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Handtke S, Brömstrup L, Hain J, Fischer F, Ossowski T, Hartwig S, Dröder K. Investigation of Recycled Expanded Polyamide Beads through Artificial Ageing and Mechanical Recycling as a Proof of Concept for Circular Economy. Polymers (Basel) 2024; 16:1730. [PMID: 38932080 PMCID: PMC11207465 DOI: 10.3390/polym16121730] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2024] [Revised: 06/04/2024] [Accepted: 06/11/2024] [Indexed: 06/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Car manufacturers are currently challenged with increasing the sustainability of their products and production to comply with sustainability requirements and legislation. One way to enhance product sustainability is by reducing the carbon footprint of fossil-based plastic parts. Particle foams are a promising solution to achieve the goal of using lightweight parts with minimal material input. Ongoing developments involve the use of expanded particle foam beads made from engineering plastics such as polyamide (EPA). To achieve this, a simulated life cycle was carried out on virgin EPA, including mechanical recycling. The virgin material was processed into specimens using a steam-free method. One series was artificially aged to replicate automotive life cycle stresses, while the other series was not. The mechanical recycling and re-foaming of the minipellets were then carried out, resulting in an EPA particle foam with 100% recycled content. Finally, the thermal and chemical material properties were comparatively analysed. The study shows that the recycled EPA beads underwent polymer degradation during the simulated life cycle, as evidenced by their material properties. For instance, the recycled beads showed a more heterogeneous molecular weight distribution (an increase in PDI from two to three), contained carbonyl groups, and exhibited an increase in the degree of crystallization from approximately 24% to 36%.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sören Handtke
- Volkswagen AG, Berliner Ring 2, 38440 Wolfsburg, Germany
| | - Lena Brömstrup
- Institute of Joining and Welding, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Langer Kamp 8, 38106 Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Jörg Hain
- Volkswagen AG, Berliner Ring 2, 38440 Wolfsburg, Germany
| | - Fabian Fischer
- Volkswagen AG, Berliner Ring 2, 38440 Wolfsburg, Germany
| | - Tim Ossowski
- Institute of Machine Tools and Production Technology, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Langer Kamp 19b, 38106 Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Sven Hartwig
- Institute of Joining and Welding, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Langer Kamp 8, 38106 Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Klaus Dröder
- Institute of Machine Tools and Production Technology, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Langer Kamp 19b, 38106 Braunschweig, Germany
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2
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Biçer E, Kodal M, Özkoç G. Processing and Characterization of UV Irradiated HDPE/POSS Fibers. NANOMATERIALS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 13:3131. [PMID: 38133028 PMCID: PMC10745762 DOI: 10.3390/nano13243131] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2023] [Revised: 11/30/2023] [Accepted: 12/04/2023] [Indexed: 12/23/2023]
Abstract
High-performance polyethylene fibers, renowned for their superior attributes encompassing a high strength, modulus, and lightness, are conventionally manufactured through the gel spinning method. However, this method is encumbered by several drawbacks, including the requisite application of a separate process to eliminate solvents from the fibers and the utilization of chemicals deleterious to both the environment and human health. Alternatively, the adoption of the melt spinning method presents a cleaner and environmentally friendly approach to attain high-performance fibers. In the present investigation, high-density polyethylene (HDPE) fibers were produced employing the melt spinning method. After the spinning process, strategic orientation procedures were implemented to enhance the crystallinity of the spun fibers. As a concluding step, seeking to elevate the overall performance of the oriented spun HDPE fibers, a cross-linking treatment was applied via UV irradiation. Notably, this study pioneers the incorporation of polyhedral oligomeric silsesquioxane (POSS) hybrid nanoparticles into HDPE during melt spinning, presenting a novel advancement aimed at further enhancing the mechanical properties of oriented HDPE fibers during UV irradiation. For this purpose, two distinct types of POSS, namely octavinyl POSS (OVPOSS) and methacryl POSS (MACPOSS), both having unsaturated double bonds capable of participating in the network structure of oriented HDPE spun