The neurotransmitters and postsynaptic actions of callosally projecting neurons

Asymmetric Sampling in Time: Evidence and perspectives

Auditory and speech signals are undisputedly processed in both left and right hemispheres, but this bilateral allocation is likely unequal. The Asymmetric Sampling in Time (AST) hypothesis proposed a division of labor that has its neuroanatomical basis in the distribution of neuronal ensembles with differing temporal integration constants: left auditory areas house a larger proportion of ensembles with shorter temporal integration windows (tens of milliseconds), suited to process rapidly changing signals; right auditory areas host a larger proportion with longer time constants (∼150-300 ms), ideal for slowly changing signals. Here we evaluate the large body of findings that clarifies this relationship between auditory temporal structure and functional lateralization. In this reappraisal, we unpack whether this relationship is influenced by stimulus type (speech/nonspeech), stimulus temporal extent (long/short), task engagement (high/low), or (imaging) modality (hemodynamic/electrophysiology/behavior). We find that the right hemisphere displays a clear preference for slowly changing signals whereas the left-hemispheric preference for rapidly changing signals is highly dependent on the experimental design. We consider neuroanatomical properties potentially linked to functional lateralization, contextualize the results in an evolutionary perspective, and highlight future directions.

Age-Related Listening Performance Changes Across Adulthood

OBJECTIVES

This study compares auditory processing performance across different decades of adulthood, including young adults and middle-aged individuals with normal hearing and no spontaneous auditory complaints.

DESIGN

We assessed 80 participants with normal hearing, at least 10 years of education, and normal global cognition. The participants completed various auditory tests, including speech-in-noise, dichotic digits, duration, pitch pattern sequence, gap in noise, and masking level difference. In addition, we conducted working memory assessments and administered a questionnaire on self-perceived hearing difficulties.

RESULTS

Our findings revealed significant differences in auditory test performance across different age groups, except for the masking level difference. The youngest group outperformed all other age groups in the speech-in-noise test, while differences in dichotic listening and temporal resolution emerged from the age of 40 and in temporal ordering from the age of 50. Moreover, higher education levels and better working memory test scores were associated with better auditory performance as individuals aged. However, the influence of these factors varied across different auditory tests. It is interesting that we observed increased self-reported hearing difficulties with age, even in participants without spontaneous auditory complaints.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study highlights significant variations in auditory test performance, with noticeable changes occurring from age 30 and becoming more pronounced from age 40 onward. As individuals grow older, they tend to perceive more hearing difficulties. Furthermore, the impact of age on auditory processing performance is influenced by factors such as education and working memory.

Sex/gender differences in hemispheric asymmetries

This chapter will critically review evidence across 40 years of research, covering both early and contemporary studies that have investigated sex/gender differences in hemispheric asymmetries, including both structural and functional asymmetries. We argue that small sex/gender differences in hemispheric asymmetry reliably exist, but there is significant overlap between the sexes and considerable within-sex variation. Furthermore, we argue that research to date is limited in its consideration of sex/gender-related factors, such as sex hormones and gender roles. Moreover, we highlight a critical limitation stemming from the lack of universal agreement on the definitions of "sex" and "gender," resulting in the majority of studies interested in sex/gender differences in hemispheric asymmetry involving the separation of participants into dichotomous male/female groups based solely on self-identified sex. Future research involving sex/gender should adopt a biopsychosocial approach whenever possible, to ensure that nonbinary psychologic, biologic, and environmental/social factors related to sex/gender, and their interactions, are routinely accounted for. Finally, we argue that while the human brain is not sexually dimorphic, sex/gender differences in the brain are not trivial and likely have several clinically relevant implications, including for the development of stratified treatment approaches for both neurologic and psychiatric patient populations.

Cholinergic modulation of interhemispheric inhibition in the mouse motor cortex

Interhemispheric inhibition of the homotopic motor cortex is believed to be effective for accurate unilateral motor function. However, the cellular mechanisms underlying interhemispheric inhibition during unilateral motor behavior remain unclear. Furthermore, the impact of the neuromodulator acetylcholine on interhemispheric inhibition and the associated cellular mechanisms are not well understood. To address this knowledge gap, we conducted recordings of neuronal activity from the bilateral motor cortex of mice during the paw-reaching task. Subsequently, we analyzed interhemispheric spike correlation at the cell-pair level, classifying putative cell types to explore the underlying cellular circuitry mechanisms of interhemispheric inhibition. We found a cell-type pair-specific enhancement of the interhemispheric spike correlation when the mice were engaged in the reaching task. We also found that the interhemispheric spike correlation was modulated by pharmacological acetylcholine manipulation. The local field responses to contralateral excitation differed along the cortical depths, and muscarinic receptor antagonism enhanced the inhibitory component of the field response in deep layers. The muscarinic subtype M2 receptor is predominantly expressed in deep cortical neurons, including GABAergic interneurons. These results suggest that GABAergic interneurons expressing muscarinic receptors in deep layers mediate the neuromodulation of interhemispheric inhibition in the homotopic motor cortex.

Intrinsic organization of the corpus callosum

The corpus callosum-the largest commissural fiber system connecting the two cerebral hemispheres-is considered essential for bilateral sensory integration and higher cognitive functions. Most studies exploring the corpus callosum have examined either the anatomical, physiological, and neurochemical organization of callosal projections or the functional and/or behavioral aspects of the callosal connections after complete/partial callosotomy or callosal lesion. There are no works that address the intrinsic organization of the corpus callosum. We review the existing information on the activities that take place in the commissure in three sections: I) the topographical and neurochemical organization of the intracallosal fibers, II) the role of glia in the corpus callosum, and III) the role of the intracallosal neurons.

Cross-hemispheric communication: Insights on lateralized brain functions

On the surface, the two hemispheres of vertebrate brains look almost perfectly symmetrical, but several motor, sensory, and cognitive systems show a deeply lateralized organization. Importantly, the two hemispheres are connected by various commissures, white matter tracts that cross the brain's midline and enable cross-hemispheric communication. Cross-hemispheric communication has been suggested to play an important role in the emergence of lateralized brain functions. Here, we review current advances in understanding cross-hemispheric communication that have been made using modern neuroscientific tools in rodents and other model species, such as genetic labeling, large-scale recordings of neuronal activity, spatiotemporally precise perturbation, and quantitative behavior analyses. These findings suggest that the emergence of lateralized brain functions cannot be fully explained by largely static factors such as genetic variation and differences in structural brain asymmetries. In addition, learning-dependent asymmetric interactions between the left and right hemispheres shape lateralized brain functions.

