Co-localization of tyrosine hydroxylase and zebrin II immunoreactivities in Purkinje cells of the mutant mice, tottering and tottering/leaner

Altered brain state during episodic dystonia in tottering mice decouples primary motor cortex from limb kinematics

Episodic Ataxia Type 2 (EA2) is a rare neurological disorder caused by a mutation in the CACNA1A gene, encoding the P/Q-type voltage-gated Ca2+ channel important for neurotransmitter release. Patients with this channelopathy exhibit both cerebellar and cerebral pathologies, suggesting the condition affects both regions. The tottering (tg/tg) mouse is the most commonly used EA2 model due to an orthologous mutation in the cacna1a gene. The tg/tg mouse has three prominent behavioral phenotypes: a dramatic episodic dystonia; absence seizures with generalized spike and wave discharges (GSWDs); and mild ataxia. We previously observed a novel brain state, transient low-frequency oscillations (LFOs) in the cerebellum and cerebral cortex under anesthesia. In this study, we examine the relationships among the dystonic attack, GSWDs, and LFOs in the cerebral cortex. Previous studies characterized LFOs in the motor cortex of anesthetized tg/tg mice using flavoprotein autofluorescence imaging testing the hypothesis that LFOs provide a mechanism for the paroxysmal dystonia. We sought to obtain a more direct understanding of motor cortex (M1) activity during the dystonic episodes. Using two-photon Ca2+ imaging to investigate neuronal activity in M1 before, during, and after the dystonic attack, we show that there is not a significant change in the activity of M1 neurons from baseline through the attack. We also conducted simultaneous, multi-electrode recordings to further understand how M1 cellular activity and local field potentials change throughout the progression of the dystonic attack. Neither putative pyramidal nor inhibitory interneuron firing rate changed during the dystonic attack. However, we did observe a near complete loss of GSWDs during the dystonic attack in M1. Finally, using spike triggered averaging to align simultaneously recorded limb kinematics to the peak Ca2+ response, and vice versa, revealed a reduction in the spike triggered average during the dystonic episodes. Both the loss of GSWDs and the reduction in the coupling suggest that, during the dystonic attack, M1 is effectively decoupled from other structures. Overall, these results indicate that the attack is not initiated or controlled in M1, but elsewhere in the motor circuitry. The findings also highlight that LFOs, GSWDs, and dystonic attacks represent three brain states in tg/tg mice.

Dopaminergic regulation of vestibulo-cerebellar circuits through unipolar brush cells

While multiple monoamines modulate cerebellar output, the mechanistic details of dopaminergic signaling in the cerebellum remain poorly understood. We show that dopamine type 1 receptors (Drd1) are expressed in unipolar brush cells (UBCs) of the mouse cerebellar vermis. Drd1 activation increases UBC firing rate and post-synaptic NMDAR -mediated currents. Using anatomical tracing and in situ hybridization, we test three hypotheses about the source of cerebellar dopamine. We exclude midbrain dopaminergic nuclei and tyrosine hydroxylase-positive Purkinje (Pkj) cells as potential sources, supporting the possibility of dopaminergic co-release from locus coeruleus (LC) axons. Using an optical dopamine sensor GRABDA2h, electrical stimulation, and optogenetic activation of LC fibers in the acute slice, we find evidence for monoamine release onto Drd1-expressing UBCs. Altogether, we propose that the LC regulates cerebellar cortex activity by co-releasing dopamine onto UBCs to modulate their response to cerebellar inputs. Pkj cells directly inhibit these Drd1-positive UBCs, forming a dopamine-sensitive recurrent vestibulo-cerebellar circuit.

Catecholaminergic Innervation of the Lateral Nucleus of the Cerebellum Modulates Cognitive Behaviors

The cerebellum processes neural signals related to rewarding and aversive stimuli, suggesting that the cerebellum supports nonmotor functions in cognitive and emotional domains. Catecholamines are a class of neuromodulatory neurotransmitters well known for encoding such salient stimuli. Catecholaminergic modulation of classical cerebellar functions have been demonstrated. However, a role for cerebellar catecholamines in modulating cerebellar nonmotor functions is unknown. Using biochemical methods in male mice, we comprehensively mapped TH+ fibers throughout the entire cerebellum and known precerebellar nuclei. Using electrochemical (fast scan cyclic voltammetry), and viral/genetic methods to selectively delete Th in fibers innervating the lateral cerebellar nucleus (LCN), we interrogated sources and functional roles of catecholamines innervating the LCN, which is known for its role in supporting cognition. The LCN has the most TH+ fibers in cerebellum, as well as the most change in rostrocaudal expression among the cerebellar nuclei. Norepinephrine is the major catecholamine measured in LCN. Distinct catecholaminergic projections to LCN arise only from locus coeruleus, and a subset of Purkinje cells that are positive for staining of TH. LC stimulation was sufficient to produce catecholamine release in LCN. Deletion of Th in fibers innervating LCN (LCN-Th-cKO) resulted in impaired sensorimotor integration, associative fear learning, response inhibition, and working memory in LCN-Th-cKO mice. Strikingly, selective inhibition of excitatory LCN output neurons with inhibitory designer receptor exclusively activated by designer drugs led to facilitation of learning on the same working memory task impaired in LCN-Th-cKO mice. Collectively, these data demonstrate a role for LCN catecholamines in cognitive behaviors.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Here, we report on interrogating sources and functional roles of catecholamines innervating the lateral nucleus of the cerebellum (LCN). We map and quantify expression of TH, the rate-limiting enzyme in catecholamine synthesis, in the entire cerebellar system, including several precerebellar nuclei. We used cyclic voltammetry and pharmacology to demonstrate sufficiency of LC stimulation to produce catecholamine release in LCN. We used advanced viral techniques to map and selectively KO catecholaminergic neurotransmission to the LCN, and characterized significant cognitive deficits related to this manipulation. Finally, we show that inhibition of excitatory LCN neurons with designer receptor exclusively activated by designer drugs, designed to mimic Gi-coupled catecholamine GPCR signaling, results in facilitation of a working memory task impaired in LCN-specific TH KO mice.