during UV cross-linking, were used. The thermal, morphological, and mechanical properties, as well as the crystal structure of samples with and without POSS molecules, were investigated. The mechanical properties of the fibers exhibited higher values in the presence of OVPOSS. The incorporation of OVPOSS and MACPOSS resulted in a noteworthy improvement in the material's tensile strength, exhibiting a marked increase of 12.5 and 70.8%, respectively. This improvement can be attributed to the more homogeneous dispersion of OVPOSS in HDPE, actively participating in the three-dimensional network structure. After orientation and UV irradiation, the tensile strength of HDPE fibers incorporating OVPOSS increased to 293 MPa, accompanied by a concurrent increase in the modulus to 2.8 GPa. The addition of POSS nanoparticles thus yielded a substantial improvement in the overall performance of HDPE fibers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ezgi Biçer
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Kocaeli University, 41001 Kocaeli, Turkey;
| | - Mehmet Kodal
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Kocaeli University, 41001 Kocaeli, Turkey;
- Nanotechnology Research and Application Center, Sabancı University, 34956 Istanbul, Turkey;
| | - Güralp Özkoç
- Nanotechnology Research and Application Center, Sabancı University, 34956 Istanbul, Turkey;
- Department of Chemistry, Istinye University, 34396 Istanbul, Turkey
- Xplore Instruments B.V., 6135 KT Sittard, The Netherlands
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3
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Abdolnaser Gharehdashli, Mortazavi S, Rashidi H. Dynamic-Mechanical and Rheological Properties of the Photo-Degraded Low-Density Polyethylene/Manganese Stearate/Trisilver Phosphate/Cadmium Selenide Composites. POLYMER SCIENCE SERIES A 2022. [DOI: 10.1134/s0965545x22700560] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/09/2023]
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4
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Bonyadinejad G, Salehi M, Herath A. Investigating the sustainability of agricultural plastic products, combined influence of polymer characteristics and environmental conditions on microplastics aging. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2022; 839:156385. [PMID: 35660431 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.156385] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2022] [Revised: 05/27/2022] [Accepted: 05/28/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
The accelerated use of plastic products for agricultural practices has raised global concern regarding their negative impacts on soil health. This study aims to better understand the combined influence of polymer characteristics and environmental conditions on microplastic photodegradation within the agricultural soil system. For this purpose, the photodegradation behavior of low density polyethylene (LDPE) microplastics was studied through accelerated UVA radiation experiments under two different relative humidity (RH10 and RH70) and soil deposition conditions. The variations of plastics' surface physiochemistry due to the accelerated photodegradation were studied using Attenuated Total Reflectance-Fourier Transform Infrared spectroscopy (ATR-FTIR), X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS), and Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscopy (FE-SEM). The carbonyl and vinyl indices were calculated using the ATR-FTIR information to compare the degree of microplastics' photodegradation. The plastics' bulk characteristics, including the percentage of crystallinity and molecular weight distributions, were examined using the Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) and Gel Permeation Chromatography (GPC). Furthermore, the extent of UVA light interaction with the microplastics was studied by determining spectral quantum yield. The results demonstrated that new LDPE microplastics with a lower molecular weight (Mw = 233 kD) were subjected to a greater extent of photodegradation than those with greater molecular weight (Mw = 515 kD). Elevated relative humidity (RH70) limited the photooxidation process of microplastics and consequently reduced the surface chemistry alterations. Deposition of soil particles with respect to the plastic particles impacted the photodegradation behavior. The microplastics covered by soil particles were not degraded, unlike those deposited next to the soil particles. The knowledge developed through this study could encourage the farmers and agricultural stakeholders to apply more efficient practices to remove plastic residuals after harvesting and conduct proper plastic disposal practices to protect soil health.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Maryam Salehi
- 108 Engineering Science Building, University of Memphis, Memphis, TN 38152, USA.