Callosal inputs generate side-invariant receptive fields in the barrel cortex

Barrel cortex integrates contra- and ipsilateral whiskers' inputs. While contralateral inputs depend on the thalamocortical innervation, ipsilateral ones are thought to rely on callosal axons. These are more abundant in the barrel cortex region bordering with S2 and containing the row A-whiskers representation, the row lying nearest to the facial midline. Here, we ask what role this callosal axonal arrangement plays in ipsilateral tactile signaling. We found that novel object exploration with ipsilateral whiskers confines c-Fos expression within the highly callosal subregion. Targeting this area with in vivo patch-clamp recordings revealed neurons with uniquely strong ipsilateral responses dependent on the corpus callosum, as assessed by tetrodotoxin silencing and by optogenetic activation of the contralateral hemisphere. Still, in this area, stimulation of contra- or ipsilateral row A-whiskers evoked an indistinguishable response in some neurons, mostly located in layers 5/6, indicating their involvement in the midline representation of the whiskers' sensory space.

Different effects of I-wave periodicity repetitive TMS on motor cortex interhemispheric interaction

Background

Activity of the neural circuits in the human motor cortex can be probed using transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS). Changing TMS-induced current direction recruits different cortical neural circuits. I-wave periodicity repetitive TMS (iTMS) substantially modulates motor cortex excitability through neural plasticity, yet its effect on interhemispheric interaction remains unclear.

Objective

To explore the modulation of interhemispheric interaction by iTMS applied in different current directions.

Materials and Methods

Twenty right-handed healthy young volunteers (aged 27.5 ± 5.0 years) participated in this study with three visits. On each visit, iTMS in posterior-anterior/anterior-posterior direction (PA-/AP-iTMS) or sham-iTMS was applied to the right hemisphere, with corticospinal excitability and intracortical facilitation of the non-stimulated left hemisphere evaluated at four timepoints. Ipsilateral silent period was also measured at each timepoint probing interhemispheric inhibition (IHI).

Results

PA- and AP-iTMS potentiated cortical excitability concurrently in the stimulated right hemisphere. Corticospinal excitability of the non-stimulated left hemisphere increased 10 min after both PA- and AP-iTMS intervention, with a decrease in short-interval intracortical facilitation (SICF) observed in AP-iTMS only. Immediately after the intervention, PA-iTMS tilted the IHI balance toward inhibiting the non-stimulated hemisphere, while AP-iTMS shifted the balance toward the opposite direction.

Conclusions

Our findings provide systematic evidence on the plastic modulation of interhemispheric interaction by PA- and AP-iTMS. We show that iTMS induces an interhemispheric facilitatory effect, and that PA- and AP-iTMS differs in modulating interhemispheric inhibition.

Induction of interhemispheric facilitation by short bursts of transcranial alternating current stimulation

Interhemispheric facilitation (IHF) describes potentiation of motor-evoked potentials (MEPs) elicited by transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) over primary motor cortex (M1), when they are preceded (3-6 ms) by conditioning TMS below motor threshold (MT) delivered over the opposite M1. This effect is however obtained only when the conditioning stimulation is sufficiently circumscribed. In paired associative protocols, (500 ms) bursts of 140 Hz transcranial alternating current stimulation (tACS) interact with the state of neural circuits in the opposite hemisphere in a similar manner to sub-threshold TMS. We hypothesised that tACS applied over M1 would elevate the amplitudes of MEPs elicited by suprathreshold TMS applied 6 ms later over the opposite M1. Thirty healthy right-handed participants were tested. In a control condition, MEPs were recorded in right flexor carpi radialis (rFCR) following 120% resting MT TMS over left M1. In 11 experimental conditions, 1 mA (peak-to-peak) 140 Hz (30, 100, 500 ms) or 670 Hz (6, 12, 100, 500 ms) tACS, or 100-640 Hz (6, 12, 100, 500 ms) transcranial random noise stimulation (tRNS), was delivered over right M1, 6 ms in advance of the TMS. IHF was obtained by conditioning with 30 ms (but not 100 or 500 ms) 140 Hz tACS. The magnitude of IHF (12% increase; d = 0.56 (0.21-0.98)) was within the range reported for dual-coil TMS studies. Conditioning by 670 Hz tACS or tRNS had no effect. Our findings indicate that short bursts of 140 Hz tACS, applied over M1, have distributed effects similar to those of subthreshold TMS.

Aromatic Bromination Abolishes Deficits in Visuospatial Learning Induced by MDMA ("Ecstasy") in Rats While Preserving the Ability to Increase LTP in the Prefrontal Cortex

It has recently been demonstrated that aromatic bromination at C(2) abolishes all typical psychomotor, and some key prosocial effects of the entactogen MDMA in rats. Nevertheless, the influence of aromatic bromination on MDMA-like effects on higher cognitive functions remains unexplored. In the present work, the effects of MDMA and its brominated analog 2Br-4,5-MDMA (1 mg/kg and 10 mg/kg i.p. each) on visuospatial learning, using a radial, octagonal Olton maze (4 × 4) which may discriminate between short-term and long-term memory, were compared with their influence on in vivo long-term potentiation (LTP) in the prefrontal cortex in rats. The results obtained indicate that MDMA diminishes both short- and long-term visuospatial memory but increases LTP. In contrast, 2Br-4,5-MDMA preserves long-term visuospatial memory and slightly accelerates the occurrence of short-term memory compared to controls, but increases LTP, like MDMA. Taken together, these data are consistent with the notion that the modulatory effects induced by the aromatic bromination of the MDMA template, which abolishes typical entactogenic-like responses, might be extended to those effects affecting higher cognitive functions, such as visuospatial learning. This effect seems not to be associated with the increase of LTP in the prefrontal cortex.

Sex/Gender Differences in Brain Lateralisation and Connectivity

There is now a significant body of literature concerning sex/gender differences in the human brain. This chapter will critically review and synthesise key findings from several studies that have investigated sex/gender differences in structural and functional lateralisation and connectivity. We argue that while small, relative sex/gender differences reliably exist in lateralisation and connectivity, there is considerable overlap between the sexes. Some inconsistencies exist, however, and this is likely due to considerable variability in the methodologies, tasks, measures, and sample compositions between studies. Moreover, research to date is limited in its consideration of sex/gender-related factors, such as sex hormones and gender roles, that can explain inter-and inter-individual differences in brain and behaviour better than sex/gender alone. We conclude that conceptualising the brain as 'sexually dimorphic' is incorrect, and the terms 'male brain' and 'female brain' should be avoided in the neuroscientific literature. However, this does not necessarily mean that sex/gender differences in the brain are trivial. Future research involving sex/gender should adopt a biopsychosocial approach whenever possible, to ensure that non-binary psychological, biological, and environmental/social factors related to sex/gender, and their interactions, are routinely accounted for.