Purkinje Cell-Specific Knockout of Tyrosine Hydroxylase Impairs Cognitive Behaviors

Tyrosine hydroxylase (Th) expression has previously been reported in Purkinje cells (PCs) of rodents and humans, but its role in the regulation of behavior is not understood. Catecholamines are well known for facilitating cognitive behaviors and are expressed in many regions of the brain. Here, we investigated a possible role in cognitive behaviors of PC catecholamines, by mapping and testing functional roles of Th positive PCs in mice. Comprehensive mapping analyses revealed a distinct population of Th expressing PCs primarily in the posterior and lateral regions of the cerebellum (comprising about 18% of all PCs). To identify the role of PC catecholamines, we selectively knocked out Th in PCs using a conditional knockout approach, by crossing a Purkinje cell-selective Cre recombinase line, Pcp2-Cre, with a floxed tyrosine hydroxylase mouse line (Thlox/lox) to produce Pcp2-Cre;Thlox/lox mice. This manipulation resulted in approximately 50% reduction of Th protein expression in the cerebellar cortex and lateral cerebellar nucleus, but no reduction of Th in the locus coeruleus, which is known to innervate the cerebellum in mice. Pcp2-Cre;Thlox/lox mice showed impairments in behavioral flexibility, response inhibition, social recognition memory, and associative fear learning relative to littermate controls, but no deficits in gross motor, sensory, instrumental learning, or sensorimotor gating functions. Catecholamines derived from specific populations of PCs appear to support cognitive functions, and their spatial distribution in the cerebellum suggests that they may underlie patterns of activation seen in human studies on the cerebellar role in cognitive function.

Identification of Novel Pathways Associated with Patterned Cerebellar Purkinje Neuron Degeneration in Niemann-Pick Disease, Type C1

Niemann-Pick disease, type C1 (NPC1) is a lysosomal disease characterized by progressive cerebellar ataxia. In NPC1, a defect in cholesterol transport leads to endolysosomal storage of cholesterol and decreased cholesterol bioavailability. Purkinje neurons are sensitive to the loss of NPC1 function. However, degeneration of Purkinje neurons is not uniform. They are typically lost in an anterior-to-posterior gradient with neurons in lobule X being resistant to neurodegeneration. To gain mechanistic insight into factors that protect or potentiate Purkinje neuron loss, we compared RNA expression in cerebellar lobules III, VI, and X from control and mutant mice. An unexpected finding was that the gene expression differences between lobules III/VI and X were more pronounced than those observed between mutant and control mice. Functional analysis of genes with anterior to posterior gene expression differences revealed an enrichment of genes related to neuronal cell survival within the posterior cerebellum. This finding is consistent with the observation, in multiple diseases, that posterior Purkinje neurons are, in general, resistant to neurodegeneration. To our knowledge, this is the first study to evaluate anterior to posterior transcriptome-wide changes in gene expression in the cerebellum. Our data can be used to not only explore potential pathological mechanisms in NPC1, but also to further understand cerebellar biology.

Large Scale Calcium Imaging of the Cerebellar Vermis During Sensory Stimulus Unravels Two Response's Components That Differ in Their Spatiotemporal Properties

The well documented precision of the cerebellar sagittal organization is commonly used to compose a comprehensive view on principles of cerebellar function. However, the physiological manifestation of this organization is either limited to information derived from single unit recordings or from imaging of a small group of closely located neurons. Here we used large scale imaging to monitor calcium concentration changes in the entire vermal area of folia V and VI in anesthetized mice. We found that the response to a strong auditory input or electrical shock to the tail area is composed of an early and a late component that differ in their spatiotemporal properties. The early component occurs throughout the scanned area whereas the late component reflects synchronous activation of Purkinje cells located along symmetric parasagittal bands that correspond well to sagittal band 2+ (Sugihara and Shinoda, 2004). Similar organization was found in the rigorously disorganized cerebellum of Cxcr4 KO mice, suggesting that the sagittal organization is determined by the climbing fiber inputs to the cerebellar cortex. The responses for both stimuli are followed by a prolonged recovery period but the rate of recovery from auditory stimulus is much longer, reflecting a different site for the adapting process. We suggest that these sensory inputs, which are commonly used to evoke startle response, activate two sets of climbing fiber inputs that differ in their spatiotemporal properties and contribute to the motor organization and habituation of the startle response.