| | - Amali Herath
- Department of Civil Engineering, The University of Memphis, Memphis, TN, USA
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5
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Mat Yasin N, Akkermans S, Van Impe JFM. Enhancing the biodegradation of (bio)plastic through pretreatments: A critical review. WASTE MANAGEMENT (NEW YORK, N.Y.) 2022; 150:1-12. [PMID: 35780576 DOI: 10.1016/j.wasman.2022.06.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2021] [Revised: 06/02/2022] [Accepted: 06/06/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
As plastic packaging becomes nearly indispensable in the plastic economy, rigorous efforts have been made to recapture the material value form this waste stream, which is mostly composed of highly resistant plastics. Biodegradation offers an attractive alternative for conventional plastic waste treatment as this approach is environmentally friendly, has low cost and facilitates valorisation. Moreover, there is also an increasing interest in plastic pretreatments waste to enhance biodegradation. This review investigates the pretreatment methods that optimise plastic biodegradation by examining the process's mechanisms and key influencing factors, which can be categorised into: biotic factors, abiotic factors and polymer characteristics. Various types of chemical and physical pretreatments have demonstrated to effectively enhance biodegradation through oxidation and surface changes on the plastics, leading to increased bioconversion rates and biogas production. A critical evaluation of the various categories of pretreatment methods is presented. This evaluation leads to the conclusion that the category of non-thermal physical treatments is most promising, due to the relatively low energy requirements and the absence of a need for chemical additions. Moreover, non-thermal physical treatments have demonstrated application potential at large scale. Based on these conclusions, pretreatments are expected to be an integral part of the biodegradation of plastics within a circular economy approach.
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Affiliation(s)
- Najwa Mat Yasin
- BioTeC+ - Chemical and Biochemical Process Technology and Control, Department of Chemical Engineering, KU Leuven, Gebroeders De Smetstraat 1, 9000 Gent, Belgium; Faculty of Ocean Engineering and Informatics, Universiti Malaysia Terengganu (UMT), 21030 Terengganu, Malaysia.
| | - Simen Akkermans
- BioTeC+ - Chemical and Biochemical Process Technology and Control, Department of Chemical Engineering, KU Leuven, Gebroeders De Smetstraat 1, 9000 Gent, Belgium.
| | - Jan F M Van Impe
- BioTeC+ - Chemical and Biochemical Process Technology and Control, Department of Chemical Engineering, KU Leuven, Gebroeders De Smetstraat 1, 9000 Gent, Belgium.
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6
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Detecting the release of plastic particles in packaged drinking water under simulated light irradiation using surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy. Anal Chim Acta 2022; 1198:339516. [DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2022.339516] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2021] [Revised: 01/05/2022] [Accepted: 01/16/2022] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
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7
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Wanner P. Plastic in agricultural soils - A global risk for groundwater systems and drinking water supplies? - A review. CHEMOSPHERE 2021; 264:128453. [PMID: 33038754 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2020.128453] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2020] [Revised: 09/23/2020] [Accepted: 09/25/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
The global plastic contamination is one of the major challenges facing mankind as plastic is ubiquitously present in all environmental compartments. In contrast to freshwater and marine environments, plastic contamination of agricultural soils was only recently subject to investigations although it represents a significant amount (14%) of the global plastic pollution. Of concern is the vertical migration of plastic particles in agricultural soils and plastic-induced enhancement of pesticide transport towards underlying groundwater systems. To assess the risk of the large plastic inventory in agricultural soils for groundwater systems and drinking water supplies, this review critically synthesizes the current knowledge of the plastic mobility and plastic-pesticide interactions in agricultural soils, identifies future research directions and evaluates associated analytical challenges. The reviewed studies provide consistent evidence for vertical migration of plastic in agricultural soils towards aquifer systems, especially for sub-micrometer sized plastic particles, analogously to the well-known migration of natural particles in the sub-micrometer range (colloids). The reviewed investigations also showed that plastic changes the sorption behavior of pesticides in agricultural soils and enhances their transport towards underlying groundwater systems. Hence, the deposited plastic in agricultural soils likely poses a major risk for underlying aquifers and drinking water supplies that rely on groundwater resources below farmlands to be contaminated by plastic and pesticides. This demonstrates that improved regulatory measures are necessary regarding the general usage of plastic in the farming process to protect aquifers and drinking water supplies from plastic and pesticide contamination and to avoid a potential human health hazard.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philipp Wanner
- Department of Earth Sciences, University of Gothenburg, Guldhedsgatan 5A, 413 20, Gothenburg, Sweden.