A single dose of hydrocortisone does not alter interhemispheric transfer of information or transcallosal integration

Stress has been suggested as a factor that may explain the link between altered functional lateralization and psychopathology. Modulation of the function of the corpus callosum via stress hormones may be crucial in this regard. Interestingly, there is evidence that interhemispheric integration and hemispheric asymmetries are modifiable by endocrinological influences. In previous studies, our group could show an enhancing effect of acute stress on interhemispheric integration. To investigate if this effect can be attributed to an increase in the stress hormone cortisol, 50 male participants received 20 mg hydrocortisone or a placebo in a double-blind crossover design. In each test session, we collected EEG data while participants completed a lexical decision task and a Poffenberger paradigm. In the lexical decision task, we found shorter latencies of the N1 ERP component for contralateral compared to ipsilateral presentation of lexical stimuli. Similarly, we replicated the classical Poffenberger effect with shorter ERP latencies for stimuli presented in the contralateral visual field compared to the ipsilateral visual field. However, no effect of cortisol on latency differences between hemispheres could be detected. These results suggest that a temporary increase in cortisol alone might not be enough to affect the interhemispheric transfer of information via the corpus callosum. Together with previous results from our group, this suggests that chronically elevated stress hormone levels play a more central role in the relationship between altered hemispheric asymmetries and a variety of mental disorders.

Difference in axon diameter and myelin thickness between excitatory and inhibitory callosally projecting axons in mice

Synchronization of network oscillation in spatially distant cortical areas is essential for normal brain activity. Precision in synchronization between hemispheres depends on the axonal conduction velocity, which is determined by physical parameters of the axons involved, including diameter, and extent of myelination. To compare these parameters in long-projecting excitatory and inhibitory axons in the corpus callosum, we used genetically modified mice and virus tracing to separately label CaMKIIα expressing excitatory and GABAergic inhibitory axons. Using electron microscopy analysis, we revealed that (i) the axon diameters of excitatory fibers (myelinated axons) are significantly larger than those of nonmyelinated excitatory axons; (ii) the diameters of bare axons of excitatory myelinated fibers are significantly larger than those of their inhibitory counterparts; and (iii) myelinated excitatory fibers are significantly larger than myelinated inhibitory fibers. Also, the thickness of myelin ensheathing inhibitory axons is significantly greater than for excitatory axons, with the ultrastructure of the myelin around excitatory and inhibitory fibers also differing. We generated a computational model to investigate the functional consequences of these parameter divergences. Our simulations indicate that impulses through inhibitory and excitatory myelinated fibers reach the target almost simultaneously, whereas action potentials conducted by nonmyelinated axons reach target cells with considerable delay.

Dose-response relationship between the variables of unilateral optogenetic stimulation and transcallosal evoked responses in rat motor cortex

Efficient interhemispheric integration of neural activity between left and right primary motor cortex (M1) is critical for inter-limb motor control. We employed optogenetic stimulation to establish a framework for probing transcallosal M1–M1 interactions in rats. We performed optogenetic stimulation of excitatory neurons in right M1 of male Sprague-Dawley rats. We recorded the transcallosal evoked potential in contralateral left M1 via chronically implanted electrodes. Recordings were performed under anesthesia combination of dexmedetomidine and a low concentration of isoflurane. We systematically varied the stimulation intensity and duration to characterize the relationship between stimulation parameters in right M1 and the characteristics of the evoked intracortical potentials in left M1. Optogenetic stimulation of right M1 consistently evoked a transcallosal response in left M1 with a consistent negative peak (N1) that sometimes was preceded by a smaller positive peak (P1). Higher stimulation intensity or longer stimulation duration gradually increased N1 amplitude and reduced N1 variability across trials. A combination of stimulation intensities of 5–10 mW with stimulus durations of 1–10 ms were generally sufficient to elicit a robust transcallosal response in most animal, with our optic fiber setup. Optogenetically stimulated excitatory neurons in M1 can reliably evoke a transcallosal response in anesthetized rats. Characterizing the relationship between “stimulation dose” and “response magnitude” (i.e., the gain function) of transcallosal M1-to-M1 excitatory connections can be used to optimize the variables of optogenetic stimulation and ensure stimulation efficacy.

Interhemispheric Facilitatory Effect of High-Frequency rTMS: Perspective from Intracortical Facilitation and Inhibition

The activity of excitatory and inhibitory neural circuits in the motor cortex can be probed and modified by transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) and repetitive TMS (rTMS), noninvasively. At present, not only has a consensus regarding the interhemispheric effect of high frequency rTMS not been reached, but the attributes of these TMS-related circuits are also poorly understood. To address this question comprehensively, we integrated a single- and paired-pulse TMS evaluation with excitatory 20-Hz rTMS intervention in order to probe the interhemispheric effect on the intracortical circuits by high-frequency rTMS. In the rest state, after 20-Hz rTMS, a significant increase of single-pulse MEP and paired-pulse intracortical facilitation (ICF) in the non-stimulated hemisphere was observed with good test–retest reliability. Intracortical inhibition (measured by the cortical silent period) in the unstimulated hemisphere also increased after rTMS. No significant time–course change was observed in the sham-rTMS group. The results provide the evidence that 20-Hz rTMS induced a reliable interhemispheric facilitatory effect. Findings from the present study suggest that the glutamatergic facilitatory system and the GABAergic inhibitory system may vary synchronously.

Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation and Neocortical Neurons: The Micro-Macro Connection

Understanding the operation of cortical circuits is an important and necessary task in both neuroscience and neurorehabilitation. The functioning of the neocortex results from integrative neuronal activity, which can be probed non-invasively by transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS). Despite a clear indication of the direct involvement of cortical neurons in TMS, no explicit connection model has been made between the microscopic neuronal landscape and the macroscopic TMS outcome. Here we have performed an integrative review of multidisciplinary evidence regarding motor cortex neurocytology and TMS-related neurophysiology with the aim of elucidating the micro–macro connections underlying TMS. Neurocytological evidence from animal and human studies has been reviewed to describe the landscape of the cortical neurons covering the taxonomy, morphology, circuit wiring, and excitatory–inhibitory balance. Evidence from TMS studies in healthy humans is discussed, with emphasis on the TMS pulse and paradigm selectivity that reflect the underlying neural circuitry constitution. As a result, we propose a preliminary neuronal model of the human motor cortex and then link the TMS mechanisms with the neuronal model by stimulus intensity, direction of induced current, and paired-pulse timing. As TMS bears great developmental potential for both a probe and modulator of neural network activity and neurotransmission, the connection model will act as a foundation for future combined studies of neurocytology and neurophysiology, as well as the technical advances and application of TMS.