Significance Statement:

The ensemble activity of neurons in the brain is one of the current challenges of neuroscience. Here we use a fast and large-scale calcium imaging system to monitor ensemble activity in the cerebellar cortex following auditory stimuli or electric shocks to the tail. The system, which enables the detection of the response to a single trail, reveals the robustness of the functional organization of the olivo-cerebellar system in sagittal bands that is preserved in genetically induced disorganized cerebellar cortex. Furthermore, the response, which represents the activation of two sets of climbing fibers inputs, is followed by a prolonged recovery process that indicates the cerebellar involvement in startle response.

Specific regions of the brain are capable of fructose metabolism

High fructose consumption in the Western diet correlates with disease states such as obesity and metabolic syndrome complications, including type II diabetes, chronic kidney disease, and non-alcoholic fatty acid liver disease. Liver and kidneys are responsible for metabolism of 40-60% of ingested fructose, while the physiological fate of the remaining fructose remains poorly understood. The primary metabolic pathway for fructose includes the fructose-transporting solute-like carrier transport proteins 2a (SLC2a or GLUT), including GLUT5 and GLUT9, ketohexokinase (KHK), and aldolase. Bioinformatic analysis of gene expression encoding these proteins (glut5, glut9, khk, and aldoC, respectively) identifies other organs capable of this fructose metabolism. This analysis predicts brain, lymphoreticular tissue, placenta, and reproductive tissues as possible additional organs for fructose metabolism. While expression of these genes is highest in liver, the brain is predicted to have expression levels of these genes similar to kidney. RNA in situ hybridization of coronal slices of adult mouse brains validate the in silico expression of glut5, glut9, khk, and aldoC, and show expression across many regions of the brain, with the most notable expression in the cerebellum, hippocampus, cortex, and olfactory bulb. Dissected samples of these brain regions show KHK and aldolase enzyme activity 5-10 times the concentration of that in liver. Furthermore, rates of fructose oxidation in these brain regions are 15-150 times that of liver slices, confirming the bioinformatics prediction and in situ hybridization data. This suggests that previously unappreciated regions across the brain can use fructose, in addition to glucose, for energy production.

Environment- and activity-dependent dopamine neurotransmitter plasticity in the adult substantia nigra

The ability of neurons to change the amount or type of neurotransmitter they use, or 'neurotransmitter plasticity', is an emerging new form of adult brain plasticity. For example, it has recently been shown that neurons in the adult rat hypothalamus up- or down-regulate dopamine (DA) neurotransmission in response to the amount of light the animal receives (photoperiod), and that this in turn affects anxiety- and depressive-like behaviors (Dulcis et al., 2013). In this Chapter I consolidate recent evidence from my laboratory suggesting neurons in the adult mouse substantia nigra pars compacta (SNc) also undergo DA neurotransmitter plasticity in response to persistent changes in their electrical activity, including that driven by the mouse's environment or behavior. Specifically, we have shown that the amounts of tyrosine hydroxylase (TH, the rate-limiting enzyme in DA synthesis) gene promoter activity, TH mRNA and TH protein in SNc neurons increases or decreases after ∼20h of altered electrical activity. Also, infusion of ion-channel agonists or antagonists into the midbrain for 2 weeks results in ∼10% (∼500 neurons) more or fewer TH immunoreactive (TH+) SNc neurons, with no change in the total number of SNc neurons (TH+ and TH-). Targeting ion-channels mediating cell-autonomous pacemaker activity in, or synaptic input and afferent pathways to, SNc neurons are equally effective in this regard. In addition, exposing mice to different environments (sex pairing or environment enrichment) for 1-2 weeks induces ∼10% more or fewer TH+ SNc (and ventral tegmental area or VTA) neurons and this is abolished by concurrent blockade of synaptic transmission in midbrain. Although further research is required to establish SNc (and VTA) DA neurotransmitter plasticity, and to determine whether it alters brain function and behavior, it is an exciting prospect because: (1) It may play important roles in movement, motor learning, reward, motivation, memory and cognition; and (2) Imbalances in midbrain DA cause symptoms associated with several prominent brain and behavioral disorders such as schizophrenia, addiction, obsessive-compulsive disorder, depression, Parkinson's disease and attention-deficit and hyperactivity disorder. Midbrain DA neurotransmitter plasticity may therefore play a role in the etiology of these symptoms, and might also offer new treatment options.

Redefining the cerebellar cortex as an assembly of non-uniform Purkinje cell microcircuits

The adult mammalian cerebellar cortex is generally assumed to have a uniform cytoarchitecture. Differences in cerebellar function are thought to arise primarily through distinct patterns of input and output connectivity rather than as a result of variations in cortical microcircuitry. However, evidence from anatomical, physiological and genetic studies is increasingly challenging this orthodoxy, and there are now various lines of evidence indicating that the cerebellar cortex is not uniform. Here, we develop the hypothesis that regional differences in properties of cerebellar cortical microcircuits lead to important differences in information processing.

