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Chen L, Zhu R, Ma Y, Huang C, Shen X. Rational analysis of data from LC-MS/MS: new insights in acylcarnitines as biomarkers for brain disorders or neurotoxicity. Front Pharmacol 2024; 15:1441755. [PMID: 39239644 PMCID: PMC11374737 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2024.1441755] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2024] [Accepted: 08/05/2024] [Indexed: 09/07/2024] Open
Abstract
Objective LC-MS/MS-based metabolomics is an important tool for studying disease-related biomarkers. Conventionally, different strategies have been used to screen biomarkers. However, many studies for biomarker screening by different strategies have ignored the dose-response relationship between the biomarker level and exposure level, and no relevant studies have described and compared different strategies in detail. Phenobarbital (PHB) which belongs to the barbiturates, was selected as the typical representative of neurotoxins. Acylcarnitines have been promising candidates for diagnostic biomarkers for several neurological disorders and neurotoxicity. In this work, we aimed to use an acute PHB poisoning animal model to clarify PHB poisoning effects on plasma and brain acylcarnitine changes and how to rationally analyze data from LC-MS/MS. Methods The acylcarnitine profiles in plasma and brain regions in an actuate PHB poisoning animal model were utilized. The dose-response relationship between plasma PHB and carnitine and acylcarnitines (CARs) in plasma and brain were assessed by the variance analysis trend test and Spearman's rank correlation test. In different strategies, principal component analysis (PCA) and partial least squares discriminant analysis (OPLS-DA) screened the differential CARs, variable importance plots (VIPs) were utilized to select putative biomarkers for PHB-induced toxicity, and receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve analysis then illustrated the reliability of biomarkers. Results Under the first strategy, 14 potential toxicity biomarkers were obtained including eight downregulated CARs with AUC >0.8. Under the second strategy, 11 potential toxicity biomarkers were obtained containing five downregulated CARs with AUC >0.8. Only when the dose-response relationship was fully considered, different strategies screen for the same biomarkers (plasma acetyl-carnitine (C2) and plasma decanoyl-carnitine (C10)), which indicated plasma acylcarnitines might serve as toxicity biomarkers. In addition, the plasma CAR level changes showed differences from brain CAR level changes, and correlations between plasma CARs and their brain counterparts were weak. Conclusion We found that plasma C2 and C10 might serve as toxicity biomarkers for PHB poisoning disorders, and PHB poisoning effects on changes in plasma CARs may not be fully representative of changes in brain CARs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li Chen
- Key Laboratory of Environment and Health, Ministry of Education & Ministry of Environmental Protection and State Key Laboratory of Environmental Health (Incubation), School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Ruiqin Zhu
- Department of Forensic Medicine, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Yaxing Ma
- Key Laboratory of Environment and Health, Ministry of Education & Ministry of Environmental Protection and State Key Laboratory of Environmental Health (Incubation), School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Chuixiu Huang
- Department of Forensic Medicine, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Xiantao Shen
- Key Laboratory of Environment and Health, Ministry of Education & Ministry of Environmental Protection and State Key Laboratory of Environmental Health (Incubation), School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
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Shakerdi LA, Gillman B, Corcoran E, McNulty J, Treacy EP. Organic Aciduria Disorders in Pregnancy: An Overview of Metabolic Considerations. Metabolites 2023; 13:metabo13040518. [PMID: 37110176 PMCID: PMC10146379 DOI: 10.3390/metabo13040518] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2023] [Revised: 03/13/2023] [Accepted: 04/03/2023] [Indexed: 04/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Organic acidurias are a heterogeneous group of rare inherited metabolic disorders (IMDs) caused by a deficiency of an enzyme or a transport protein involved in the intermediary metabolic pathways. These enzymatic defects lead to an accumulation of organic acids in different tissues and their subsequent excretion in urine. Organic acidurias include maple syrup urine disease, propionic aciduria, methylmalonic aciduria, isovaleric aciduria, and glutaric aciduria type 1. Clinical features vary between different organic acid disorders and may present with severe complications. An increasing number of women with rare IMDs are reporting successful pregnancy outcomes. Normal pregnancy causes profound anatomical, biochemical and physiological changes. Significant changes in metabolism and nutritional requirements take place during different stages of pregnancy in IMDs. Foetal demands increase with the progression of pregnancy, representing a challenging biological stressor in patients with organic acidurias as well as catabolic states post-delivery. In this work, we present an overview of metabolic considerations for pregnancy in patients with organic acidurias.