Ipsilateral Stimulus Encoding in Primary and Secondary Somatosensory Cortex of Awake Mice

Lateralization is a hallmark of somatosensory processing in the mammalian brain. However, in addition to their contralateral representation, unilateral tactile stimuli also modulate neuronal activity in somatosensory cortices of the ipsilateral hemisphere. The cellular organization and functional role of these ipsilateral stimulus responses in awake somatosensory cortices, especially regarding stimulus coding, are unknown. Here, we targeted silicon probe recordings to the vibrissa region of primary (S1) and secondary (S2) somatosensory cortex of awake head-fixed mice of either sex while delivering ipsilateral and contralateral whisker stimuli. Ipsilateral stimuli drove larger and more reliable responses in S2 than in S1, and activated a larger fraction of stimulus-responsive neurons. Ipsilateral stimulus-responsive neurons were rare in layer 4 of S1, but were located in equal proportion across all layers in S2. Linear classifier analyses further revealed that decoding of the ipsilateral stimulus was more accurate in S2 than S1, whereas S1 decoded contralateral stimuli most accurately. These results reveal substantial encoding of ipsilateral stimuli in S1 and especially S2, consistent with the hypothesis that higher cortical areas may integrate tactile inputs across larger portions of space, spanning both sides of the body.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Tactile information obtained by one side of the body is represented in the activity of neurons of the opposite brain hemisphere. However, unilateral tactile stimulation also modulates neuronal activity in the other, or ipsilateral, brain hemisphere. This ipsilateral activity may play an important role in the representation and processing of tactile information, in particular when the sense of touch involves both sides of the body. Our work in the whisker system of awake mice reveals that neocortical ipsilateral activity, in particular that of deep layer excitatory neurons of secondary somatosensory cortex (S2), contains information about the presence and the velocity of unilateral tactile stimuli, which supports a key role for S2 in integrating tactile information across both body sides.

Improved interhemispheric connectivity after stress during lexical decision making

Functional hemispheric asymmetries emerge as the left and the right hemisphere are dominant for different aspects of task processing. However, the hemispheres do not work independent of each other but share information through the corpus callosum. The integration of information across the corpus callosum is dependent on its structural integrity and functionality. Several hormones, like estradiol and progesterone, can influence this function. Since earlier work has demonstrated that long-term changes in stress hormone levels are accompanied by changes in hemispheric asymmetries in several mental disorders, the aim of the current study was to investigate whether acute stress and the associated changes in stress hormone levels also affect information transfer across the corpus callosum. For this purpose, we collected EEG data from 51 participants while completing a lexical decision task and a Poffenberger paradigm twice, once after stress induction with the Trier Social Stress Test and once after a control-condition. While there were no differences in interhemispheric transfer between the stress and the non-stress condition in the Poffenberger paradigm, we observed shorter latencies to stimuli in the left visual field in the left hemisphere at the CP3-CP4 electrode pair after stress. These results suggest that the transfer of lexical material from the right to the left hemisphere was quicker under stress. Stress may increase callosal excitability and lead to more efficient signal transfer across the corpus callosum between language related areas. Future studies using pharmacological intervention are needed to further examine cooperation of the hemispheres under stress in more detail.

The functional characterization of callosal connections

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The functional characterization of callosal connections is informed by anatomical data.

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Callosal connections play a conditional driving role depending on the brain state and behavioral demands.

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Callosal connections play a modulatory function, in addition to a driving role.

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The corpus callosum participates in learning and interhemispheric transfer of sensorimotor habits.

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The corpus callosum contributes to language processing and cognitive functions.

The brain operates through the synaptic interaction of distant neurons within flexible, often heterogeneous, distributed systems. Histological studies have detailed the connections between distant neurons, but their functional characterization deserves further exploration. Studies performed on the corpus callosum in animals and humans are unique in that they capitalize on results obtained from several neuroscience disciplines. Such data inspire a new interpretation of the function of callosal connections and delineate a novel road map, thus paving the way toward a general theory of cortico-cortical connectivity. Here we suggest that callosal axons can drive their post-synaptic targets preferentially when coupled to other inputs endowing the cortical network with a high degree of conditionality. This might depend on several factors, such as their pattern of convergence-divergence, the excitatory and inhibitory operation mode, the range of conduction velocities, the variety of homotopic and heterotopic projections and, finally, the state-dependency of their firing. We propose that, in addition to direct stimulation of post-synaptic targets, callosal axons often play a conditional driving or modulatory role, which depends on task contingencies, as documented by several recent studies.

Dichotic listening performance and interhemispheric integration after administration of hydrocortisone

Chronic stress has been shown to have long-term effects on functional hemispheric asymmetries in both humans and non-human species. The short-term effects of acute stress exposure on functional hemispheric asymmetries are less well investigated. It has been suggested that acute stress can affect functional hemispheric asymmetries by modulating inhibitory function of the corpus callosum, the white matter pathway that connects the two hemispheres. On the molecular level, this modulation may be caused by a stress-related increase in cortisol, a major stress hormone. Therefore, it was the aim of the present study to investigate the acute effects of cortisol on functional hemispheric asymmetries. Overall, 60 participants were tested after administration of 20 mg hydrocortisone or a placebo tablet in a cross-over design. Both times, a verbal and an emotional dichotic listening task to assess language and emotional lateralization, as well as a Banich-Belger task to assess interhemispheric integration were applied. Lateralization quotients were determined for both reaction times and correctly identified syllables in both dichotic listening tasks. In the Banich-Belger task, across-field advantages were determined to quantify interhemispheric integration. While we could replicate previously reported findings for these tasks in the placebo session, we could not detect any differences in asymmetry between hydrocortisone and placebo treatment. This partially corroborates the results of a previous study we performed using social stress to induce cortisol increases. This suggests that an increase in cortisol does not influence dichotic listening performance on a behavioral level. As other studies reported an effect of stress hormones on functional hemispheric asymmetries on a neuro-functional level, future research using neuronal imaging methods would be helpful in the characterization of the relation of hemispheric asymmetries and stress hormones.

Paradoxical facilitation alongside interhemispheric inhibition

Neurophysiological experiments using transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) have sought to probe the function of the motor division of the corpus callosum. Primary motor cortex sends projections via the corpus callosum with a net inhibitory influence on the homologous region of the opposite hemisphere. Interhemispheric inhibition (IHI) experiments probe this inhibitory pathway. A test stimulus (TS) delivered to the motor cortex in one hemisphere elicits motor evoked potentials (MEPs) in a target muscle, while a conditioning stimulus (CS) applied to the homologous region of the opposite hemisphere modulates the effect of the TS. We predicted that large CS MEPs would be associated with increased IHI since they should be a reliable index of how effectively contralateral motor cortex was stimulated and therefore of the magnitude of interhemispheric inhibition. However, we observed a strong tendency for larger CS MEPs to be associated with reduced interhemispheric inhibition which in the extreme lead to a net effect of facilitation. This surprising effect was large, systematic, and observed in nearly all participants. We outline several hypotheses for mechanisms which may underlie this phenomenon to guide future research.