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9
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Ng EL, Huerta Lwanga E, Eldridge SM, Johnston P, Hu HW, Geissen V, Chen D. An overview of microplastic and nanoplastic pollution in agroecosystems. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2018; 627:1377-1388. [PMID: 30857101 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.01.341] [Citation(s) in RCA: 546] [Impact Index Per Article: 91.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2017] [Revised: 01/31/2018] [Accepted: 01/31/2018] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Microplastics and nanoplastics are emerging pollutants of global importance. They are small enough to be ingested by a wide range of organisms and at nano-scale, they may cross some biological barriers. However, our understanding of their ecological impact on the terrestrial environment is limited. Plastic particle loading in agroecosystems could be high due to inputs of some recycled organic waste and plastic film mulching, so it is vital that we develop a greater understanding of any potentially harmful or adverse impacts of these pollutants to agroecosystems. In this article, we discuss the sources of plastic particles in agroecosystems, the mechanisms, constraints and dynamic behaviour of plastic during aging on land, and explore the responses of soil organisms and plants at different levels of biological organisation to plastic particles of micro and nano-scale. Based on limited evidence at this point and understanding that the lack of evidence of ecological impact from microplastic and nanoplastic in agroecosystems does not equate to the evidence of absence, we propose considerations for addressing the gaps in knowledge so that we can adequately safeguard world food supply.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ee-Ling Ng
- School of Agriculture and Food, Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Victoria 3010, Australia.
| | - Esperanza Huerta Lwanga
- Soil Physics and Land Management Group, Wageningen University & Research, Droevendaalsesteeg 4, 6708PB Wageningen, The Netherlands; Agroecologia, El Colegio de la Frontera Sur, Unidad Campeche Av Polígono s/n, Cd. Industrial, Lerma, Campeche, Mexico
| | - Simon M Eldridge
- School of Agriculture and Food, Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Victoria 3010, Australia
| | | | - Hang-Wei Hu
- School of Agriculture and Food, Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Victoria 3010, Australia
| | - Violette Geissen
- Soil Physics and Land Management Group, Wageningen University & Research, Droevendaalsesteeg 4, 6708PB Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Deli Chen
- School of Agriculture and Food, Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Victoria 3010, Australia
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10
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Hamzah M, Khenfouch M, Rjeb A, Sayouri S, Houssaini DS, Darhouri M, Srinivasu VV. Surface chemistry changes and microstructure evaluation of low density nanocluster polyethylene under natural weathering: A spectroscopic investigation. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2018. [DOI: 10.1088/1742-6596/984/1/012010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
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11
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Pietrelli L, Poeta G, Battisti C, Sighicelli M. Characterization of plastic beach debris finalized to its removal: a proposal for a recycling scheme. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2017; 24:16536-16542. [PMID: 28589285 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-017-9440-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2017] [Accepted: 06/01/2017] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
Characterization of beach debris is crucial to assess the strategy to answer questions such as recycling. With the aim to assess its use in a recycling scheme, in this note, we carried out a physical and chemical characterization of plastic litter from a pilot beach in Central Italy, using the FT-IR spectroscopy and thermoanalysis. Fourteen polymers, having mainly thermoplastic origin, were identified; among them, the most represented are polyethylene (41.7%) and polypropylene (36.9%). Chemical and mechanical degradation were clearly observed by an IR spectrum. The thermogravimetric analysis curve of the plastic blend shows the melting point at 120-140 °C, and degradation occurs almost totally in a one-step process within 300-500 °C. The high heating value of the plastic debris is 43.9 MJ kg-1. Polymer blends obtained by beach debris show mechanical properties similar to the virgin high-density polyethylene polymer. Following the beach plastic debris characterization, a recycling scheme was suggested.
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Affiliation(s)
- Loris Pietrelli
- ENEA, CR Casaccia, Via Anguillarese, 301, S. Maria di Galeria, 00123, Rome, Italy.