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Affiliation(s)
- Loai A. Shakerdi
- National Centre for Inherited Metabolic Disorders, Mater Misericordiae University Hospital, D07 R2WY Dublin, Ireland
| | - Barbara Gillman
- National Centre for Inherited Metabolic Disorders, Mater Misericordiae University Hospital, D07 R2WY Dublin, Ireland
| | - Emma Corcoran
- National Centre for Inherited Metabolic Disorders, Mater Misericordiae University Hospital, D07 R2WY Dublin, Ireland
| | - Jenny McNulty
- National Centre for Inherited Metabolic Disorders (NCIMD), Childrens Health Ireland at Temple Street, Temple Street, D01 XD99 Dublin, Ireland
| | - Eileen P. Treacy
- The Irish National Rare Disease Office, Mater Misericordiae University Hospital, D07 R2WY Dublin, Ireland
- Discipline of Medicine, School of Medicine, Trinity College Dublin, D02 PN40 Dublin, Ireland
- University College Dublin (UCD) School of Medicine, Belfield, D04 V1W8 Dublin, Ireland
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Mohammad S, Bhattacharjee J, Vasanthan T, Harris CS, Bainbridge SA, Adamo KB. Metabolomics to understand placental biology: Where are we now? Tissue Cell 2021; 73:101663. [PMID: 34653888 DOI: 10.1016/j.tice.2021.101663] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2021] [Revised: 09/30/2021] [Accepted: 10/04/2021] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Metabolomics, the application of analytical chemistry methodologies to survey the chemical composition of a biological system, is used to globally profile and compare metabolites in one or more groups of samples. Given that metabolites are the terminal end-products of cellular metabolic processes, or 'phenotype' of a cell, tissue, or organism, metabolomics is valuable to the study of the maternal-fetal interface as it has the potential to reveal nuanced complexities of a biological system as well as differences over time or between individuals. The placenta acts as the primary site of maternal-fetal exchange, the success of which is paramount to growth and development of offspring during pregnancy and beyond. Although the study of metabolomics has proven moderately useful for the screening, diagnosis, and understanding of the pathophysiology of pregnancy complications, the placental metabolome in the context of a healthy pregnancy remains poorly characterized and understood. Herein, we discuss the technical aspects of metabolomics and review the current literature describing the placental metabolome in human and animal models, in the context of health and disease. Finally, we highlight areas for future opportunities in the emerging field of placental metabolomics.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Mohammad
- School of Human Kinetics, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, Canada
| | - J Bhattacharjee
- School of Human Kinetics, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, Canada
| | - T Vasanthan
- School of Human Kinetics, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, Canada
| | - C S Harris
- Department of Biology & Department of Chemistry and Biomolecular Sciences, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, Canada
| | - S A Bainbridge
- Interdisciplinary School of Health Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Ottawa, ON, Canada; Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Ottawa, ON, Canada
| | - K B Adamo
- School of Human Kinetics, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, Canada.
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Lievens E, Van Vossel K, Van de Casteele F, Baguet A, Derave W. Sex-specific maturation of muscle metabolites carnosine, creatine, and carnitine over puberty: a longitudinal follow-up study. J Appl Physiol (1985) 2021; 131:1241-1250. [PMID: 34473575 DOI: 10.1152/japplphysiol.00380.2021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Due to the invasiveness of a muscle biopsy, there is fragmentary information on the existence and possible origin of a sexual dimorphism in the skeletal muscle concentrations of the energy delivery-related metabolites carnosine, creatine, and carnitine. As these metabolites can be noninvasively monitored by proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy, this technique offers the possibility to investigate if sexual dimorphisms are present in an adult reference population and if these dimorphisms originated during puberty using a longitudinal design. Concentrations of carnosine, creatine, and carnitine were examined using proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy in the soleus and gastrocnemius muscles of an adult reference population of female (n = 50) and male adults (n = 50). For the longitudinal follow-up over puberty, 29 boys and 28 girls were scanned prepuberty. Six years later, 24 boys and 24 girls were rescanned postpuberty. A sexual dimorphism was present in carnosine and creatine, but not carnitine, in the adult reference population. Carnosine was 28.5% higher in the gastrocnemius (P < 0.001) and carnosine and creatine were respectively 19.9% (P < 0.001) and 18.2% (P < 0.001) higher in the soleus of male when compared with female adults. Through puberty, carnosine increased more in male subjects compared with female subjects, both in the gastrocnemius (+10.43% and -10.83%, respectively; interaction effect: P = 0.002) and in the soleus (+24.30% and +5.49%, respectively; interaction effect: P = 0.012). No significant effect of puberty was found in either creatine (interaction effect: P = 0.307) or carnitine (interaction effect: P = 0.066). A sexual dimorphism in the adult human muscle is present in carnosine and creatine, but not in carnitine.NEW & NOTEWORTHY This is the first study to investigate sexual dimorphisms in skeletal muscle carnosine, creatine, and carnitine concentrations in a substantial adult reference population (n = 100). A sexual dimorphism is present in both carnosine and creatine at adult age. The origin of the sexual dimorphisms is investigated using a longitudinal design over puberty in 24 males and 24 females. The sexual dimorphism in carnosine originated partly during puberty for carnosine, but not for creatine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eline Lievens
- Department of Movement and Sports Sciences, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Kim Van Vossel
- Department of Movement and Sports Sciences, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | | | - Audrey Baguet
- Department of Movement and Sports Sciences, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Wim Derave
- Department of Movement and Sports Sciences, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
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Longitudinal Plasma Metabolomics Profile in Pregnancy-A Study in an Ethnically Diverse U.S. Pregnancy Cohort. Nutrients 2021; 13:nu13093080. [PMID: 34578958 PMCID: PMC8471130 DOI: 10.3390/nu13093080] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2021] [Revised: 08/30/2021] [Accepted: 08/30/2021] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Amino acids, fatty acids, and acylcarnitine metabolites play a pivotal role in maternal and fetal health, but profiles of these metabolites over pregnancy are not completely established. We described longitudinal trajectories of targeted amino acids, fatty acids, and acylcarnitines in pregnancy. We quantified 102 metabolites and combinations (37 fatty acids, 37 amino acids, and 28 acylcarnitines) in plasma samples from pregnant women in the Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD) Fetal Growth Studies—Singletons cohort (n = 214 women at 10–14 and 15–26 weeks, 107 at 26–31 weeks, and 103 at 33–39 weeks). We used linear mixed models to estimate metabolite trajectories and examined variation by body mass index (BMI), race/ethnicity, and fetal sex. After excluding largely undetected metabolites, we analyzed 77 metabolites and combinations. Levels of 13 of 15 acylcarnitines, 7 of 25 amino acids, and 18 of 37 fatty acids significantly declined over gestation, while 8 of 25 amino acids and 10 of 37 fatty acids significantly increased. Several trajectories appeared to differ by BMI, race/ethnicity, and fetal sex although no tests for interactions remained significant after multiple testing correction. Future studies merit longitudinal measurements to capture metabolite changes in pregnancy, and larger samples to examine modifying effects of maternal and fetal characteristics.