Dichotic listening performance and interhemispheric integration after stress exposure

Functional hemispheric asymmetries (FHAs) have been thought to be relatively stable over time. However, past research has shown that FHAs are more plastic than initially thought. Endocrinological processes have been demonstrated to alter FHAs. As the product of the stress-activated hypothalamus–pituitary–adrenal axis, cortisol influences information processing at every level from stimulus perception to decision making and action. To investigate the influence of acute stress on FHAs, 60 participants performed a Banich–Belger task, as well as a verbal and an emotional dichotic listening task in two sessions. One session included a stress induction via the Trier Social Stress Test, the other session included a control procedure. We calculated across-field advantages (AFAs) in the Banich–Belger task and lateralization quotients for reaction times and responses per side in both dichotic listening tasks. There were no significant differences between the stress and control session in the dichotic listening tasks. In contrast, there was evidence for an influence of cortisol and sympathetic activation indicated by salivary alpha amylase changes on AFAs in the Banich–Belger task. This indicates that acute stress and the related increase in cortisol do not influence dichotic listening performance. However, stress does seem to affect interhemispheric integration of information. Future research using EEG, fMRI and pharmacological interventions is needed to further characterize the relation of hemispheric asymmetries and acute stress.

Circuit-Specific Plasticity of Callosal Inputs Underlies Cortical Takeover

Injury induces synaptic, circuit, and systems reorganization. After unilateral amputation or stroke, this functional loss disrupts the interhemispheric interaction between intact and deprived somatomotor cortices to recruit deprived cortex in response to intact limb stimulation. This recruitment has been implicated in enhanced intact sensory function. In other patients, maladaptive consequences such as phantom limb pain can occur. We used unilateral whisker denervation in male and female mice to detect circuitry alterations underlying interhemispheric cortical reorganization. Enhanced synaptic strength from the intact cortex via the corpus callosum (CC) onto deep neurons in deprived primary somatosensory barrel cortex (S1BC) has previously been detected. It was hypothesized that specificity in this plasticity may depend on to which area these neurons projected. Increased connectivity to somatomotor areas such as contralateral S1BC, primary motor cortex (M1) and secondary somatosensory cortex (S2) may underlie beneficial adaptations, while increased connectivity to pain areas like anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) might underlie maladaptive pain phenotypes. Neurons from the deprived S1BC that project to intact S1BC were hyperexcitable, had stronger responses and reduced inhibitory input to CC stimulation. M1-projecting neurons also showed increases in excitability and CC input strength that was offset with enhanced inhibition. S2 and ACC-projecting neurons showed no changes in excitability or CC input. These results demonstrate that subgroups of output neurons undergo dramatic and specific plasticity after peripheral injury. The changes in S1BC-projecting neurons likely underlie enhanced reciprocal connectivity of S1BC after unilateral deprivation consistent with the model that interhemispheric takeover supports intact whisker processing.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Amputation, peripheral injury, and stroke patients experience widespread alterations in neural activity after sensory loss. A hallmark of this reorganization is the recruitment of deprived cortical space which likely aids processing and thus enhances performance on intact sensory systems. Conversely, this recruitment of deprived cortical space has been hypothesized to underlie phenotypes like phantom limb pain and hinder recovery. A mouse model of unilateral denervation detected remarkable specificity in alterations in the somatomotor circuit. These changes underlie increased reciprocal connectivity between intact and deprived cortical hemispheres. This increased connectivity may help explain the enhanced intact sensory processing detected in humans.

Association of γ-aminobutyric acid and glutamate/glutamine in the lateral prefrontal cortex with patterns of intrinsic functional connectivity in adults

This study examined how levels of neurotransmitters in the lateral prefrontal cortex (LPFC), a region underlying higher-order cognition, are related to the brain's intrinsic functional organization. Using magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS), GABA+ and Glx (glutamate + glutamine) levels in the left dorsal (DLPFC) and left ventral (VLPFC) lateral prefrontal cortex were obtained in a sample of 64 female adults (mean age = 48.5). We measured intrinsic connectivity via resting-state fMRI in three ways: (a) via seed-based connectivity for each of the two spectroscopy voxels; (b) via the spatial configurations of 17 intrinsic networks defined by a well-known template; and (c) via examination of the temporal inter-relationships between these intrinsic networks. The results showed that different neurotransmitter indexes (Glx-specific, GABA+-specific, Glx-GABA+ average and Glx-GABA+ ratio) were associated with distinct patterns of intrinsic connectivity. Neurotransmitter levels in the left LPFC are mainly associated with connectivity of right hemisphere prefrontal (e.g., DLPFC) or striatal (e.g., putamen) regions, two areas of the brain connected to LPFC via large white matter tracts. While the directions of these associations were mixed, in most cases, higher Glx levels are related to reduced connectivity. Prefrontal neurotransmitter levels are also associated with the degree of connectivity between non-prefrontal regions. These results suggest robust relationships between the brain's intrinsic functional organization and local neurotransmitters in the LPFC which may be constrained by white matter neuroanatomy.

Lower limb amputees undergo long-distance plasticity in sensorimotor functional connectivity

Amputation in adults is associated with an extensive remapping of cortical topography in primary and secondary sensorimotor areas. Here, we used tactile residual limb stimulation and 3T functional magnetic resonance imaging in humans to investigate functional connectivity changes in the sensorimotor network of patients with long-term lower limb traumatic amputations with phantom sensation, but without pain. We found a pronounced reduction of inter-hemispheric functional connectivity between homologous sensorimotor cortical regions in amputees, including the primary (S1) and secondary (S2) somatosensory areas, and primary (M1) and secondary (M2) motor areas. We additionally observed an intra-hemispheric increased functional connectivity between primary and secondary somatosensory regions, and between the primary and premotor areas, contralateral to amputation. These functional connectivity changes in specialized small-scale sensory-motor networks improve our understanding of the functional impact of lower limb amputation in the brain. Our findings in a selective group of patients with phantom limb sensations, but without pain suggest that disinhibition of neural inputs following traumatic limb amputation disrupts sensorimotor topology, unbalancing functional brain network organization. These findings step up the description of brain plasticity related with phantom sensations by showing that pain is not critical for sensorimotor network changes after peripheral injury.

An Activation Likelihood Estimation Meta-Analysis Study of Simple Motor Movements in Older and Young Adults

The functional neuroanatomy of finger movements has been characterized with neuroimaging in young adults. However, less is known about the aging motor system. Several studies have contrasted movement-related activity in older versus young adults, but there is inconsistency among their findings. To address this, we conducted an activation likelihood estimation (ALE) meta-analysis on within-group data from older adults and young adults performing regularly paced right-hand finger movement tasks in response to external stimuli. We hypothesized that older adults would show a greater likelihood of activation in right cortical motor areas (i.e., ipsilateral to the side of movement) compared to young adults. ALE maps were examined for conjunction and between-group differences. Older adults showed overlapping likelihoods of activation with young adults in left primary sensorimotor cortex (SM1), bilateral supplementary motor area, bilateral insula, left thalamus, and right anterior cerebellum. Their ALE map differed from that of the young adults in right SM1 (extending into dorsal premotor cortex), right supramarginal gyrus, medial premotor cortex, and right posterior cerebellum. The finding that older adults uniquely use ipsilateral regions for right-hand finger movements and show age-dependent modulations in regions recruited by both age groups provides a foundation by which to understand age-related motor decline and motor disorders.