Contexts for dopamine specification by calcium spike activity in the CNS

Calcium-dependent electrical activity plays a significant role in neurotransmitter specification at early stages of development. To test the hypothesis that activity-dependent differentiation depends on molecular context, we investigated the development of dopaminergic neurons in the CNS of larval Xenopus laevis. We find that different dopaminergic nuclei respond to manipulation of this early electrical activity by ion channel misexpression with different increases and decreases in numbers of dopaminergic neurons. Focusing on the ventral suprachiasmatic nucleus and the spinal cord to gain insight into these differences, we identify distinct subpopulations of neurons that express characteristic combinations of GABA and neuropeptide Y as cotransmitters and Lim1,2 and Nurr1 transcription factors. We demonstrate that the developmental state of neurons identified by their spatial location and expression of these molecular markers is correlated with characteristic spontaneous calcium spike activity. Different subpopulations of dopaminergic neurons respond differently to manipulation of this early electrical activity. Moreover, retinohypothalamic circuit activation of the ventral suprachiasmatic nucleus recruits expression of dopamine selectively in reserve pool neurons that already express GABA and neuropeptide Y. The results are consistent with the hypothesis that spontaneously active neurons expressing GABA are most susceptible to activity-dependent expression of dopamine in both the spinal cord and brain. Because loss of dopaminergic neurons plays a role in neurological disorders such as Parkinson's disease, understanding how subpopulations of neurons become dopaminergic may lead to protocols for differentiation of neurons in vitro to replace those that have been lost in vivo.

Alternating array of tyrosine hydroxylase and heat shock protein 25 immunopositive Purkinje cell stripes in zebrin II-defined transverse zone of the cerebellum of rolling mouse Nagoya

The present study examined the spatial organization of tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) immunopositive Purkinje cells in the cerebellum of rolling mouse Nagoya with reference to the distribution pattern of the cerebellar compartmentation antigen, heat shock protein 25 (HSP25). Whole-mount immunostaining revealed a striking pattern of parasagittal stripes of TH staining in the rolling mouse cerebellum but not in the control cerebellum. Although the TH stripes resembled the zebrin II stripes in the rolling cerebellum, these two distributions did not completely overlap. The TH stripes were present in the lobules VI and VII (central zone), the lobule X (nodular zone), and the paraflocculus, where zebrin II immunostaining was uniformly expressed. Double immunostaining revealed that TH stripes were aligned in an alternative fashion with HSP25 stripes within the caudal half of lobule VIb, lobules IXb and X, and paraflocculus. Some, but not all, TH stripes shared boundaries with HSP25 stripes. These results revealed an alternating array of TH immunopositive Purkinje cell subsets with HSP25 immunopositive Purkinje cells in the zebrin II-defined transverse zone of the rolling mouse cerebellum. The constitutive expression of HSP25 may prevent the ectopic expression of TH in zebrin II immunopositive Purkinje cell subsets.

Dysfunctions of neuronal and glial intermediate filaments in disease

Intermediate filaments (IFs) are abundant structures found in most eukaryotic cells, including those in the nervous system. In the CNS, the primary components of neuronal IFs are alpha-internexin and the neurofilament triplet proteins. In the peripheral nervous system, a fifth neuronal IF protein known as peripherin is also present. IFs in astrocytes are primarily composed of glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP), although vimentin is also expressed in immature astrocytes and some mature astrocytes. In this Review, we focus on the IFs of glial cells (primarily GFAP) and neurons as well as their relationship to different neurodegenerative diseases.

Tyrosine hydroxylase expression and Cdk5 kinase activity in ataxic cerebellum

Ataxia has been associated with abnormalities in neuronal differentiation and migration, which are regulated by Cyclin-dependent kinase 5 (Cdk5). The cerebellum of mice lacking Cdk5 or its activator, p35, resembles those of ataxic reeler and scrambler mice, suggesting that Cdk5 may contribute to ataxic pathology. As with other ataxic mice, the pogo/pogo mouse shows aberrant cerebellar tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) expression. Since Cdk5 phosphorylates and upregulates TH expression, we sought to analyze (i) Cdk5 activity in the pogo cerebellum, which exhibits abnormal TH expression, and (ii) TH expression in the cerebellum of p35-/- and p39-/- mice, which display reduced Cdk5 activity. Interestingly, we found that increased TH expression in the pogo cerebellum coincided with reduced Cdk5 activity. However, reduced Cdk5 activity in both p35-/- and p39-/- cerebellum did not correspond to defects in TH expression. Together, these suggest that abnormal TH expression in the cerebellum might be regulated by mechanisms other than Cdk5 activity.

Reversal of the expression pattern of Aldolase C mRNA in Purkinje cells and Ube 1x mRNA in Golgi cells by a dopamine D1 receptor agonist injections in the methamphetamine sensitized-rat cerebellum

The cerebellum has a parasagittal modular structure, in which Zebrin (Aldolase) positive and negative bands expressed in Purkinje cell layers alternate, and is involved in amphetamine psychosis. Administration of SKF38393, a D1 receptor agonist, reversed the behavioral sensitization of methamphetamine. In the vermis, there were the binding sites of SKF38393. In methamphetamine-sensitized rats the expression of the Aldolase mRNA positive bands move laterally in the rat vermis. We provide here the evidence that the D1 agonist injections also reversed the expression pattern of both the Aldolase mRNA in Purkinje cells and Ube (ubiquitin activating enzyme) 1x mRNA in Golgi interneurons of the sensitized rats. Thus the reverse changes in gene expression pattern in the vermis may be involved in the mechanisms of the behavioral plasticity and suggests the new treatment of drug abuse.