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Ishimoto T, Kato Y. Regulation of Neurogenesis by Organic Cation Transporters: Potential Therapeutic Implications. Handb Exp Pharmacol 2021; 266:281-300. [PMID: 33782772 DOI: 10.1007/164_2021_445] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
Neurogenesis is the process by which new neurons are generated from neural stem cells (NSCs), which are cells that have the ability to proliferate and differentiate into neurons, astrocytes, and oligodendrocytes. The process is essential for homeostatic tissue regeneration and the coordination of neural plasticity throughout life, as neurons cannot regenerate once injured. Therefore, defects in neurogenesis are related to the onset and exacerbation of several neuropsychiatric disorders, and therefore, the regulation of neurogenesis is considered to be a novel strategy for treatment. Neurogenesis is regulated not only by NSCs themselves, but also by the functional microenvironment surrounding the NSCs, known as the "neurogenic niche." The neurogenic niche consists of several types of neural cells, including neurons, glial cells, and vascular cells. To allow communication with these cells, transporters may be involved in the secretion and uptake of substrates that are essential for signal transduction. This chapter will focus on the involvement of polyspecific solute carriers transporting organic cations in the possible regulation of neurogenesis by controlling the concentration of several organic cation substrates in NSCs and the neurogenic niche. The potential therapeutic implications of neurogenesis regulation by these transporters will also be discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Yukio Kato
- Faculty of Pharmacy, Kanazawa University, Kanazawa, Japan.
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Gohir W, Kennedy KM, Wallace JG, Saoi M, Bellissimo CJ, Britz-McKibbin P, Petrik JJ, Surette MG, Sloboda DM. High-fat diet intake modulates maternal intestinal adaptations to pregnancy and results in placental hypoxia, as well as altered fetal gut barrier proteins and immune markers. J Physiol 2019; 597:3029-3051. [PMID: 31081119 DOI: 10.1113/jp277353] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2018] [Accepted: 04/07/2019] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
KEY POINTS Maternal obesity has been associated with shifts in intestinal microbiota, which may contribute to impaired barrier function Impaired barrier function may expose the placenta and fetus to pro-inflammatory mediators We investigated the impacts of diet-induced obesity in mice on maternal and fetal intestinal structure and placental vascularization Diet-induced obesity decreased maternal intestinal short chain fatty acids and their receptors, impaired gut barrier integrity and was associated with fetal intestinal inflammation. Placenta from obese mothers showed blood vessel immaturity, hypoxia, increased transcript levels of inflammation, autophagy and altered levels of endoplasmic reticulum stress markers. These data suggest that maternal intestinal changes probably contribute to adverse placental adaptations and also impart an increased risk of obesity in the offspring via alterations in fetal gut development. ABSTRACT Shifts in maternal intestinal microbiota have been implicated in metabolic adaptations to pregnancy. In the present study, we generated cohorts of female C57BL/6J mice fed a control (17% kcal fat, n = 10-14) or a high-fat diet (HFD 60% kcal from fat, n = 10-14; ad libitum) aiming to investigate the impact on the maternal gut microbiota, intestinal inflammation and gut barrier integrity, placental inflammation and fetal intestinal development at embryonic day 18.5. HFD was associated with decreased relative abundances of short-chain fatty acid (SCFA) producing genera during pregnancy. These diet-induced shifts paralleled decreased maternal intestinal mRNA levels of SCFA receptor Gpr41, modestly decreased cecal butyrate, and altered mRNA levels of inflammatory cytokines and immune cell markers in the maternal intestine. Maternal HFD resulted in impaired gut barrier integrity, with corresponding increases in circulating maternal levels of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and tumour necrosis factor. Placentas from HFD dams demonstrated blood vessel immaturity and hypoxia; decreased free carnitine, acylcarnitine derivatives and trimethylamine-N-oxide; and altered mRNA levels of inflammation, autophagy, and ER stress markers. HFD exposed fetuses had increased activation of nuclear factor-kappa B and inhibition of the unfolded protein response in the developing intestine. Taken together, these data suggest that HFD intake prior to and during pregnancy shifts the composition of the maternal gut microbiota and impairs gut barrier integrity, resulting in increased maternal circulating LPS, which may ultimate contribute to changes in placental vascularization and fetal gut development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wajiha Gohir
- Department of Biochemistry and Biomedical Sciences.,Farncombe Family Digestive Health Research Institute
| | - Katherine M Kennedy
