Structure and function of the pentraxins

Systemic lupus erythematosus as the paradigm for understanding the complex immune relationships and therapeutic opportunities for targeting complement in autoimmune diseases

Complement therapeutics have been increasingly tested and approved for human diseases, often in orphan diseases with strong and apparently causal genetic linkage or mutation-associated features. However, the complement system has been demonstrated to be activated in essentially all human inflammatory, ischemic and autoimmune diseases, suggesting the possibility of even wider therapeutic applications. The goal of this manuscript is to review some of the evidence supporting a wide role for complement in the specific treatment of autoimmune diseases, especially as recent approvals in autoantibody-driven diseases are opening the door to others of these indications. However, in part because of a dearth of complement biomarker data obtained during clinical trials, it is not known what findings would help to predict therapeutic success in other autoimmune diseases. To frame the discussion, it is relevant to point out that the disease systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) has been among the most extensively studied autoimmune disease with regards to the varied roles of the complement system, and there are available both human phenotypic studies and murine model data. Because of that history, SLE will be focused upon herein, the many roles of complement in SLE will be reviewed, and informative comparisons to other autoimmune diseases will be made. In aggregate, experimental and phenotypic data suggest that each human autoimmune disease deserves careful attention to the possibility that a specific complement inhibitor targeting the most relevant complement convertase or component will be of benefit, and thus therapeutic approaches should be tested using informative biomarker-driven clinical trial strategies.

Assessing the Inhibitory Potential of Pregnenolone Sulfate on Pentraxin 3 in Diabetic Kidney Disease: A Molecular Docking and Simulation Study

Diabetic Kidney Disease (DKD), a frequent consequence of diabetes, has substantial implications for both morbidity and mortality rates, prompting the exploration of new metabolic biomarkers due to limitations in current methods like creatinine and albumin measurements. Pentraxin 3 (PTX3) shows promise for assessing renal inflammation in DKD. This study investigates how DKD metabolites could influence PTX3 expression through molecular docking, ADMET profiling, and dynamic simulation. Network and pathway analyses were conducted to explore metabolite interactions with DKD genes and their contributions to DKD pathogenesis. Thirty-three DKD-associated metabolites were screened, using pentoxifylline (PEN) as a reference. The pharmacokinetic properties of these compounds were evaluated through molecular docking and ADMET profiling. Molecular dynamics simulations over 200 ns assessed the stability of PTX3 (apo), the PRE-PTX3 complex, and PEN-PTX3 across multiple parameters. Cytoscape identified 1082 nodes and 1381 edges linking metabolites with DKD genes. KEGG pathway analysis underscored PTX3's role in inflammation. Molecular docking revealed pregnenolone sulfate (PRE) with the highest binding affinity (-6.25 kcal/mol), followed by hydrocortisone (-6.03 kcal/mol) and 2-arachidonoylglycerol (-5.92 kcal/mol), compared to PEN (-5.35 kcal/mol). ADMET profiling selected PRE for dynamic simulation alongside PEN. Analysis of RMSD, RMSF, RG, SASA, H-bond, PCA, FEL, and MM-PBSA indicated stable complex behavior over time. Our findings suggest that increasing PRE levels could be beneficial in managing DKD, potentially through isolating PRE from fungal sources, synthesizing it as dietary supplements, or enhancing endogenous PRE synthesis within the body.

The Multiple Roles of LCCL Domain-Containing Proteins for Malaria Parasite Transmission

Multi-protein complexes are crucial for various essential biological processes of the malaria parasite Plasmodium, such as protein synthesis, host cell invasion and adhesion. Especially during the sexual phase of the parasite, which takes place in the midgut of the mosquito vector, protein complexes are required for fertilization, sporulation and ultimately for the successful transmission of the parasite. Among the most noticeable protein complexes of the transmission stages are the ones formed by the LCCL domain-containing protein family that play critical roles in the generation of infective sporozoites. The six members of this protein family are characterized by numerous adhesive modules and domains typically found in secreted proteins. This review summarizes the findings of expression and functional studies on the LCCL domain-containing proteins of the human pathogenic P. falciparum and the rodent-infecting P. berghei and discusses the common features and differences of the homologous proteins.

