they themselves are experiencing a degree of metabolic stress.

[Influence of tacrolimus and ciprofloxacin on glucose metabolism]

Tacrolimus is an immunosuppressive drug that causes glucose intolerance. On the other hand, ciprofloxacin, which is widely used in the treatment of infectious diseases, is known to cause hypoglycemia as a side effect. We investigated the effects of tacrolimus and ciprofloxacin on serum glucose and insulin levels in rats, as well as on insulin secretion and the viability of HIT-T15 cells. The rats received intraperitoneal injections of tacrolimus and/or ciprofloxacin for 1 week, and their arterial blood was sampled after the administration of glucose. HIT-T15 cells were cultured in the presence of tacrolimus and/or ciprofloxacin, and the insulin level in the supernatant was measured. Ciprofloxacin did not show a significant effect on serum glucose and insulin levels after multiple administrations in the rats. In contrast, rats in the tacrolimus treatment group showed low serum insulin and high serum glucose levels. Moreover, the coadministration of ciprofloxacin and tacrolimus resulted in higher glucose levels compared with tacrolimus alone 0.5 h after glucose stimulation. In addition, we observed that the rats administered tacrolimus and/or ciprofloxacin had low body weight and food intake. Tacrolimus caused a dose-dependent decrease in the viability of the HIT-T15 cells. Furthermore, both drugs were highly toxic to HIT-T15 cells. In contrast, tacrolimus alone and coadministration of the drugs resulted in no significant difference in insulin secretion. These results suggest that the cytotoxic effects of ciprofloxacin and tacrolimus cause a decrease in insulin secretion, leading to glucose intolerance.

The development of eosinophilic colitis after liver transplantation in children

Tacrolimus-based immunosuppression in pediatric liver transplant recipients is known to be associated with EGID. Our goal was to determine the incidence, risk factors, and characteristics of EGID in our pediatric liver transplantation program. This study was a retrospective analysis of 38 pediatric liver transplant recipients. Rectal mucosal biopsy was performed to evaluate for gastrointestinal PTLD and eosinophilic colitis. There were 14 patients (37%) who were diagnosed with eosinophilic colitis. The mean age at transplantation was 10.8 +/- 1.8 months. Those with eosinophilic colitis had a higher incidence of peripheral eosinophilia (p = 0.003) during the first two months following transplantation and had a higher EBV infection rate. Symptoms, such as diarrhea, hematochezia, and abdominal pain, became apparent after an average of three months; diagnoses were made at 6.9 +/- 2.0 months after transplantation. There were eight patients (57%) with elevated food-specific IgE levels. With food restriction treatment, the symptoms of patients improved. EGID should be considered when clinical symptoms are present, because symptoms of this disorder are similar to those of gastrointestinal PTLD. It should also be considered when peripheral eosinophila is detected or when EBV seroconversion develops during the first two months following transplantation.

Tacrolimus-associated eosinophilic gastroenterocolitis in pediatric liver transplant recipients: role of potential food allergies in pathogenesis

Tacrolimus is a macrolide agent that is now the primary immunosuppressant used in prevention of graft rejection in transplant recipients. It has been found to be superior to cyclosporine (CSA) for rescue therapy as well as for earlier weaning of steroids. Both tacrolimus and CSA share similar toxicity profiles; however, their gastrointestinal side effects have received little attention. We report three cases of eosinophilic colitis in liver transplant recipients, maintained on tacrolimus as immunosuppressive medication post-liver transplantation. These patients also had high serum immunoglobulin (Ig)E levels, eosinophilia and IgE-positive radioallergosorbent test for milk proteins. The colitis appeared to be mediated by food allergies. Each patient had symptomatic improvement following reduced immunosuppression and an appropriately restricted diet. We conclude that tacrolimus may play a role in the initiation of food allergies, leading to eosinophilic colitis. More studies are needed in a controlled setting to identify the prevalence of similar findings among other pediatric liver transplant recipients.

Food protein sensitivity with partial villous atrophy after pediatric liver transplantation with tacrolimus immunosuppression

We report three pediatric liver transplant recipients receiving tacrolimus immunosuppression presented with vomiting, heme-positive stools and failure to thrive, who had subtotal villous atrophy in their histology because of food protein sensitivity. Case findings and current literature of the casual relationship between tacrolimus and food allergies briefly reviewed.