| | - Gianluca Poeta
- Department of Science, Università degli studi Roma III, Viale Marconi, 446, 00146, Rome, Italy
| | - Corrado Battisti
- 'Torre Flavia' LTER (Long Term Ecological Research), Protected Areas-Regional Park Service, Città Metropolitana di Roma Capitale, Via Tiburtina, 691, 00159, Rome, Italy
| | - Maria Sighicelli
- ENEA, CR Casaccia, Via Anguillarese, 301, S. Maria di Galeria, 00123, Rome, Italy
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12
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Effect of nano zinc oxide as UV stabilizer on the weathering performance of wood-polyethylene composite. Polym Degrad Stab 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.polymdegradstab.2016.08.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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13
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Topolniak I, Gardette JL, Therias S. Influence of zeolite nanoparticles on photostability of ethylene vinyl alcohol copolymer (EVOH). Polym Degrad Stab 2015. [DOI: 10.1016/j.polymdegradstab.2015.08.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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14
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Krueger MC, Harms H, Schlosser D. Prospects for microbiological solutions to environmental pollution with plastics. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2015; 99:8857-74. [DOI: 10.1007/s00253-015-6879-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 242] [Impact Index Per Article: 26.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2015] [Revised: 07/21/2015] [Accepted: 07/22/2015] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
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15
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Pedna A, Rosi L, Frediani M, Frediani P. High glass transition temperature polyester coatings for the protection of stones. J Appl Polym Sci 2015. [DOI: 10.1002/app.42323] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Pedna
- Department of Chemistry; University of Florence; via della Lastruccia 3-13 50019 Sesto Fiorentino Italy
- Department of Chemistry and Industrial Chemistry; University of Pisa; via Risorgimento 35 56126 Pisa Italy
| | - Luca Rosi
- Department of Chemistry; University of Florence; via della Lastruccia 3-13 50019 Sesto Fiorentino Italy
| | - Marco Frediani
- Department of Chemistry; University of Florence; via della Lastruccia 3-13 50019 Sesto Fiorentino Italy
| | - Piero Frediani
- Department of Chemistry; University of Florence; via della Lastruccia 3-13 50019 Sesto Fiorentino Italy
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Briassoulis D, Babou E, Hiskakis M, Kyrikou I. Analysis of long-term degradation behaviour of polyethylene mulching films with pro-oxidants under real cultivation and soil burial conditions. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2015; 22:2584-98. [PMID: 25192668 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-014-3464-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2014] [Accepted: 08/14/2014] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
Apart from the conventional polyethylene and the bio-based or mainly bio-based biodegradable in soil mulching films, polyethylene mulching films of controlled degradation in soil are already used in agriculture. The use of special pro-oxidants as additives is expected to accelerate the abiotic oxidation and the subsequent chain scission of the polymer under specific UV radiation or thermal degradation conditions, according to the literature. The role of pro-oxidants in the possible biodegradation of polyethylene has been theoretically supported through the use of controlled laboratory conditions. However, results obtained in real soil conditions, but also several laboratory test results, are not supporting these claims and the issue remains disputed. Mulching films made of linear low-density polyethylene (LLDPE) with pro-oxidants, after being used for one cultivation period in an experimental field with watermelon cultivation, were buried in the soil under real field conditions. This work presents the analysis of the degradation of the mulching films during the cultivation period as compared to the corresponding changes after a long soil burial period of 8.5 years. The combined effects of critical factors on the photochemical degradation of the degradable mulching LLDPE films with pro-oxidants under the cultivation conditions and their subsequent further degradation behaviour in the soil are analysed by testing their mechanical properties and through spectroscopic and thermal analysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Demetres Briassoulis
- Department of Natural Resources Management and Agricultural Engineering, Agricultural University of Athens, 75 Iera Odos, 11855, Athens, Greece,
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17
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Yang TC, Noguchi T, Isshiki M, Wu JH. Effect of titanium dioxide on chemical and molecular changes in PVC sidings during QUV accelerated weathering. Polym Degrad Stab 2014. [DOI: 10.1016/j.polymdegradstab.2014.03.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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18
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Atiqullah M, Winston M, Bercaw J, Hussain I, Fazal A, Al-Harthi M, Emwas AH, Khan M, Hossaen A. Effects of a vanadium post-metallocene catalyst-induced polymer backbone inhomogeneity on UV oxidative degradation of the resulting polyethylene film. Polym Degrad Stab 2012. [DOI: 10.1016/j.polymdegradstab.2012.03.042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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19