Multidisciplinary assessment and treatment of self-injurious behavior in autism spectrum disorder and intellectual disability: integration of psychological and biological theory and approach

The objective of this review is to consider the psychological (largely behavioral) and biological [neurochemical, medical (including genetic), and pharmacological] theories and approaches that contribute to current thinking about the etiology and treatment of self-injurious behavior (SIB) in individuals with autism spectrum disorder and/or intellectual disability. Algorithms for the assessment and treatment of SIB in this context, respectively, from a multidisciplinary, integrative perspective are proposed and challenges and opportunities that exist in clinical and research settings are discussed.

Input and output gain modulation by the lateral interhemispheric network in early visual cortex

Neurons in the cerebral cortex are constantly integrating different types of inputs. Dependent on their origin, these inputs can be modulatory in many ways and, for example, change the neuron's responsiveness, sensitivity, or selectivity. To investigate the modulatory role of lateral input from the same level of cortical hierarchy, we recorded in the primary visual cortex of cats while controlling synaptic input from the corresponding contralateral hemisphere by reversible deactivation. Most neurons showed a pronounced decrease in their response to a visual stimulus of different contrasts and orientations. This indicates that the lateral network acts via an unspecific gain-setting mechanism, scaling the output of a neuron. However, the interhemispheric input also changed the contrast sensitivity of many neurons, thereby acting on the input. Such a contrast gain mechanism has important implications because it extends the role of the lateral network from pure response amplification to the modulation of a specific feature. Interestingly, for many neurons, we found a mixture of input and output gain modulation. Based on these findings and the known physiology of callosal connections in the visual system, we developed a simple model of lateral interhemispheric interactions. We conclude that the lateral network can act directly on its target, leading to a sensitivity change of a specific feature, while at the same time it also can act indirectly, leading to an unspecific gain setting. The relative contribution of these direct and indirect network effects determines the outcome for a particular neuron.

Posterior fossa syndrome after cerebellar stroke

Posterior fossa syndrome (PFS) due to vascular etiology is rare in children and adults. To the best of our knowledge, PFS due to cerebellar stroke has only been reported in patients who also underwent surgical treatment of the underlying vascular cause. We report longitudinal clinical, neurocognitive and neuroradiological findings in a 71-year-old right-handed patient who developed PFS following a right cerebellar haemorrhage that was not surgically evacuated. During follow-up, functional neuroimaging was conducted by means of quantified Tc-99m-ECD SPECT studies. After a 10-day period of akinetic mutism, the clinical picture developed into cerebellar cognitive affective syndrome (CCAS) with reversion to a previously learnt accent, consistent with neurogenic foreign accent syndrome (FAS). No psychometric evidence for dementia was found. Quantified Tc-99m-ECD SPECT studies consistently disclosed perfusional deficits in the anatomoclinically suspected but structurally intact bilateral prefrontal brain regions. Since no surgical treatment of the cerebellar haematoma was performed, this case report is presumably the first description of pure, "non-surgical vascular PFS". In addition, reversion to a previously learnt accent which represents a subtype of FAS has never been reported after cerebellar damage. The combination of this unique constellation of poststroke neurobehavioural changes reflected on SPECT shows that the cerebellum is crucially implicated in the modulation of neurocognitive and affective processes. A decrease of excitatory impulses from the lesioned cerebellum to the structurally intact supratentorial network subserving cognitive, behavioural and affective processes constitutes the likely pathophysiological mechanism underlying PFS and CCAS in this patient.

Sex hormonal modulation of interhemispheric transfer time

It is still a matter of debate whether functional cerebral asymmetries (FCA) of many cognitive processes are more pronounced in men than in women. Some evidence suggests that the apparent reduction in women's FCA is a result of the fluctuating levels of gonadal steroid hormones over the course of the menstrual cycle, making their FCA less static than for men. The degree of lateralization has been suggested to depend on interhemispheric communication that may be modulated by gonadal steroid hormones. Here, we employed visual-evoked EEG potentials to obtain a direct measure of interhemispheric communication during different phases of the menstrual cycle. The interhemispheric transfer time (IHTT) was estimated from the interhemispheric latency difference of the N170 component of the visual-evoked potential from either left or right visual field presentation. Nineteen right-handed women with regular menstrual cycles were tested twice, once during the menstrual phase, when progesterone and estradiol levels are low, and once during the luteal phase when progesterone and estradiol levels are high. Plasma steroid levels were determined by blood-based immunoassay at each session. It was found that IHTT, in particular from right-to-left, was generally longer during the luteal phase relative to the menstrual phase. This effect occurred as a consequence of a slowed absolute N170 latency of the indirect pathway (i.e. left hemispheric response after LVF stimulation) and, in particular, a shortened latency of the direct pathway (i.e. right hemispheric response after LVF stimulation) during the luteal phase. These results show that cycle-related effects are not restricted to modulation of processes between hemispheres but also apply to cortical interactions, especially within the right hemisphere. The findings support the view that plastic changes in the female brain occur during relatively short-term periods across the menstrual cycle.

Motor control and neural plasticity through interhemispheric interactions

The corpus callosum, which is the largest white matter structure in the human brain, connects the 2 cerebral hemispheres. It plays a crucial role in maintaining the independent processing of the hemispheres and in integrating information between both hemispheres. The functional integrity of interhemispheric interactions can be tested electrophysiologically in humans by using transcranial magnetic stimulation, electroencephalography, and functional magnetic resonance imaging. As a brain structural imaging, diffusion tensor imaging has revealed the microstructural connectivity underlying interhemispheric interactions. Sex, age, and motor training in addition to the size of the corpus callosum influence interhemispheric interactions. Several neurological disorders change hemispheric asymmetry directly by impairing the corpus callosum. Moreover, stroke lesions and unilateral peripheral impairments such as amputation alter interhemispheric interactions indirectly. Noninvasive brain stimulation changes the interhemispheric interactions between both motor cortices. Recently, these brain stimulation techniques were applied in the clinical rehabilitation of patients with stroke by ameliorating the deteriorated modulation of interhemispheric interactions. Here, we review the interhemispheric interactions and mechanisms underlying the pathogenesis of these interactions and propose rehabilitative approaches for appropriate cortical reorganization.