Repeat-dose and embryo-fetal developmental toxicity of zinpentraxin alfa

Zinpentraxin alfa is a recombinant human pentraxin-2 (PTX-2) developed for the treatment of various fibrotic diseases with the hypothesis that supplementing endogenous PTX-2 levels through intravenous administration should increase its regulatory capacity in circulation and at the site of disease, thereby promoting healing and reducing fibrosis. Zinpentraxin alfa has been studied in various clinical trials, particularly in patients with idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis, where it has demonstrated efficacy in slowing decline in lung function in a phase 2 study. In the present investigation, we summarize findings from 14-day repeat-dose toxicity studies in rats and cynomolgus monkeys supporting early clinical development of zinpentraxin alfa. In addition, we also describe the findings from the embryo-fetal developmental (EFD) studies conducted in rats and rabbits, since the intended fibrosis patient population may include patients of childbearing potential. Zinpentraxin alfa was well tolerated by rats and monkeys in general toxicity studies with no treatment-related adverse effects, as well as by pregnant rats over the same dose range in a definitive EFD study. In contrast, substantial toxicity was observed in a rabbit dose-range-finder EFD study. Zinpentraxin alfa was poorly tolerated by pregnant rabbits and effects on the dams correlated with post-implantation fetal losses. The disparate effects of zinpentraxin alfa on embryo-fetal development between the two species suggests a potential unknown biological function of PTX-2 in pregnancy in the rabbit, which may be relevant to humans. Our findings warrant the consideration for highly effective contraceptive measures to avoid pregnancy in patients enrolled in clinical studies with zinpentraxin alfa.

Fish Skin Mucus Extracts: An Underexplored Source of Antimicrobial Agents

The slow discovery of new antibiotics combined with the alarming emergence of antibiotic-resistant bacteria underscores the need for alternative treatments. In this regard, fish skin mucus has been demonstrated to contain a diverse array of bioactive molecules with antimicrobial properties, including peptides, proteins, and other metabolites. This review aims to provide an overview of the antimicrobial molecules found in fish skin mucus and its reported in vitro antimicrobial capacity against bacteria, fungi, and viruses. Additionally, the different methods of mucus extraction, which can be grouped as aqueous, organic, and acidic extractions, are presented. Finally, omic techniques (genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics, metabolomics, and multiomics) are described as key tools for the identification and isolation of new antimicrobial compounds. Overall, this study provides valuable insight into the potential of fish skin mucus as a promising source for the discovery of new antimicrobial agents.

Contributions of animal models to mechanistic understandings of antibody-dependent disease and roles of the amplification loop

The complement system plays an important pathophysiologic role in human diseases associated with immune or ischemic insults. In addition to understanding the effector mechanisms that are important for the biological effects of the system, substantial efforts have gone into understanding which specific complement activation pathways generate these potent effects. These approaches include the use of gene-targeted mice and specific pathway inhibitors, as well as the integration of human disease genetic and biomarker studies. In some disease states, it is quite clear that the alternate pathway plays a unique role in the initiation of the complement system. However, although initially a widely unexpected finding, it has now been shown in many tissue-based disease models and in initial human studies that engagement of the amplification loop is also essential for tissue injury when the classical and/or lectin pathways initiate pathway activation through pathogenic autoantibodies. This review provides evidence for such a conclusion through animal models, focusing on pathogenic antibody passive transfer models but also other relevant experimental systems. These data, along with initial biomarkers and clinical trial outcomes in human diseases that are associated with pathogenic autoantibodies, suggest that targeting the alternative pathway amplification loop may have near-universal therapeutic utility for tissue-based diseases.