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Environmental Degradation of Polyethylene. LONG TERM PROPERTIES OF POLYOLEFINS 2012. [DOI: 10.1007/b13523] [Citation(s) in RCA: 89] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/03/2022]
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20
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Kyrikou I, Briassoulis D, Hiskakis M, Babou E. Analysis of photo-chemical degradation behaviour of polyethylene mulching film with pro-oxidants. Polym Degrad Stab 2011. [DOI: 10.1016/j.polymdegradstab.2011.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
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21
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Thermal degradation behavior of polypropylene in the melt state: molecular weight distribution changes and chain scission mechanism. Polym Bull (Berl) 2011. [DOI: 10.1007/s00289-011-0560-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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22
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Roy PK, Hakkarainen M, Varma IK, Albertsson AC. Degradable polyethylene: fantasy or reality. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2011; 45:4217-27. [PMID: 21495645 DOI: 10.1021/es104042f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 105] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/02/2023]
Abstract
Plastic waste disposal is one of the serious environmental issues being tackled by our society today. Polyethylene, particularly in packaging films, has received criticism as it tends to accumulate over a period of time, leaving behind an undesirable visual footprint. Degradable polyethylene, which would enter the eco-cycle harmlessly through biodegradation would be a desirable solution to this problem. However, the "degradable polyethylene" which is presently being promoted as an environmentally friendly alternative to the nondegradable counterpart, does not seem to meet this criterion. This article reviews the state of the art on the aspect of degradability of polyethylene containing pro-oxidants, and more importantly the effect these polymers could have on the environment in the long run. On exposure to heat, light, and oxygen, these polymers disintegrate into small fragments, thereby reducing or increasing the visual presence. However, these fragments can remain in the environment for prolonged time periods. This article also outlines important questions, particularly in terms of time scale of complete degradation, environmental fate of the polymer residues, and possible accumulation of toxins, the answers to which need to be established prior to accepting these polymers as environmentally benign alternatives to their nondegradable equivalents. It appears from the existing literature that our search for biodegradable polyethylene has not yet been realized.
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Affiliation(s)
- Prasun K Roy
- Centre for Fire, Explosive and Environment Safety, DRDO, Timarpur, Delhi 110054, India
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γ-Initiated Oxidation of Isotactic Polypropylene: Effect of γ-Dose Rate on Durability. ARABIAN JOURNAL FOR SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING 2011. [DOI: 10.1007/s13369-010-0006-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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24
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Hussain I, Atiqullah M, Fazal A, Alam K, Hossaen A. Effect of selected residual Ziegler–Natta and metallocene catalysts on the UV-induced degradation of unstabilized ethylene homopolymer films. Polym Degrad Stab 2010. [DOI: 10.1016/j.polymdegradstab.2010.09.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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25
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Rajakumar K, Sarasvathy V, Thamaraichelvan A, Chitra R, Vijayakumar CT. Effect of iron carboxylates on the photodegradability of polypropylene. I. Natural weathering studies. J Appl Polym Sci 2010. [DOI: 10.1002/app.32582] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
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26
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Mumtaz T, Khan MR, Hassan MA. Study of environmental biodegradation of LDPE films in soil using optical and scanning electron microscopy. Micron 2010; 41:430-8. [PMID: 20207547 DOI: 10.1016/j.micron.2010.02.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/01/2010] [Accepted: 02/08/2010] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
An outdoor soil burial test was carried out to evaluate the degradation of commercially available LDPE carrier bags in natural soil for up to 2 years. Biodegradability of low density polyethylene films in soil was monitored using both optical and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). After 7-9 months of soil exposure, microbial colonization was evident on the film surface. Exposed LDPE samples exhibit progressive changes towards degradation after 17-22 months. SEM images reveal signs of degradation such as exfoliation and formation of cracks on film leading to disintegration. The possible degradation mode and consequences on the use and disposal of LDPE films is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tabassum Mumtaz
- Department of Bioprocess Technology, Faculty of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia.