Diversity of neural-hemodynamic relationships associated with differences in cortical processing during bilateral somatosensory activation in rats

The neural-hemodynamic relationships may vary depending on cortical processing patterns. To investigate how cortical hemodynamics reflects neural activity involving different cortical processing patterns, we delivered electrical stimulation pulses to rat hindpaws, unilaterally or bilaterally, and simultaneously measured electrophysiological (local field potential, LFP < 100 Hz; multiunit activity, MUA>300 Hz) and optical intrinsic signals associated with changes in cerebral blood volume (CBV). Unilateral stimulation evoked neural and optical signals in bilateral primary somatosensory cortices. Ipsilateral optical responses indicating an increased CBV exhibited a peak magnitude of ~30% and mediocaudal shifts relative to contralateral responses. Correlation analyses revealed different scale factors between contralateral and ipsilateral responses in LFP-MUA and LFP-CBV relationships. Bilateral stimulation at varying time intervals evoked hemodynamic responses that were strongly suppressed at 40-ms intervals. This suppression quantitatively reflected suppressed LFP responses to contralateral testing stimulation and not linear summation, with slowly fluctuating LFP responses to ipsilateral conditioning stimulation. Consequently, in the overall responses to bilateral stimulation, CBV-related responses were more linearly correlated with MUA than with LFPs. When extracting high-frequency components (>30 Hz) from LFPs, we found similar scale factors between contralateral and ipsilateral responses in LFP-MUA and LFP-CBV relationships, resulting in significant linear relationships among these components, MUA, and cortical hemodynamics in overall responses to bilateral stimulation. The dependence of LFP-MUA-hemodynamic relationships on cortical processing patterns and the LFP temporal/spectral structure is important for interpreting hemodynamic signals in complex functional paradigms driving diverse cortical processing.

Spatiotemporal properties of neuron response suppression in owl monkey primary somatosensory cortex when stimuli are presented to both hands

Despite the lack of ipsilateral receptive fields (RFs) for neurons in the hand representation of area 3b of primary somatosensory cortex, interhemispheric interactions have been reported to varying degrees. We investigated spatiotemporal properties of these interactions to determine the following: response types, timing between stimuli to evoke the strongest bimanual interactions, topographical distribution of effects, and their dependence on similarity of stimulus locations on the two hands. We analyzed response magnitudes and latencies of single neurons and multineuron clusters recorded from 100-electrode arrays implanted in one hemisphere of each of two anesthetized owl monkeys. Skin indentations were delivered to the two hands simultaneously and asynchronously at mirror locations (matched sites on each hand) and nonmirror locations. Since multiple neurons were recorded simultaneously, stimuli on the contralateral hand could be within or outside of the classical RFs of any given neuron. For most neurons, stimulation on the ipsilateral hand suppressed responses to stimuli on the contralateral hand. Maximum suppression occurred when the ipsilateral stimulus was presented 100 ms before the contralateral stimulus onset (p < 0.0005). The longest stimulus onset delay tested (500 ms) allowed contralateral responses to recover to control levels (p = 0.428). Stimulation on mirror digits did not differ from stimulation on nonmirror locations (p = 1.000). These results indicate that interhemispheric interactions are common in area 3b, somewhat topographically diffuse, and maximal when the suppressing ipsilateral stimulus precedes the contralateral stimulus. Our findings point to a neurophysiological basis for "interference" effects found in human psychophysical studies of bimanual stimulation.

How does the corpus callosum mediate interhemispheric transfer? A review

The corpus callosum is the largest white matter structure in the human brain, connecting cortical regions of both hemispheres. Complete and partial callosotomies or callosal lesion studies have granted more insight into the function of the corpus callosum, namely the facilitation of communication between the cerebral hemispheres. How the corpus callosum mediates this information transfer is still a topic of debate. Some pose that the corpus callosum maintains independent processing between the two hemispheres, whereas others say that the corpus callosum shares information between hemispheres. These theories of inhibition and excitation are further explored by reviewing recent behavioural studies and morphological findings to gain more information about callosal function. Additional information regarding callosal function in relation to altered morphology and dysfunction in disorders is reviewed to add to the discussion of callosal involvement in interhemispheric transfer. Both the excitatory and inhibitory theories seem likely candidates to describe callosal function, however evidence also exists for both functions within the same corpus callosum. For future research it would be beneficial to investigate the functional role of the callosal sub regions to get a better understanding of function and use more appropriate experimental methods to determine functional connectivity when looking at interhemispheric transfer.

Reciprocal organization of the cerebral hemispheres

The cerebral hemispheres are anatomically and neurophysiologically asymmetrical. The evolutionary basis for these differences remains uncertain. There are, however, highly consistent differences between the hemispheres, evident in reptiles, birds, and mammals, as well as in humans, in the nature of the attention each applies to the environment. This permits the simultaneous application of precisely focused, but narrow, attention, needed for grasping food or prey, with broad, open, and uncommitted attention, needed to watch out for predators and to interpret the intentions of conspecifics. These different modes of attention can account for a very wide range of repeated observations relating to hemisphere specialization, and suggest that hemisphere differences lie not in discrete functional domains as such, but distinct modes of functioning within any one domain. These modes of attention are mutually incompatible, and their application depends on inhibitory transmission in the corpus callosum. There is also an asymmetry of interaction between the hemispheres at the phenomenological level.

Inhibition by 5-HT of the synaptic responses evoked by callosal fibers on cortical neurons in the mouse

We have studied the modulation by 5-HT of the synaptic excitatory responses evoked by callosal fibers on cortical pyramidal neurons. We have used a mouse brain slice preparation that preserves the callosal fibers and allows their selective activation. EPSCs evoked by callosal stimulation (ccEPSCs) were recorded with patch electrodes from pyramidal neurons identified visually. We observed that 5-HT (10-40 μM) inhibited the ccEPSCs peak amplitude in 64% of the neurons; 5-HT had no effect in the remaining neurons. 5-HT also increased the frequency and amplitude of spontaneous EPSCs. This inhibition was accompanied with an increase in the coefficient of variation of the fluctuations of the ccEPSCs amplitude and with an increase in the ratio of the amplitudes of paired ccEPSCs. Agonists of 5-HT receptor subtypes 5-HT(1A) (8-OH-DPAT) and 5-HT(2A) (DOI) mimicked the effect of 5-HT; also, the effect of 8-OH-DPAT and DOI was blocked in the presence of specific blockers of 5-HT(1A) (WAY 100135) and 5-HT(2A) (MDL 11,939) receptors. Application of 5-HT did not change the amplitude of currents evoked by direct application of glutamate to neurons in which 5-HT decreased the amplitude of ccEPSC. The effects of 5-HT on ccEPSCs and on the synaptic currents evoked by intracortical stimulation were not correlated; this suggests that the effect of 5-HT was specific to particular synaptic inputs to a neuron. These results demonstrate the presynaptic modulation of the callosal synaptic responses by 5-HT and the implication of 5-HT(1A) and 5-HT(2A) receptors in this effect.