Cytochrome P450 3A4 and P-glycoprotein activity and assimilation of tacrolimus in transplant patients with persistent diarrhea

Renal transplant recipients suffering from persistent diarrhea have been repeatedly reported to have increased tacrolimus (Tac) trough levels. This study aimed to explore this phenomenon in detail in 15 renal transplant recipients with diarrhea, whose immunosuppression consisted of corticosteroids, mofetil mycophenolate and Tac. Both hepatic and intestinal CYP3A4 and PGP activity, important determinants of Tac bioavailability, were assessed, together with global CYP activity and investigations for gastrointestinal infection, function and morphology. Global CYP, CYP3A4, PGP and trough/dose levels of Tac were compared with diarrhea-free controls. In addition, a pharmacokinetic study of Tac was performed in 11 patients affected by diarrhea versus 9 controls. As expected, diarrhea was associated with increased Tac trough levels. An even stronger, significant increase of dose-normalized Tac levels was observed between 90 and 360 min after Tac intake. Time to peak concentration and drug half-life, however, were not altered. In addition, a concomitant decrease (+/-50%) of intestinal PGP activity was noticed in patients with diarrhea. For global CYP, CYP3A4 and hepatic PGP activity no such differences were noted. This pattern was not influenced by the specific cause of diarrhea. These data strongly suggest that persistent diarrhea is associated with an increased oral bioavailability of Tac.

Intestinal barrier dysfunction by enteropathogenic Escherichia coli is mediated by two effector molecules and a bacterial surface protein

The human intestinal pathogen, enteropathogenic Escherichia coli (EPEC), causes diarrhoeal disease by a mechanism that is dependent on the injection of effector proteins into the host cell. One effector, EspF, is reported to be required for EPEC to disrupt tight junction integrity of intestinal cells and increase the paracellular movement of molecules, which is likely to contribute to diarrhoea. Here, we show that not one but three EPEC-encoded factors play important roles in this process. Thus, the Map (Mitochondria-associated protein) effector is shown to: (i) be as essential as EspF for disrupting intestinal barrier function, (ii) be able to function independently of EspF, (iii) alter tight junction structure and (iv) mediate these effects in the absence of mitochondrial targeting. Additionally, the outer membrane protein Intimin is shown to be crucial for EspF and Map to disrupt the intestinal barrier function. This function of Intimin is completely independent of its interaction with its known receptor Tir, revealing a physiologically relevant requirement for Intimin interaction with alternative receptor(s). This work demonstrates that EPEC uses multiple multifunctional proteins to elicit specific responses in intestinal cells and that EPEC can control the activity of its injected effector molecules from its extracellular location.

Intraportal donor bone marrow transplantation improves intestinal allograft survival in rats under FK506-based immunosuppression

Donor-specific immunosuppression is important in transplant surgery. We examined the effect of intraportal donor-specific bone marrow transplantation on heterotopic small bowel transplantation in the high responder rat combination, ACI to Lewis. The study comprised five treatment groups: untreated controls (group 1); FK506 alone (group 2); low-dose predonine + FK506 (group 3); high-dose predonine + FK506 (group 4); and intraportal donor-specific bone marrow transplantation + FK506 (group 5). Intraportal transplantation was performed pre-operatively and FK506 and predonine given post-operatively. Intestinal allograft survival and changes of intragraft cytokine expression were analysed using the reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction. Allograft survival (mean +/- SD) was lowest in group 1 and greatest in group 5. The group 5 treatment regimen also down-regulated interferon-gamma and interleukin-2 transcription in the transplanted intestine. Intraportal donor bone marrow transplant combined with FK506 immunosuppression was found therefore to be the most beneficial treatment regimen.

Effect of chronic administration of tacrolimus and cyclosporine on human gastrointestinal permeability

The antirejection drug tacrolimus (FK506) has been reported to impair intestinal permeability in an early stage after orthotopic liver transplantation (OLT), and cyclosporine (CsA) has shown a similar effect in animals. We studied the chronic effect of FK506 and CsA on gastroduodenal and intestinal permeability and on blood endotoxin levels in patients 2 to 3 years after OLT. Thirty-two OLT patients (22 men and 10 women; mean age, 44.8 +/- 7.1) who had received CsA (n = 19) or FK506 (n = 13) and 10 healthy volunteers (6 male and 4 female, mean age 41.7 +/- 5.4) were assessed for gastroduodenal permeability by recovery in urine of sucrose after oral administration and for intestinal permeability by recovery in urine after oral loads of rhamnose and lactulose, which evaluate the intracellular and paracellular routes, respectively. In all subjects, plasma levels of endotoxins also were assessed. Gastroduodenal permeability was similar in patients and controls (0.03 +/- 0.003 versus 0.04 +/- 0.01%, P = NS). In regard to intestinal permeability, passage through the intracellular route was significantly reduced in OLT patients compared with controls (1.13 +/- 0.06 versus 2.74 +/- 0.17%, P <.01), but paracellular permeability was unchanged (0.14 +/- 0.007 versus 0.13 +/- 0.01%, P = NS). Serum endotoxin levels were similar in all subjects. We conclude that chronic administration of FK506 or CsA induces a clinically irrelevant, selective dysfunction of monosaccharide absorption, but does not affect gastroduodenal or intestinal permeability.