Methamphetamine induces ectopic expression of tyrosine hydroxylase and increases noradrenaline levels within the cerebellar cortex

Methamphetamine produces locomotor activation and typical stereotyped motor patterns, which are commonly related with increased catecholamine activity within the basal ganglia, including the dorsal and ventral striatum. Since the cerebellum is critical for movement control, and for learning of motor patterns, we hypothesized that cerebellar catecholamines might be a target of methamphetamine. To test this experimental hypothesis we injected methamphetamine into C57 Black mice at the doses of 5 mg/kg two or three times, 2 h apart. This dosing regimen is known to be toxic for striatal dopamine terminals. However, we found that in the cerebellum, methamphetamine increased the expression of the primary transcript of the tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) gene, followed by an increased expression of the TH protein. Increased TH was localized within Purkinje cells, where methamphetamine increased the number of TH-immunogold particles, and produced a change in the distribution of the enzyme by increasing the cytoplasmic percentage. Increased TH expression was accompanied by a slight increase in noradrenaline content. This effect was highly site-specific for the cortex of posterior vermal lobules, while only slight effects were detectable in the hemispheres. The present data indicate that the cerebellum does represent a target of methamphetamine, which produces specific and fine alterations of the catecholamine system involving synthesis, amount, and compartmentalization of TH as well as increased noradrenaline levels. This may be relevant for motor alterations induced by methamphetamine. In line with this, inherited cerebellar movement disorders in various animal species including humans are associated with increased TH immunoreactivity within intrinsic neurons of the same lobules of the cerebellar cortex.

Corticotropin-Releasing Factor Immunoreactivity Increases in the Cerebellar Climbing Fibers in the Novel Ataxic Mutant Mouse, Pogo

The ataxic pogo mouse (pogo/pogo) is a novel neurological mutant, which was derived as an inbred strain (KJR/MsKist) from a Korean wild mouse. The pathological manifestations include a difficulty in maintaining a normal posture, the failure of inter-limb coordination and an inability to walk straight. In this study, we examined the distribution of corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) immunoreactive cerebellar climbing fibres and their projections to tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) immunoreactive Purkinje cells in the cerebellum of the pogo mutant mouse using immunohistochemistry. In the pogo/pogo mouse, a subset of climbing fibres was stained more intensely for CRF than in the control. Moreover, ataxic pogo mouse, neurons of the inferior olivary nucleus projecting climbing fibres were also more intensely stained for CRF than in the control. In the pogo/pogo mouse, TH immunoreactivity was located in the Purkinje cells, whereas no TH expression was found in the control. Double immunostaining for CRF and TH in the pogo/pogo cerebellum revealed that the distribution of TH-immunoreactive Purkinje cells corresponded to terminal fields of CRF-immunoreactive climbing fibres but not to the CRF-immunoreactive mossy fibres. Therefore, we suggest that an increase of CRF level may alter the function of targeted Purkinje cells and that it is related to the ataxic phenotype in the pogo mutant mouse.

Development of Hsp25 expression compartments is not constrained by Purkinje cell defects in the Lurcher mouse mutant

Four transverse zones can be distinguished in the adult mouse cerebellar cortex based on differential expression of cell-specific antigens, termination patterns of mossy fiber afferents, and phenotypes of mouse mutants with cerebellar defects: the anterior zone (AZ), central zone (CZ), posterior zone (PZ), and nodular zone (NZ). In the heterozygous Lurcher (Lc/+) mouse a zonally restricted abnormality in Purkinje cell development is seen. The Purkinje cell-specific antigen zebrin II is normally differentially expressed in all four zones of the adult cerebellum, but in the Lc/+ mutant is confined to the PZ and NZ, caudal to a transverse boundary in the dorsal aspect of lobule VIII. In this study we wanted to understand why zebrin II expression is arrested at this boundary and whether the Lc mutation affects the differentiation of additional Purkinje cell antigens in a similar manner. To determine this, we took advantage of the dynamic developmental timetable of another Purkinje cell antigen, the small heat shock protein Hsp25. Using immunohistochemistry we demonstrate that cerebellar maturation anterior to the CZ/PZ transverse boundary appears to be unaffected by the Lc allele, in that initial progression of Hsp25 expression in the Lc/+ cerebellum was similar to controls. Double-labeling experiments with anti-Hsp25 and anti-calbindin suggest that characteristic banding patterns of Hsp25 in Lc/+ cerebellum develop and are preserved despite cell loss. Thus, since simple temporal or spatial models cannot account for the zonal restriction seen during Lc/+ cerebellar development, the abnormality may be zebrin II-specific.