Specificity of neuronal responses in primary visual cortex is modulated by interhemispheric corticocortical input

Within the visual cortex, it has been proposed that interhemispheric interactions serve to re-establish the continuity of the visual field across its vertical meridian (VM) by mechanisms similar to those used by intrinsic connections within a hemisphere. However, other specific functions of transcallosal projections have also been proposed, including contributing to disparity tuning and depth perception. Here, we consider whether interhemispheric connections modulate specific response properties, orientation and direction selectivity, of neurons in areas 17 and 18 of the ferret by combining reversible thermal deactivation in one hemisphere with optical imaging of intrinsic signals and single-cell electrophysiology in the other hemisphere. We found interhemispheric influences on both the strength and specificity of the responses to stimulus orientation and direction of motion, predominantly at the VM. However, neurons and domains preferring cardinal contours, in particular vertical contours, seem to receive stronger interhemispheric input than others. This finding is compatible with interhemispheric connections being involved in horizontal disparity tuning. In conclusion, our results support the view that interhemispheric interactions mainly perform integrative functions similar to those of connections intrinsic to one hemisphere.

Altered white matter microstructure in the corpus callosum in Huntington's disease: implications for cortical "disconnection"

The corpus callosum (CC) is the major conduit for information transfer between the cerebral hemispheres and plays an integral role in relaying sensory, motor and cognitive information between homologous cortical regions. The majority of fibers that make up the CC arise from large pyramidal neurons in layers III and V, which project contra-laterally. These neurons degenerate in Huntington's disease (HD) in a topographically and temporally selective way. Since any focus of cortical degeneration could be expected to secondarily de-afferent homologous regions of cortex, we hypothesized that regionally selective cortical degeneration would be reflected in regionally selective degeneration of the CC. We used conventional T1-weighted, diffusion tensor imaging (DTI), and a modified corpus callosum segmentation scheme to examine the CC in healthy controls, huntingtin gene-carriers and symptomatic HD subjects. We measured mid-sagittal callosal cross-sectional thickness and several DTI parameters, including fractional anisotropy (FA), which reflects the degree of white matter organization, radial diffusivity, a suggested index of myelin integrity, and axial diffusivity, a suggested index of axonal damage of the CC. We found a topologically selective pattern of alterations in these measures in pre-manifest subjects that were more extensive in early symptomatic HD subjects and that correlated with performance on distinct cognitive measures, suggesting an important role for disrupted inter-hemispheric transfer in the clinical symptoms of HD. Our findings provide evidence for early degeneration of commissural pyramidal neurons in the neocortex, loss of cortico-cortical connectivity, and functional compromise of associative cortical processing.

Novel subtype-specific genes identify distinct subpopulations of callosal projection neurons

Little is known about the molecular development and heterogeneity of callosal projection neurons (CPN), cortical commissural neurons that connect homotopic regions of the two cerebral hemispheres via the corpus callosum and that are critical for bilateral integration of cortical information. Here we report on the identification of a series of genes that individually and in combination define CPN and novel CPN subpopulations during embryonic and postnatal development. We used in situ hybridization analysis, immunocytochemistry, and retrograde labeling to define the layer-specific and neuron-type-specific distribution of these newly identified CPN genes across different stages of maturation. We demonstrate that a subset of these genes (e.g., Hspb3 and Lpl) appear specific to all CPN (in layers II/III and V-VI), whereas others (e.g., Nectin-3, Plexin-D1, and Dkk3) discriminate between CPN of the deep layers and those of the upper layers. Furthermore, the data show that several genes finely subdivide CPN within individual layers and appear to label CPN subpopulations that have not been described previously using anatomical or morphological criteria. The genes identified here likely reflect the existence of distinct programs of gene expression governing the development, maturation, and function of the newly identified subpopulations of CPN. Together, these data define the first set of genes that identify and molecularly subcategorize distinct populations of callosal projection neurons, often located in distinct subdivisions of the canonical cortical laminae.

Sex Hormones: Modulators of Interhemispheric Inhibition in the Human Brain

Functional cerebral asymmetries (FCAs), which constitute a basic principle of human brain organization, are supposedly generated by interhemispheric inhibition of the dominant on the nondominant hemisphere. It has repeatedly been shown that FCAs are sex specific: While they are relatively stable in men, they change during the menstrual cycle in women, indicating that sex hormones might play an important role in modulating functional brain organization and brain asymmetries in particular. Modern brain imaging techniques like functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) allow for the noninvasive study of the mechanisms underlying changing FCAs. Imaging data show that in women the inhibitory influence of the dominant on the nondominant hemisphere is reduced with rising levels of sex hormones in the course of the menstrual cycle. Apart from modulating interhemispheric inhibition, sex hormones also seem to change functional organization within hemispheres. These results reveal a powerful neuromodulatory action of sex hormones on the dynamics of functional brain organization in the female brain. They may further contribute to the ongoing discussion of sex differences in brain function in that they help explain the dynamic part of functional brain organization in which the female differs from the male brain.

Selective cortical layering abnormalities and behavioral deficits in cortex-specific Pax6 knock-out mice

The transcription factor Pax6 has been implicated in neocortical neurogenesis in vertebrates, including humans. Analyses of the role of Pax6 in layer formation and cognitive abilities have been hampered by perinatal lethality of Pax6 mutants. Here, we generated viable mutants exhibiting timed, restricted inactivation of Pax6 during early and late cortical neurogenesis using Emx1-Cre and hGFAP-Cre lines, respectively. The disruption of Pax6 at the onset of neurogenesis using Emx1-Cre line resulted in premature cell cycle exit of early progenitors, increase of early born neuronal subsets located in the marginal zone and lower layers, and a nearly complete absence of upper layer neurons, especially in the rostral cortex. Furthermore, progenitors, which accumulated in the enlarged germinal neuroepithelium at the pallial/subpallial border in the Pax6 mutants, produced an excess of oligodendrocytes. The inactivation of Pax6 after generation of the lower neuronal layers using hGFAP-Cre line did not affect specification or numbers of late-born neurons, indicating that the severe reduction of upper layer neurons in Pax6 deficiency is mostly attributable to a depletion of the progenitor pool, available for late neurogenesis. We further show that Pax6(fl/fl);Emx1-Cre mutants exhibited deficiencies in sensorimotor information integration, and both hippocampus-dependent short-term and neocortex-dependent long-term memory recall. Because a majority of the morphological and behavior disabilities of the Pax6 mutant mice parallel abnormalities reported for aniridia patients, a condition caused by PAX6 haploinsufficiency, the Pax6 conditional mutant mice generated here represent a valuable genetic tool to understand how the developmental cortical disruption can lead to a human behavior abnormality.