- Department of Biochemistry and Biomedical Sciences.,Farncombe Family Digestive Health Research Institute
| | - Jessica G Wallace
- Department of Biochemistry and Biomedical Sciences.,Farncombe Family Digestive Health Research Institute
| | | | - Christian J Bellissimo
- Department of Biochemistry and Biomedical Sciences.,Farncombe Family Digestive Health Research Institute
| | | | - Jim J Petrik
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada
| | - Michael G Surette
- Department of Biochemistry and Biomedical Sciences.,Farncombe Family Digestive Health Research Institute.,Department of Medicine
| | - Deborah M Sloboda
- Department of Biochemistry and Biomedical Sciences.,Farncombe Family Digestive Health Research Institute.,Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology.,Department of Pediatrics, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada
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8
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Two Uneventful Pregnancies in a Woman with Glutaric Aciduria Type 1. JIMD Rep 2018; 41:29-36. [PMID: 29292490 DOI: 10.1007/8904_2017_81] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2017] [Revised: 11/28/2017] [Accepted: 11/30/2017] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Glutaric aciduria type 1 (GA1) is an autosomal recessive rare disorder caused by mutations in the GCDH gene resulting in deficiency of glutaryl-CoA dehydrogenase, leading to accumulation of the amino acids lysine, hydroxylysine and tryptophan and other metabolites. The phenotypic spectrum of disease is broad. Stress caused by infection and fever and possibly pregnancy may lead to worsening of the signs and symptoms, often with uncertain recovery.We describe a case of a female patient with GA1 who had two clinically uneventful pregnancies.At the age of 11 she was diagnosed with GA1 by family screening. The cultured skin fibroblast showed reduced glutaryl-CoA dehydrogenase activity (0.16 mg protein per min).The initial diagnostic urine glutaric acid level for this patient was 1,784 μmol/mmol creatinine. Mutation analysis showed compound heterozygosity for the p.(Gly185Arg), c.553G>A in exon 7 and p.(Arg402Trp), c.1204C.T in exon 11 mutations of the GCDH.Her pregnancy at the age of 23 was complicated by pre-eclampsia and required treatment with beta-blockers. Four years later the second pregnancy was uncomplicated. The management plan during the caesarean section included intravenous dextrose and lipid infusions. The patient rapidly recovered from both surgeries.Both babies have had normal development to date. On newborn screening, plasma acylcarnitine showed a transient increase in glutarylcarnitine, and the urine organic acid analysis showed a trace of 3-hydroxyglutarylcarnitine, likely to be of maternal transfer.The multidisciplinary team, consisting of metabolic, dietetic and obstetric care providers, have responsibility to ensure the risk of acute decompensation in pregnant GA1 women is minimal.
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Hu W, Luo Z, Mai KS, Liu CX, Zheng JL. Ontogeny and kinetics of carnitine palmitoyltransferase I in hepatopancreas and skeletal muscle of grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella). FISH PHYSIOLOGY AND BIOCHEMISTRY 2015; 41:1393-1401. [PMID: 26170093 DOI: 10.1007/s10695-015-0094-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2014] [Accepted: 07/06/2015] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
The ontogeny and kinetics of carnitine palmitoyltransferase I (CPT I) were investigated in hepatopancreas and muscle throughout four developmental stages (newly hatched larvae, 1-month-old juvenile, 3-month-old, and 6-month-old, respectively) of grass carp Ctenopharyngodon idella. In hepatopancreas, the maximal velocity (Vmax) significantly increased from hatching to 1-month-old grass carp and then gradually declined at 6-month-old grass carp. In muscle, CPT I activity was the highest at 1-month-old grass carp, nearly twofold higher than that at hatching (P < 0.05). The Michaelis constant (Km) value was also the highest for 1-month-old in both tested tissues. Carnitine concentrations (FC, AC and TC) were the lowest for 3-month-old grass carp and remained relatively constant in both tissues from fish under the other developmental stages. The FC concentration in hepatopancreas and muscle at four developmental stages were less than the respective Km, indicating that grass carp required supplemental carnitine in their food to ensure that CPT I activity was not constrained by carnitine availability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Hu
- Key Laboratory of Freshwater Animal Breeding, Ministry of Agriculture of P.R.C., Fishery College, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070, People's Republic of China
- Freshwater Aquaculture Collaborative Innovative Centre of Hubei Province, Wuhan, 430070, People's Republic of China
| | - Zhi Luo
- Key Laboratory of Freshwater Animal Breeding, Ministry of Agriculture of P.R.C., Fishery College, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070, People's Republic of China.
- Freshwater Aquaculture Collaborative Innovative Centre of Hubei Province, Wuhan, 430070, People's Republic of China.