Animal models of generalized dystonia

Dystonia is a prevalent neurological disorder characterized by abnormal co-contractions of antagonistic muscle groups that produce twisting movements and abnormal postures. The disorder may be inherited, arise sporadically, or result from brain insult. Dystonia is a heterogeneous disorder because patients may exhibit focal or generalized symptoms associated with abnormalities in many brain regions including basal ganglia and cerebellum. Elucidating the pathogenic mechanisms underlying dystonia has therefore been challenging. Animal models of dystonia exhibit similar heterogeneity and are useful for understanding pathogenesis. The neurochemical and neurophysiological abnormalities in rodents with idiopathic generalized dystonia suggest that dysfunctional output from basal ganglia, cerebellum, or from multiple systems is the cause of motor dysfunction. Findings from drug- or toxin-induced dystonia in rodents and nonhuman primates mirror the genetic models. The parallels between dystonia in humans and animals suggest that the models will continue to prove useful in determining pathogenesis. Furthermore, detailed characterization of the existing models of dystonia and the development of new models hold promise for the identification of novel therapeutics.

Patterned Purkinje cell death in the cerebellum

The object of this review is to assemble much of the literature concerning Purkinje cell death in cerebellar pathology and to relate this to what is now known about the complex topography of the cerebellar cortex. A brief introduction to Purkinje cells, and their regionalization is provided, and then the data on Purkinje cell death in mouse models and, where appropriate, their human counterparts, have been arranged according to several broad categories--naturally-occurring and targeted mutations leading to Purkinje cell death, Purkinje cell death due to toxins, Purkinje cell death in ischemia, Purkinje cell death in infection and in inherited disorders, etc. The data reveal that cerebellar Purkinje cell death is much more topographically complex than is usually appreciated.

Selective changes in the shapes of parasagittal bands of Aldoc (Zebrin) mRNA in the rat vermis of the cerebellum after repeated methamphetamine injections

In the cerebellum the mossy and climbing projections, which excite Purkinje cells, display a parasagittal and striped organization. These projections also excite Zebrin (aldolase C: Aldoc) parasagittally. To evaluate the possibility that external stimuli can change the organization of the bands of Aldoc mRNA, we compared the effects of repeated methamphetamine administration on the Aldoc mRNA stripes in the four transverse (anterior, central, posterior and nodular) regions of the vermis with the effects on the glutamate transporter EAAT4 (SCL1A 6) mRNA stripes. In the posterior region the injections four times daily increased the fragmentation of the Aldoc mRNA stripes. The presence of a large amount of fragmentation (forty/cerebellum slice), was accompanied with large lateral dislocations of the Aldoc mRNA stripes. In the central and nodular regions, where the size of the stripe areas decreased significantly the stripes were dislocated laterally. The dislocations of the Aldoc mRNA bands did not occur after a single methamphetamine injection and thus repeated injections were necessary to change the distributions of the lateral bands. In contrast, the distributions of the SCL1A 6 mRNA stripes did not change, even though there was mild fragmentation (six/slice) of the SLC1A 6 mRNA stripes in the anterior region and decreases in the numbers (twelve/slice) in the nodular region. We concluded that excess dopamine selectively changes the location of the Aldoc mRNA compartments in the vermis while the SLC1A 6 mRNA stripes could be changed by other inputs and thus the specific transmitter system might change the specific compartment of the cerebellum.

Fluoro-jade identification of cerebellar granule cell and purkinje cell death in the alpha1A calcium ion channel mutant mouse, leaner

Cell death is a critical component of normal nervous system development; too little or too much results in abnormal development and function of the nervous system. The leaner mouse exhibits excessive, abnormal cerebellar granule cell and Purkinje cell death during postnatal development, which is a consequence of a mutated calcium ion channel subunit, alpha(1A). Previous studies have shown that leaner cerebellar Purkinje cells die in a specific pattern that appears to be influenced by functional and anatomical boundaries of the cerebellum. However, the mechanism of Purkinje cell death and the specific timing of the spatial pattern of cell death remain unclear. By double labeling both leaner and wild-type cerebella with Fluoro-Jade and terminal deoxynucleotide transferase-mediated, deoxyuridine triphosphate nick-end labeling or Fluoro-Jade and tyrosine hydroxylase immunohistochemistry we demonstrated that the relatively new stain, Fluoro-Jade, will label neurons that are dying secondary to a genetic mutation. Then, by staining leaner and wild-type cerebella between postnatal days 20 and 80 with Fluoro-Jade, we were able to show that Purkinje cell death begins at approximately postnatal day 25, peaks in the vermis about postnatal day 40 and in the hemispheres at postnatal day 50 and persists at a low level at postnatal day 80. In addition, we showed that there is a significant difference in the amount of cerebellar Purkinje cell death between rostral and caudal divisions of the leaner cerebellum, and that there is little to no Purkinje cell death in the wild type cerebellum at the ages we examined. This is the first report of the use of Fluoro-Jade to identify dying neurons in a genetic model for neuronal cell death. By using Fluoro-Jade, we have specifically defined the temporospatial pattern of postnatal Purkinje cell death in the leaner mouse. This information can be used to gain insight into the dynamic mechanisms controlling Purkinje cell death in the leaner cerebellum.