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Roy PK, Singh P, Kumar D, Rajagopal C. Manganese stearate initiated photo-oxidative and thermo-oxidative degradation of LDPE, LLDPE and their blends. J Appl Polym Sci 2010. [DOI: 10.1002/app.31252] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
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28
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Magagula B, Nhlapo N, Focke WW. Mn2Al-LDH- and Co2Al-LDH-stearate as photodegradants for LDPE film. Polym Degrad Stab 2009. [DOI: 10.1016/j.polymdegradstab.2009.03.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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29
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Cáceres CA, Canevarolo SV. Cisão de cadeia na degradação termo-mecânica do poliestireno sob múltiplas extrusões. POLIMEROS 2008. [DOI: 10.1590/s0104-14282008000400015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Determinou-se o número de cisões de cadeia gerado pela degradação termo-mecânica do poliestireno quando submetido a múltiplas extrusões. A degradação foi acompanhada pelas mudanças nas curvas de distribuição de massa molar. Seguindo-se o significado físico das massas molares médias de uma curva de MWD mostrou-se que a massa molar numérica media Mn é a única que pode ser relacionada diretamente com o número de moléculas do sistema. A partir desta calculou-se o número de cadeias clivadas (ns) como uma relação entre a Mn da amostra degradada e a virgem. A função de distribuição de cisão de cadeia (CSDF) mostra que o processo de degradação termo-mecânica do poliestireno submetido a múltiplas extrusões à 240 °C é do tipo aleatório, independente da massa molar inicial.
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Roy PK, Surekha P, Rajagopal C, Choudhary V. Degradation behavior of linear low-density polyethylene films containing prooxidants under accelerated test conditions. J Appl Polym Sci 2008. [DOI: 10.1002/app.27889] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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Bagheri R, Naimian F. Melt flow properties of starch-filled linear low density polyethylene: Effect of photoinitiators. J Appl Polym Sci 2007. [DOI: 10.1002/app.25157] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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33
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Pinheiro LA, Chinelatto MA, Canevarolo SV. Evaluation of Philips and Ziegler–Natta high-density polyethylene degradation during processing in an internal mixer using the chain scission and branching distribution function analysis. Polym Degrad Stab 2006. [DOI: 10.1016/j.polymdegradstab.2006.04.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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34
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Roy P, Surekha P, Rajagopal C, Chatterjee S, Choudhary V. Effect of benzil and cobalt stearate on the aging of low-density polyethylene films. Polym Degrad Stab 2005. [DOI: 10.1016/j.polymdegradstab.2005.01.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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35
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Roy PK, Surekha P, Rajagopal C, Raman R, Choudhary V. Study on the degradation of low-density polyethylene in the presence of cobalt stearate and benzil. J Appl Polym Sci 2005. [DOI: 10.1002/app.22464] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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36
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Cáceres CA, Canevarolo SV. Calculating the chain scission distribution function (CSDF) using the concentration method. Polym Degrad Stab 2004. [DOI: 10.1016/j.polymdegradstab.2004.05.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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37
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Stark NM, Matuana LM. Surface chemistry changes of weathered HDPE/wood-flour composites studied by XPS and FTIR spectroscopy. Polym Degrad Stab 2004. [DOI: 10.1016/j.polymdegradstab.2003.11.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 208] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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38
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Stark NM, Matuana LM. Surface chemistry and mechanical property changes of wood-flour/high-density-polyethylene composites after accelerated weathering. J Appl Polym Sci 2004. [DOI: 10.1002/app.20996] [Citation(s) in RCA: 101] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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39
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Stark NM, Matuana LM, Clemons CM. Effect of processing method on surface and weathering characteristics of wood-flour/HDPE composites. J Appl Polym Sci 2004. [DOI: 10.1002/app.20529] [Citation(s) in RCA: 133] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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40
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Bagheri R, Naimian F. Effect of photo-initiators on melt degradation of polypropylene and starch-filled polymer. POLYM INT 2002. [DOI: 10.1002/pi.892] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
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41
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Shyichuk A, Stavychna, D, White J. Effect of tensile stress on chain scission and crosslinking during photo-oxidation of polypropylene. Polym Degrad Stab 2001. [DOI: 10.1016/s0141-3910(01)00015-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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42