| | - Kang-Sen Mai
- College of Fisheries, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, 266003, People's Republic of China
| | - Cai-Xia Liu
- Key Laboratory of Freshwater Animal Breeding, Ministry of Agriculture of P.R.C., Fishery College, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070, People's Republic of China
- Freshwater Aquaculture Collaborative Innovative Centre of Hubei Province, Wuhan, 430070, People's Republic of China
- Bureau of Aquatic Products of Xiantao City, Xiantao, 433000, People's Republic of China
| | - Jia-Lang Zheng
- Key Laboratory of Freshwater Animal Breeding, Ministry of Agriculture of P.R.C., Fishery College, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070, People's Republic of China
- Freshwater Aquaculture Collaborative Innovative Centre of Hubei Province, Wuhan, 430070, People's Republic of China
- National Engineering Research Center of Marine Facilities Aquaculture, Zhejiang Ocean University, Zhoushan, 316022, People's Republic of China
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Alexandre-Gouabau MC, Courant F, Moyon T, Küster A, Le Gall G, Tea I, Antignac JP, Darmaun D. Maternal and cord blood LC-HRMS metabolomics reveal alterations in energy and polyamine metabolism, and oxidative stress in very-low birth weight infants. J Proteome Res 2013; 12:2764-78. [PMID: 23527880 DOI: 10.1021/pr400122v] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
To assess the global effect of preterm birth on fetal metabolism and maternal-fetal nutrient transfer, we used a mass spectrometric-based chemical phenotyping approach on cord blood obtained at the time of birth. We sampled umbilical venous, umbilical arterial, and maternal blood from mothers delivering very-low birth weight (VLBW, with a median gestational age and weight of 29 weeks, and 1210 g, respectively) premature or full-term (FT) neonates. In VLBW group, we observed a significant elevation in the levels and maternal-fetal gradients of butyryl-, isovaleryl-, hexanoyl- and octanoyl-carnitines, suggesting enhanced short- and medium chain fatty acid β-oxidation in human preterm feto-placental unit. The significant decrease in glutamine-glutamate in preterm arterial cord blood beside lower levels of amino acid precursors of Krebs cycle suggest increased glutamine utilization in the fast growing tissues of preterm fetus with a deregulation in placental glutamate-glutamine shuttling. Enhanced glutathione utilization is likely to account for the decrease in precursor amino acids (serine, betaine, glutamate and methionine) in arterial cord blood. An increase in both the circulating levels and maternal-fetal gradients of several polyamines in their acetylated form (diacetylspermine and acetylputrescine) suggests an enhanced polyamine metabolic cycling in extreme prematurity. Our metabolomics study allowed the identification of alterations in fetal energy, antioxidant defense, and polyamines and purines flux as a signature of premature birth.
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11
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Ling B, Aziz C, Alcorn J. Systematic Evaluation of Key L-Carnitine Homeostasis Mechanisms during Postnatal Development in Rat. Nutr Metab (Lond) 2012; 9:66. [PMID: 22805277 PMCID: PMC3408321 DOI: 10.1186/1743-7075-9-66] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2012] [Accepted: 07/17/2012] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Background The conditionally essential nutrient, L-carnitine, plays a critical role in a number of physiological processes vital to normal neonatal growth and development. We conducted a systematic evaluation of the developmental changes in key L-carnitine homeostasis mechanisms in the postnatal rat to better understand the interrelationship between these pathways and their correlation to ontogenic changes in L-carnitine levels during postnatal development. Methods mRNA expression of heart, kidney and intestinal L-carnitine transporters, liver γ-butyrobetaine hydroxylase (Bbh) and trimethyllysine hydroxylase (Tmlh), and heart carnitine palmitoyltransferase (Cpt) were measured using quantitative RT-PCR. L-Carnitine levels were determined by HPLC-UV. Cpt and Bbh activity were measured by a spectrophotometric method and HPLC, respectively. Results Serum and heart L-carnitine levels increased with postnatal development. Increases in serum L-carnitine correlated significantly with postnatal increases in renal organic cation/carnitine transporter 2 (Octn2) expression, and was further matched by postnatal increases in intestinal Octn1 expression and hepatic γ-Bbh activity. Postnatal increases in heart L-carnitine levels were significantly correlated to postnatal increases in heart Octn2 expression. Although cardiac high energy phosphate substrate levels remained constant through postnatal development, creatine showed developmental increases with advancing neonatal age. mRNA levels of Cpt1b and Cpt2 significantly increased at postnatal day 20, which was not accompanied by a similar increase in activity. Conclusions Several L-carnitine homeostasis pathways underwent significant ontogenesis during postnatal development in the rat. This information will facilitate future studies on factors affecting the developmental maturation of L-carnitine homeostasis mechanisms and how such factors might affect growth and development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Binbing Ling
- College of Pharmacy and Nutrition, University of Saskatchewan, 110 Science Place, Saskatoon, SK, S7N 5C9, Canada.
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Pirman DA, Yost RA. Quantitative tandem mass spectrometric imaging of endogenous acetyl-L-carnitine from piglet brain tissue using an internal standard. Anal Chem 2011; 83:8575-81. [PMID: 21942933 DOI: 10.1021/ac201949b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization (MALDI) based mass spectrometric imaging (MSI) is increasingly being used as an analytical tool to evaluate the molecular makeup of tissue samples. From the direct analysis of a tissue section, the physical integrity of sample is preserved; thus, spatial information of a compound's distribution may be determined. One limitation of the technique, however, has been the inability to determine the absolute concentration from a tissue sample. Here we report the development of a quantitative MSI technique in which the distribution of acetyl-L-carnitine (AC) in a piglet brain sample is quantified with MALDI MSI. An isotopically labeled internal standard was applied uniformly beneath the tissue section, and wide-isolation tandem mass spectrometry was performed. Normalizing the analyte ion signal by the internal standard ion signal resulted in significant improvements in MS images, signal reproducibility, and calibration curve linearity. From the improved MS images, the concentration of AC was determined and plotted producing a concentration-scaled image of the distribution of AC in the piglet brain section.