Whole-mount immunohistochemistry: a high-throughput screen for patterning defects in the mouse cerebellum

Large-scale mouse mutagenesis experiments now under way require appropriate screening methods. An important class of potential mutants comprises those with defects in the development of normal cerebellar patterning. Cerebellar defects are likely to be identified often because they typically result in ataxia. Immunohistochemistry (IHC) is commonly used to reveal cerebellar organization. In particular, the antigen zebrin II (=aldolase C), expressed by stripes of Purkinje cells, has been valuable in revealing cerebellar pattern abnormalities. The development of whole-mount procedures in Drosophila, chick, and Xenopus embryos allows complex patterns to be studied in situ while preserving the integrity of the structure. By combining procedures originally designed for embryonic and early postnatal tissue analyses, we have developed a whole-mount IHC protocol using anti-zebrin II, which reveals the complex topography of Purkinje cells in the adult mouse cerebellum. Furthermore, the procedure is effective with a number of other antigens and works well on both perfusion-fixed and immersion-fixed tissue. By use of this approach, normal adult murine cerebellar topography and patterning defects caused by mutation can be studied without the need for three-dimensional reconstruction.

Ectopic expression of tyrosine hydroxylase in Zebrin II immunoreactive Purkinje cells in the cerebellum of the ataxic mutant mouse, pogo

The pogo mouse is a new ataxic autosomal recessive mutant that arose in an inbred strain (KJR/MsKist) derived from a Korean wild mouse. The phenotype includes difficulty in maintaining normal posture and the inability to walk straight. Several previous studies have associated inherited ataxia with the ectopic expression of tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) in Purkinje cells. Therefore, in the present study, the distribution of TH expression was compared with that of zebrin II in Purkinje cells of adult pogo/pogo mutant mice. In normal control littermates, tyrosine hydroxylase immunoreactivity is confined to a delicate axonal plexus ramifying through the molecular layer. In pogo/pogo, in addition to the axonal plexus, TH-immunoreactive Purkinje cells were present in all lobules of the cerebellar vermis and hemispheres, distributed as series parasagittal bands. The general pattern of expression is reproducible between individuals and symmetrical about the midline. Alternating stripes of TH expression are also seen in the hemispheres, and most Purkinje cells in the paraflocculi and flocculi are immunoreactive. In pogo/+ mice, TH-immunoreactive Purkinje cells are rare. The pattern of zebrin II expression was used to map TH immunoreactive Purkinje cells in pogo/pogo mutant mice. Double immunofluorescence labeling combining anti-zebrin II fand anti-TH showed that all TH-immunoreactive Purkinje cells are zebrin II+, but that many zebrin II+ Purkinje cells within a band do not stain with anti-TH. Taken together with the morphological changes observed in the Purkinje cell axons, this suggests that abnormal Purkinje cell function may contribute to the ataxic phenotype in pogo/pogo mice.

Rocker is a new variant of the voltage-dependent calcium channel gene Cacna1a

Rocker (gene symbol rkr), a new neurological mutant phenotype, was found in descendents of a chemically mutagenized male mouse. Mutant mice display an ataxic, unstable gait accompanied by an intention tremor, typical of cerebellar dysfunction. These mice are fertile and appear to have a normal life span. Segregation analysis reveals rocker to be an autosomal recessive trait. The overall cytoarchitecture of the young adult brain appears normal, including its gross cerebellar morphology. Golgi-Cox staining, however, reveals dendritic abnormalities in the mature cerebellar cortex characterized by a reduction of branching in the Purkinje cell dendritic arbor and a "weeping willow" appearance of the secondary branches. Using simple sequence length polymorphism markers, the rocker locus was mapped to mouse chromosome 8 within 2 centimorgans of the calcium channel alpha1a subunit (Cacna1a, formerly known as tottering) locus. Complementation tests with the leaner mutant allele (Cacna1a(la)) produced mutant animals, thus identifying rocker as a new allele of Cacna1a (Cacna1a(rkr)). Sequence analysis of the cDNA revealed rocker to be a point mutation resulting in an amino acid exchange: T1310K between transmembrane regions 5 and 6 in the third homologous domain. Important distinctions between rocker and the previously characterized alleles of this locus include the absence of aberrant tyrosine hydroxylase expression in Purkinje cells and the separation of the absence seizures (spike/wave type discharges) from the paroxysmal dyskinesia phenotype. Overall these findings point to an important dissociation between the seizure phenotypes and the abnormalities in catecholamine metabolism, and they emphasize the value of allelic series in the study of gene function.

Topological relationship between corticotropin-releasing factor-immunoreactive cerebellar afferents and tyrosine hydroxylase-immunoreactive Purkinje cells in a hereditary ataxic mutant, rolling mouse Nagoya