Tacrolimus and sirolimus decrease oxidative phosphorylation of isolated rat kidney mitochondria

1. Tacrolimus and sirolimus are potent immunosuppressors used in transplantation. Tacrolimus has been suspected to alter mitochondrial respiration of different tissues but sirolimus has not been evaluated. 2. We evaluated the in vitro effect of tacrolimus and sirolimus on oxidative phosphorylation of isolated rat kidney mitochondria. 3. Oxygen consumption was measured with a Clark-type electrode. Tacrolimus and sirolimus increased the resting rate (state 4) and had no significant effect on ADP-stimulated respiration (state 3). The decrease of respiratory control ratio was concentration-dependent with a biphasic curve for tacrolimus. The EC(50)s were 3.4 x 10(-11) M and 2.3 x 10(-8) M for tacrolimus and 4.4 x 10(-10) M for sirolimus. The maximal inhibition was 20 and 14% for tacrolimus and sirolimus, respectively. 4. Tacrolimus and sirolimus had an uncoupling effect on oxidative phosphorylation related to a decrease of the inner membrane fluidity. At the opposite of cyclosporin A, no effect on swelling or Ca(2+) fluxes was observed. 5. All events occurred at therapeutic concentrations and then could appear during long-term treatment. Cellular consequences such as chronic nephrotoxicity with tacrolimus are suggested. The risk of cyclosporin A nephrotoxicity potentiation by sirolimus is discussed.

Inhibition of nitric oxide synthase induces intestinal mucosal damage and increases mortality in rats treated by FK506

INTRODUCTION

Despite the beneficial immunosuppressive effects of FK506 during small intestine transplantation, FK506 appears to have direct toxic effects on the intestine. The mechanisms of FK506-induced intestinal damage is unclear, and whether nitric oxide (NO) is involved in the mechanism has not been well defined. This study was designed to evaluate the effects of NG-Nitro-L-arginine methyl ester (L-NAME), an inhibitor of NO synthase, on small intestinal damage in rats treated with FK506.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Wistar rats weighing 240-260 g, aged 11 weeks, were administered FK506 (5 mg/kg/day i.m) and/or L-NAME (5 mg/dl in drinking water) for 10 days. Body weight gain, diarrhoea and mortality were observed during experiment. At the end of experiment, the intestinal specimens were excised for histological evaluation. In addition, the effects of L-aginine treatment (1 g/dl in drinking water) were evaluated in this study.

RESULTS

L-NAME administration time-dependently induced diarrhoea and high mortality in the rats treated with FK506. At the end of 10 days treatment, 7 of 12 rats (58.3%) suffered from diarrhoea and 5 of 12 rats (41.7%) died in the FK506 + L-NAME group (vs. FK506 group, p = 0.05). A significant loss of body weight was also found in the rats treated with FK506 + L-NAME (-52.2 +/- 28.8 g, in FK506 + L-NAME group vs. -14.3 +/- 8.7 g in FK506 group, p = 0.001). In parallel with the severe diarrhoea and high mortality, the loss of villi, hemorrhage and necrosis (grade 5 of pathological damage) was seen in the small intestinal mucosa of rats treated with FK506 + L-NAME. L-arginine treatment in part prevented diarrhoea, mortality and pathological damage of small intestinal mucosa induced by L-NAME.

CONCLUSIONS

Inhibition of NOS induces intestinal mucosal damage and increases mortality in rats treated with FK506. L-arginine treatment can in part prevent the injury induced L-NAME. The present study suggests that NO, as an important protective factor, may be involved in the FK506-induced intestinal damage.