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Affiliation(s)
- David A Pirman
- Department of Chemistry, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, United States
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LinToh DS, Yee JY, Koo SH, Murray M, Lee EJD. Genetic Variations of the SLC22A5 Gene in the Chinese and Indian Populations of Singapore. Drug Metab Pharmacokinet 2010; 25:112-9. [DOI: 10.2133/dmpk.25.112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Garcia P, Martins E, Diogo L, Rocha H, Marcão A, Gaspar E, Almeida M, Vaz C, Soares I, Barbot C, Vilarinho L. Outcome of three cases of untreated maternal glutaric aciduria type I. Eur J Pediatr 2008; 167:569-73. [PMID: 17661081 DOI: 10.1007/s00431-007-0556-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2007] [Revised: 06/12/2007] [Accepted: 06/13/2007] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
We report, for the first time, the outcome of three children born to two women with untreated glutaric aciduria type I (GA I). Isolated hypocarnitinemia in neonatal screening in one baby allowed the identification of the disease in his mother, who was undiagnosed so far and had had a previous daughter. The other baby was born to an already diagnosed mother who was not treated; newborn screening in the child reflected the metabolic state of the mother. Biochemical abnormalities returned to normal within one week. At the age of 4 months, neuroimaging showed Sylvian enlargement in both infants and bilateral temporal arachnoid cysts in one. Physical and neurological developments were normal for the three patients at ages 2 and 5 years. We conclude that long-term follow up will determine the true impact of GA I in such children.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paula Garcia
- Hospital Pediátrico de Coimbra, Av. Bissaya Barreto, 3000 Coimbra, Portugal
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15
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Talián GC, Komlósi K, Decsi T, Koletzko B, Melegh B. Determination of carnitine ester patterns during the second half of pregnancy, at delivery, and in neonatal cord blood by tandem mass spectrometry: complex and dynamic involvement of carnitine in the intermediary metabolism. Pediatr Res 2007; 62:88-92. [PMID: 17515842 DOI: 10.1203/pdr.0b013e3180676cca] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
We studied plasma concentrations of free carnitine and 30 carnitine esters by electron spray ionization (ESI) tandem mass spectrometry in 37 pregnant women at the 20th and 30th weeks of gestation and at delivery, and in their neonates at birth, and in 22 age-matched nonpregnant women. The plasma levels of acetylcarnitine and carnitine esters with more than five carbons were significantly higher, whereas the concentration of free carnitine was significantly lower at term than at the 20th week of pregnancy (16.75 +/- 0.89 versus 19.61 +/- 1.25). Almost all of C2- to C12-carnitine esters were significantly lower, whereas C16- and C18-carnitines with in-chain modifications were significantly higher in mothers at delivery compared with nonpregnant women. Plasma levels of free carnitine and C2-, C3-, C4-, C5-, C6-, and C16-carnitines were significantly lower, while concentrations of carnitine esters with 8, 10, 12 and 18 carbons in the acyl chain as well as C14:1-, C14:2-, and C16:1-OH-carnitines were significantly higher in mothers at term than in their neonates. The data of the present study clearly show dynamic features of plasma carnitine profile during pregnancy and indicate an extraordinarily active participation of the carnitine in the intermediary metabolism both in the pregnant woman and in the neonate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gábor C Talián
- Department of Medical Genetics and Child Development, University of Pécs, Pécs, Hungary, H-7624
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16
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Lyvers Peffer P, Lin X, Jacobi SK, Gatlin LA, Woodworth J, Odle J. Ontogeny of carnitine palmitoyltransferase I activity, carnitine-Km, and mRNA abundance in pigs throughout growth and development. J Nutr 2007; 137:898-903. [PMID: 17374651 DOI: 10.1093/jn/137.4.898] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Carnitine palmitoyltransferase (CPT) I catalyzes an important regulatory step in lipid metabolism; however, no studies, to our knowledge, have evaluated the molecular and kinetic [maximal velocity and Michaelis constant (K(m)) for carnitine] ontogeny of CPT I and prevailing tissue concentrations of carnitine in pigs. To this end, hepatic and skeletal muscle tissues were examined at various ages: birth; 24 h; 1, 3, 5, and 8 wk of age; and adult. Hepatic and skeletal muscle CPT I specific activities were low at birth and increased 100 and 70%, respectively, during the first week of life (P < 0.05). Skeletal muscle transcript amounts were 2.7-fold greater (P < 0.001) in 24-h-old pigs relative to newborns, whereas hepatic CPT I mRNA remained constant at each age studied. The apparent K(m) for carnitine decreased 48% (P < 0.05) during the initial 3 wk of life in liver and decreased 40% (P < 0.05) during the first week of life in skeletal muscle. Plasma and liver free carnitine concentrations increased 95 and 62%, respectively, within 24 h after birth (P < 0.05) and hepatic carnitine concentrations remained constant through 5 wk of age. Consequently, hepatic carnitine concentrations were 20-80% greater (P < 0.05) than the K(m) for carnitine during the suckling period. Skeletal muscle carnitine met or exceeded the apparent K(m) for carnitine at each stage of development. Collectively, these findings suggest that postnatal increases in CPT I activity during the suckling period are accompanied by increased tissue carnitine; however, the lack of hepatic CPT I mRNA induction and low activity reported in both tissues prior to 1 wk of age may limit postnatal lipid utilization during the piglet's transition to extra-uterine life.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pasha Lyvers Peffer
- Department of Animal Science, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695, USA
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17
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van Vlies N, Tian L, Overmars H, Bootsma A, Kulik W, Wanders R, Wood P, Vaz F. Characterization of carnitine and fatty acid metabolism in the long-chain acyl-CoA dehydrogenase-deficient mouse. Biochem J 2005; 387:185-93. [PMID: 15535801 PMCID: PMC1134946 DOI: 10.1042/bj20041489] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
In the present paper, we describe a novel method which enables the analysis of tissue acylcarnitines and carnitine biosynthesis intermediates in the same sample. This method was used to investigate the carnitine and fatty acid metabolism in wild-type and LCAD-/- (long-chain acyl-CoA dehydrogenase-deficient) mice. In agreement with previous results in plasma and bile, we found accumulation of the characteristic C14:1-acylcarnitine in all investigated tissues from LCAD-/- mice. Surprisingly, quantitatively relevant levels of 3-hydroxyacylcarnitines were found to be present in heart, muscle and brain in wild-type mice, suggesting that, in these tissues, long-chain 3-hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydrogenase is rate-limiting for mitochondrial beta-oxidation. The 3-hydroxyacylcarnitines were absent in LCAD-/- tissues, indicating that, in this situation, the beta-oxidation flux is limited by the LCAD deficiency. A profound deficiency of acetylcarnitine was observed in LCAD-/- hearts, which most likely corresponds with low cardiac levels of acetyl-CoA. Since there was no carnitine deficiency and only a marginal elevation of potentially cardiotoxic acylcarnitines, we conclude from these data that the cardiomyopathy in the LCAD-/- mouse is caused primarily by a severe energy deficiency in the heart, stressing the important role of LCAD in cardiac fatty acid metabolism in the mouse.