Using immunohistochemistry we examined the distribution of corticotropin-releasing factor-positive cerebellar afferents and the topological relationship between their projections and the distribution of tyrosine hydroxylase-positive Purkinje cells in an ataxic mutant, rolling mouse Nagoya. In the mutants, some climbing fibers were more intensely stained for corticotropin-releasing factor, but their zonal distribution remained the same as in non-ataxic littermates (control mice). These climbing fibers arose from the dorsal accessory nucleus, the ventral lamella of principal nucleus, the dorsomedial cell group, the subnucleus A, the beta subnucleus and the ventrolateral protrusion of the inferior olive, since perikarya in these olivary subdivisions were more intensely stained for corticotropin-releasing factor than in controls. Some mossy fiber rosettes in the vermal lobules, the simple lobule, the crus I of ansiform lobule, the copula pyramidis and the flocculus also exhibited corticotropin-releasing factor immunoreactivity and were more densely stained in the mutants than in controls. Double immunostaining for corticotropin-releasing factor and tyrosine hydroxylase in the mutant cerebellum revealed that the distribution of tyrosine hydroxylase-positive Purkinje cells corresponded to terminal fields of corticotropin-releasing factor-positive climbing fibers but not corticotropin-releasing factor-positive mossy fibers. This study indicated an increased corticotropin-releasing factor immunoreactivity in some climbing or mossy fibers in the cerebellum of rolling mouse Nagoya. We also found that the distribution of tyrosine hydroxylase-positive Purkinje cells corresponded to terminal fields of corticotropin-releasing factor-positive climbing fibers in the mutant cerebellum. As the transcription of the tyrosine hydroxylase gene is facilitated by Ca2+, abnormal tyrosine hydroxylase expression in the mutant Purkinje cells may indicate functional abnormality by alterations in intracellular Ca2+ concentrations. Therefore, we suggest that an increased level of corticotropin-releasing factor in a specific population of climbing fibers may alter the function of their target Purkinje cells.

Abnormal expression of tyrosine hydroxylase immunoreactivity in Purkinje cells precedes the onset of ataxia in dilute-lethal mice

Expression of tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) immunostaining in the cerebellum was examined in dilute-lethal mice (DL) prior to and following the onset of ataxia. DL walked normally on postnatal days 7 and 8. Falling over when walking was exhibited by about 20% of DL on day 9 and by all DL by day 10. TH-positive Purkinje cells in lobules IX and X of the vermis of either ataxic or non-ataxic DL were clearly observed on day 9 when compared to control mice, and had drastically increased by day 10. These results revealed that abnormal TH expression occurred in some Purkinje cells of DL cerebella, preceding the onset of ataxia.

Abnormal expression of tyrosine hydroxylase immunoreactivity in cerebellar cortex of ataxic mutant mice

Expression of tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) was examined immunohistochemically in the cerebellum of two ataxic mutants, Rolling mouse Nagoya (RMN) and dilute-lethal mice (DL). In littermate controls of both mutants, a few TH-positive Purkinje cells were distributed sparsely and their number was smaller than in the mutants at any ages examined. In RMN, TH-positive Purkinje cells were distributed in lobule IX and X, and were arranged into parasagittal bands at 2 weeks of age. TH-positive Purkinje cells increased in number and were widely distributed throughout the vermis at 3 weeks of age. In adult RMN, TH-positive Purkinje cells were found in all lobules of the cerebellum. Their parasagittal bands also became evident in the hemisphere. In DL, TH-positive Purkinje cells were mainly distributed in vermal lobules IX and X, and the flocculus at 3 weeks of age. They were also found as bands in lobules IX and X. The results suggest that abnormal expression of TH in Purkinje cells may not be specific to the allelic group. Since TH promoter is activated by Ca2+, TH expression in the mutant Purkinje cells may predict neuronal dysfunction caused by alterations in cellular Ca2+ currents.

Expression of calcium channel alpha1A mRNA and protein in the leaner mouse (tgla/tgla) cerebellum

Homozygous leaner mice carry an autosomal recessive mutation in the Ca2+ channel subunit gene, alpha1A, causing them to exhibit severe ataxia, petit-mal-like epilepsy and a myoclonus-like movement disorder. Expression of alpha1A mRNA in cerebella from 20-day-old homozygous leaner mice was compared to control mice, using in situ hybridization histochemistry. Expression of alpha1A protein was examined in cerebella from 20-day-old homozygous leaner and control mice using immunocytochemistry. No differences in either mRNA or protein expression of the alpha1A subunit were observed when homozygous leaner mice were compared to age-matched controls. Therefore, functional alterations in P/Q-Type Ca2+ channels containing the alpha1A subunit need to be explored to further understand the relationship of mutations in the alpha1A gene to the pathogenesis of the neurologic disorders occurring in leaner mice.

Cerebellar circuitry is activated during convulsive episodes in the tottering (tg/tg) mutant mouse

Tottering (tg) is an autosomal recessive mutation of the calcium channel alpha1A subunit in the mouse that results in epileptic spike and wave discharges, mild ataxia and paroxysmal episodes of involuntary spasms of the limbs, trunk and face. These convulsions have been especially difficult to characterize because of their unpredictable occurrence and lack of electroencephalographic correlates. However, it is, in fact, possible to induce these convulsions, making this facet of the tottering phenotype amenable to controlled experimentation for the first time. Here, the neuroanatomical basis of the convulsions in tottering mice has been identified using in situ hybridization for c-fos messenger RNA to chart abnormal neuronal activity. Convulsion-induced c-fos messenger RNA expression was most prominent in the cerebellum of convulsing tottering mice. Additionally, cerebral cortex and principal cerebellar relay nuclei were also activated during a convulsion. The c-fos activation in the cerebellum temporally preceded expression in cerebral cortex, suggesting that cerebral cortex is not driving the expression of convulsions. These results suggest that the cerebellum, a region not classically associated with paroxysmal events, is important in the generation and/or maintenance of the intermittent convulsions in tottering mutant mice.