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Lozano-González MJ, Rodriguez-Hernandez MT, Gonzalez-De Los Santos EA, Villalpando-Olmos J. Physical-mechanical properties and morphological study on nylon-6 recycling by injection molding. J Appl Polym Sci 2000. [DOI: 10.1002/(sici)1097-4628(20000509)76:6<851::aid-app11>3.0.co;2-d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
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43
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Chain scission distribution function for polypropylene degradation during multiple extrusions. Polym Degrad Stab 2000. [DOI: 10.1016/s0141-3910(00)00090-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 95] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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44
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González-González V, Neira-Velázquez G, Angulo-Sánchez J. Polypropylene chain scissions and molecular weight changes in multiple extrusion. Polym Degrad Stab 1998. [DOI: 10.1016/s0141-3910(96)00233-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 121] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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45
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Onu A, Palamaru M, Tutovan E, Ciobanu C. The Photodegradation of a Polyamidehydroxyurethane Type Polymer in Aqueous Solution. The Influence of Metal Ions on the Process of Degradation. INT J POLYM MATER PO 1998. [DOI: 10.1080/00914039808041033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Ana Onu
- a University “Al.l. Cuza”, Faculty of Chemistry , B-dul Mangeron, nr. 71, 6600 , lassy , Romania
| | - Mircea Palamaru
- a University “Al.l. Cuza”, Faculty of Chemistry , B-dul Mangeron, nr. 71, 6600 , lassy , Romania
| | - Elena Tutovan
- a University “Al.l. Cuza”, Faculty of Chemistry , B-dul Mangeron, nr. 71, 6600 , lassy , Romania
| | - Constantin Ciobanu
- b Institute of Macromolecular Chemistry, “P. Poni” , Al. Gh. Ghica Voda, nr. 41 A, 6600 , lassy , Romania
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46
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Erlandsson B, Karlsson S, Albertsson AC. The mode of action of corn starch and a pro-oxidant system in LDPE: influence of thermo-oxidation and UV-irradiation on the molecular weight changes. Polym Degrad Stab 1997. [DOI: 10.1016/s0141-3910(96)00139-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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47
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Degradation studies of novel degradable starch-polyethylene plastics containing oxidized polyethylene and prooxidant. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1994. [DOI: 10.1007/bf02073484] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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48
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Johnson KE, Pometto AL, Nikolov ZL. Degradation of Degradable Starch-Polyethylene Plastics in a Compost Environment. Appl Environ Microbiol 1993; 59:1155-61. [PMID: 16348914 PMCID: PMC202254 DOI: 10.1128/aem.59.4.1155-1161.1993] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The degradation performance of 11 types of commercially produced degradable starch-polyethylene plastic compost bags was evaluated in municipal yard waste compost sites at Iowa State University (Ames) and in Carroll, Dubuque, and Grinnell, Iowa. Masterbatches for plastic production were provided by Archer Daniels Midland Co. (Decatur, Ill.), St. Lawrence Starch Co. Ltd. (Mississauga, Ontario, Canada), and Fully Compounded Plastics (Decatur, Ill.). Bags differed in starch content (5 to 9%) and prooxidant additives (transition metals and a type of unsaturated vegetable oil). Chemical and photodegradation properties of each material were evaluated. Materials from St. Lawrence Starch Co. Ltd. and Fully Compounded Plastics photodegraded faster than did materials from Archer Daniels Midland Co., whereas all materials containing transition metals demonstrated rapid thermal oxidative degradation in 70°C-oven (dry) and high-temperature, high-humidity (steam chamber) treatments. Each compost site was seeded with test strips (200 to 800 of each type) taped together, which were recovered periodically over an 8- to 12-month period. At each sampling date, the compost row temperature was measured (65 to 95°C), the location of the recovered test strip was recorded (interior or exterior), and at least four strips were recovered for evaluation. Degradation was followed by measuring the change in polyethylene molecular weight distribution via high-temperature gel permeation chromatography. Our initial 8-month study indicated that materials recovered from the interior of the compost row demonstrated very little degradation, whereas materials recovered from the exterior degraded well. In the second-year study, however, degradation was observed in several plastic materials recovered from the interior of the compost row by month 5 at the Carroll site and almost every material by month 12 at the Grinnell site. The plastic bags collected from each community followed a similar degradation pattern. To our knowledge, this is the first scientific study demonstrating significant polyethylene degradation by these materials in a compost environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- K E Johnson
- Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition and Center for Crops Utilization Research, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa 50011
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49
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Getlichermann M, Trojan M, Daro A, David C. Degradation of polymer blends. Part VI: Photo-oxidation of polyethylene containing SIS triblock copolymers. Polym Degrad Stab 1993. [DOI: 10.1016/0141-3910(93)90125-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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