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Affiliation(s)
- Naomi van Vlies
- *Departments of Clinical Chemistry and Pediatrics, Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, P.O. Box 22700, 1100 DE Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Liqun Tian
- †Department of Genetics, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294-0024, U.S.A
| | - Henk Overmars
- *Departments of Clinical Chemistry and Pediatrics, Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, P.O. Box 22700, 1100 DE Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Albert H. Bootsma
- *Departments of Clinical Chemistry and Pediatrics, Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, P.O. Box 22700, 1100 DE Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Willem Kulik
- *Departments of Clinical Chemistry and Pediatrics, Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, P.O. Box 22700, 1100 DE Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Ronald J. A. Wanders
- *Departments of Clinical Chemistry and Pediatrics, Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, P.O. Box 22700, 1100 DE Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Philip A. Wood
- †Department of Genetics, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294-0024, U.S.A
| | - Frédéric M. Vaz
- *Departments of Clinical Chemistry and Pediatrics, Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, P.O. Box 22700, 1100 DE Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- To whom correspondence should be addressed (email )
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18
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Grube M, Meyer Zu Schwabedissen H, Draber K, Präger D, Möritz KU, Linnemann K, Fusch C, Jedlitschky G, Kroemer HK. EXPRESSION, LOCALIZATION, AND FUNCTION OF THE CARNITINE TRANSPORTER OCTN2 (SLC22A5) IN HUMAN PLACENTA. Drug Metab Dispos 2004; 33:31-7. [PMID: 15486076 DOI: 10.1124/dmd.104.001560] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
L-carnitine is assumed to play an important role in fetal development, and there is evidence that carnitine is transported across the placenta. The protein involved in this transfer, however, has not been identified on a molecular level. We therefore characterized localization and function of the carnitine transporter OCTN2 in human placenta. Significant expression of OCTN2 mRNA was detected in human placenta applying real-time polymerase chain reaction technology. Confocal immunofluorescence microscopy using an antibody directed against the carboxy terminus of OCTN2 protein revealed that it is predominantly expressed in the apical membrane of syncytiotrophoblasts. This was confirmed by the costaining of organic anion-transporting polypeptide B and MRP2, which are known to be expressed mainly in the basal and apical syncytiotrophoblasts membrane, respectively. To further support this finding, we performed transport studies using basal and apical placenta membrane vesicles. We could demonstrate that the carnitine uptake into the apical vesicles was about eight times higher compared with the basal ones. Moreover, this uptake was sodium- and pH-dependent with an apparent K(m) value of 21 muM and inhibited by verapamil, which is in line with published data for recombinant OCTN2. Finally, experiments using trophoblasts in cell culture revealed that expression of OCTN2 paralleled human choriogonadotropin production and thus is modulated by cellular differentiation. In summary, we show expression and function of OCTN2 in human placenta. Moreover, several lines of evidence indicate that OCTN2 is localized in the apical membrane of syncytiotrophoblasts, thereby suggesting a major role in the uptake of carnitine during fetal development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Markus Grube
- Department of Pharmacology, Friedrich Loefflerstr. 23d, 17487 Greifswald, Germany
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Abstract
Achieving appropriate growth and nutrient accretion of preterm and low birth weight (LBW) infants is often difficult during hospitalization because of metabolic and gastrointestinal immaturity and other complicating medical conditions. Advances in the care of preterm-LBW infants, including improved nutrition, have reduced mortality rates for these infants from 9.6 to 6.2% from 1983 to 1997. The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has responsibility for ensuring the safety and nutritional quality of infant formulas based on current scientific knowledge. Consequently, under FDA contract, an ad hoc Expert Panel was convened by the Life Sciences Research Office of the American Society for Nutritional Sciences to make recommendations for the nutrient content of formulas for preterm-LBW infants based on current scientific knowledge and expert opinion. Recommendations were developed from different criteria than that used for recommendations for term infant formula. To ensure nutrient adequacy, the Panel considered intrauterine accretion rate, organ development, factorial estimates of requirements, nutrient interactions and supplemental feeding studies. Consideration was also given to long-term developmental outcome. Some recommendations were based on current use in domestic preterm formula. Included were recommendations for nutrients not required in formula for term infants such as lactose and arginine. Recommendations, examples, and sample calculations were based on a 1000 g preterm infant consuming 120 kcal/kg and 150 mL/d of an 810 kcal/L formula. A summary of recommendations for energy and 45 nutrient components of enteral formulas for preterm-LBW infants are presented. Recommendations for five nutrient:nutrient ratios are also presented. In addition, critical areas for future research on the nutritional requirements specific for preterm-LBW infants are identified.