Sirolimus, but not the structurally related RAD (everolimus), enhances the negative effects of cyclosporine on mitochondrial metabolism in the rat brain

Clinical studies have shown enhancement of cyclosporine toxicity when co-administered with the immunosuppressant sirolimus. We evaluated the biochemical mechanisms underlying the sirolimus/cyclosporine interaction on rat brain metabolism using magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS) and compared the effects of sirolimus with those of the structurally related RAD. Two-week-old rats (25 g) were allocated to the following treatment groups (all n=6): I. control, II. cyclosporine (10 mg kg(-1) d(-1)), III. sirolimus (3 mg kg(-1) d(-1)), IV. RAD (3 mg kg(-1) d(-1)), V. cyclosporine+sirolimus and VI. cyclosporine+RAD. Drugs were administered by oral gavage for 6 days. Twelve hours after the last dose, metabolic changes were assessed in brain tissue extracts using multinuclear MRS. Cyclosporine significantly inhibited mitochondrial glucose metabolism (glutamate: 78+/-6% of control; GABA: 67+/-12%; NAD(+): 76+/-3%; P<0.05), but increased lactate production. Sirolimus and RAD inhibited cytosolic glucose metabolism via lactate production (sirolimus: 81+/-3% of control, RAD: 69+/-2%; P<0.02). Sirolimus enhanced cyclosporine-induced inhibition of mitochondrial glucose metabolism (glutamate: 60+/-4%; GABA: 59+/-8%; NAD(+): 45+/-5%; P<0.02 versus cyclosporine alone). Lactate production was significantly reduced. In contrast, RAD antagonized the effects of cyclosporine (glutamate, GABA, and NAD(+), not significantly different from controls). The results can partially be explained by pharmacokinetic interactions: co-administration increased the distribution of cyclosporine and sirolimus into brain tissue, while co-administration with RAD decreased cyclosporine brain tissue concentrations. In addition RAD, but not sirolimus, distributed into brain mitochondria. The combination of cyclosporine/RAD compares favourably to cyclosporine/sirolimus in regards to their effects on brain high-energy metabolism and tissue distribution in the rat.

Mucosal pathophysiology and inflammatory changes in the late phase of the intestinal allergic reaction in the rat

Relatively little information exists concerning the late phase of the allergic reaction in the gastrointestinal tract. Here, we characterized jejunal mucosal pathophysiology and inflammation after oral antigen challenge of sensitized rats, and examined the role of mast cells in events after challenge. Sprague-Dawley rats, mast cell-deficient (Ws/Ws), and +/+ control rats were sensitized to horseradish peroxidase, and challenged intragastrically with antigen 14 days later. Jejunal segments were obtained at 0.5 to 72 hours after challenge for functional assessment in Ussing chambers and for morphological assessment by light and electron microscopy. Intestine from sensitized Sprague-Dawley rats demonstrated enhanced ion secretion and permeability at all times after challenge. Electron microscopy revealed abnormal mitochondria within enterocytes and disruption of the epithelial basement membrane associated with influx into the mucosa of mast cells, eosinophils, neutrophils, and mononuclear cells. Many inflammatory cells appeared activated. In contrast, antigen-challenged Ws/Ws rats demonstrated no functional changes or inflammatory cell infiltrate. We conclude that oral antigen challenge of sensitized rats induces sustained epithelial dysfunction. Mast cells mediate both epithelial pathophysiology and recruitment of additional inflammatory cells that may contribute to persistent pathophysiology and symptoms.

Rotavirus alters paracellular permeability and energy metabolism in Caco-2 cells

Rotaviruses infect epithelial cells of the small intestine, but the pathophysiology of the resulting severe diarrhea is incompletely understood. Histological damage to intestinal epithelium is not a consistent feature, and in vitro studies showed that intestinal cells did not undergo rapid death and lysis during viral replication. We show that rotavirus infection of Caco-2 cells caused disruption of tight junctions and loss of transepithelial resistance (TER) in the absence of cell death. TER declined from 300 to 22 Omega. cm(2) between 8 and 24 h after infection and was accompanied by increased transepithelial permeability to macromolecules of 478 and 4,000 Da. Distribution of tight junction proteins claudin-1, occludin, and ZO-1 was significantly altered during infection. Claudin-1 redistribution was notably apparent at the onset of the decline in TER. Infection was associated with increased production of lactate, decreased mitochondrial oxygen consumption, and reduced cellular ATP (60% of control at 24 h after infection), conditions known to reduce the integrity of epithelial tight junctions. In conclusion, these data show that rotavirus infection of Caco-2 intestinal cells altered tight junction structure and function, which may be a response to metabolic dysfunction.