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Affiliation(s)
- Catherine J Klein
- Life Sciences Research Office, 9650 Rockville Pike, Bethesda, Maryland 20814, USA.
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20
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Abstract
Essential factors for normal fetal growth include the correct utilization by the fetus of a suitable supply of energy and plastic nutrients, together with the adequate genic expression of the factors promoting tissue growth and an optimal hormonal framework. The nutritional state and welfare of the mother, the endocrine changes experienced and the uteroplacental function have all been related to the health of the fetus and the newborn infant, premature births, fetal nutritional disorders, certain diseases and even death.
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Affiliation(s)
- J A Molina-Font
- Department of Pediatrics, School of Medicine, University of Granada, Spain.
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21
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Abstract
Carnitine performs a crucial role in the energy supply of tissues during fetal life and in the neonatal period by controlling the influx of fatty acids into mitochondria. Carnitine also facilitates the oxidation of pyruvate and branched chain amino acids, and contributes to the protection of cells from the deleterious actions of acyl CoAs. Carnitine further acts as a secondary antioxidant, favouring fatty acid replacement within previously oxidatively damaged membrane phospholipids. Availability of L-carnitine is essential in the developing fetus for processes underlying fetal maturation. L-carnitine is also essential for development of hepatic ketone synthesis, a central pathway for neonatal energy metabolism. Ketone bodies inhibit the oxidation of both glucose and lactate, sparing these metabolic substrates for biosynthetic functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Arenas
- Centro de Investigación Hospital Universitario 12 de Octubre, Madrid, Spain.
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22
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Abstract
Nutritional status is an important factor in determining susceptibility to toxic chemicals. While macro and micronutrients may affect many aspects of Stage I and Stage II of toxicity, in this paper, the influence of macronutrients as sources of energy required for cell division and tissue repair mechanisms on the outcome of hepatic injury is discussed. Male Sprague-Dawley rats maintained on normal rodent chow and 15% glucose (as a source of energy for the centrilobular hepatocytes) in drinking water for 7 days experienced an increased lethality from structurally and mechanistically different centrilobular hepatotoxicants (acetaminophen, thioacetamide, chloroform and carbon tetrachloride), while male Sprague-Dawley (S-D) rats fed rat chow containing palmitic acid (PA, 8% w/w, as a source of energy for the periportal hepatocytes) and L-carnitine (LC, 2 mg/ml, as a mitochondrial carrier for the supplemented fatty acids) in drinking water for 7 days were protected from a LD100 dose (600 mg/kg, i.p.) of thioacetamide (TA). Indices of cell division revealed that cell cycle progression in the liver played a very critical role in determining the final outcome of hepatotoxic injury. These results confirmed our hypothesis that cell division and tissue repair play a critical role in survival after life-threatening hepatotoxic injury. Any manipulation directed towards altering a prompt and exacting compensatory cell division and tissue repair responses after hepatotoxic injury would also alter the final outcome of the toxicity. These studies indicate that the source of cellular energy can decisively influence the compensatory response of the target tissue to alter the outcome of hepatotoxic injury. Since nutritional status is known to vary widely among human populations, these could contribute enormously to susceptibility of human populations to toxic chemicals.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Chanda
- Division of Toxicology, College of Pharmacy and Health Sciences, Northeast Louisiana University, Monroe 71209-0470, USA
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23
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Shigematsu Y, Nakai A, Liu YY, Kikawa Y, Sudo M, Fujioka M. Free carnitine and short-chain acylcarnitines in cerebrospinal fluid of patients with disorders of propionate metabolism determined by fast atom bombardment and tandem mass spectrometry. ACTA PAEDIATRICA JAPONICA : OVERSEAS EDITION 1994; 36:112-5. [PMID: 8165900 DOI: 10.1111/j.1442-200x.1994.tb03143.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Y Shigematsu
- Department of Pediatrics, Fukui Medical School, Fukui, Japan
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24
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De Simone R, Ramacci MT, Aloe L. Effect of acetyl-L-carnitine on forebrain cholinergic neurons of developing rats. Int J Dev Neurosci 1991; 9:39-46. [PMID: 1849696 DOI: 10.1016/0736-5748(91)90071-s] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
It has been shown that the endogenous compound, acetyl-L-carnitine (ALCAR), acts in the brain as a metabolic cofactor in the synthesis of acetylcholine. In these studies, ALCAR was injected into the brain of developing rats every other day for the first three weeks after birth in order to assess its effect on forebrain cholinergic neurons. The results showed that intracerebroventricular (icv) administration of ALCAR causes an increase of choline acetyltransferase (ChAT) activity and of nerve growth factor receptor expression in the striatum. Biological assays of brain tissues revealed that the level of nerve growth factor (NGF) in the hippocampus also increases. The ability of brain cholinergic tissues to respond to exogenous administration of ALCAR is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- R De Simone
- Institute of Neurobiology, C.N.R., Rome, Italy
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