Developmental Programming: Prenatal Testosterone Excess on Liver and Muscle Coding and Noncoding RNA in Female Sheep

Prenatal testosterone (T)-treated female sheep manifest peripheral insulin resistance, ectopic lipid accumulation, and insulin signaling disruption in liver and muscle. This study investigated transcriptional changes and transcriptome signature of prenatal T excess-induced hepatic and muscle-specific metabolic disruptions. Genome-wide coding and noncoding (nc) RNA expression in liver and muscle from 21-month-old prenatal T-treated (T propionate 100 mg intramuscular twice weekly from days 30-90 of gestation; term: 147 days) and control females were compared. Prenatal T (1) induced differential expression of messenger RNAs (mRNAs) in liver (15 down, 17 up) and muscle (66 down, 176 up) (false discovery rate < 0.05, absolute log2 fold change > 0.5); (2) downregulated mitochondrial pathway genes in liver and muscle; (3) downregulated hepatic lipid catabolism and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR) signaling gene pathways; (4) modulated noncoding RNA (ncRNA) metabolic processes gene pathway in muscle; and (5) downregulated 5 uncharacterized long noncoding RNA (lncRNA) in the muscle but no ncRNA changes in the liver. Correlation analysis showed downregulation of lncRNAs LOC114112974 and LOC105607806 was associated with decreased TPK1, and LOC114113790 with increased ZNF470 expression. Orthogonal projections to latent structures discriminant analysis identified mRNAs HADHA and SLC25A45, and microRNAs MIR154A, MIR25, and MIR487B in the liver and ARIH1 and ITCH and miRNAs MIR369, MIR10A, and MIR10B in muscle as potential biomarkers of prenatal T excess. These findings suggest downregulation of mitochondria, lipid catabolism, and PPAR signaling genes in the liver and dysregulation of mitochondrial and ncRNA gene pathways in muscle are contributors of lipotoxic and insulin-resistant hepatic and muscle phenotype. Gestational T excess programming of metabolic dysfunctions involve tissue-specific ncRNA-modulated transcriptional changes.

New Insights on the Role of pentraxin-3 in Allergic Asthma

Pentraxins are soluble pattern recognition receptors that play a major role in regulating innate immune responses. Through their interaction with complement components, Fcγ receptors, and different microbial moieties, Pentraxins cause an amplification of the inflammatory response. Pentraxin-3 is of particular interest since it was identified as a biomarker for several immune-pathological diseases. In allergic asthma, pentraxin-3 is produced by immune and structural cells and is up-regulated by pro-asthmatic cytokines such as TNFα and IL-1β. Strikingly, some recent experimental evidence demonstrated a protective role of pentraxin-3 in chronic airway inflammatory diseases such as allergic asthma. Indeed, reduced pentraxin-3 levels have been associated with neutrophilic inflammation, Th17 immune response, insensitivity to standard therapeutics and a severe form of the disease. In this review, we will summarize the current knowledge of the role of pentraxin-3 in innate immune response and discuss the protective role of pentraxin-3 in allergic asthma.

Anti-Pentraxin Antibodies in Autoimmune Diseases: Bystanders or Pathophysiological Actors?

Pentraxins are soluble innate immunity receptors involved in sensing danger molecules. They are classified as short (CRP, SAP) and long pentraxin subfamilies, including the prototypic long pentraxin PTX3. Pentraxins act mainly as bridging molecules favoring the clearance of microbes and dead cells. They are also involved in many other biological processes, such as regulation of complement activation, inflammation and tissue homeostasis. Autoantibodies directed against pentraxins have been reported in various autoimmune diseases, especially in systemic lupus erythematosus and ANCA-associated vasculitis. In this review, we review the main biological characteristics and functions of pentraxins and summarize data concerning autoantibodies directed against pentraxins in the context of autoimmune diseases and discuss their potential pathological role.

Broad distribution, high diversity and ancient origin of the ApeC-containing proteins

Apextrin C-terminal (ApeC) is a novel protein domain with unknown functions, although early studies suggest that some ApeC-containing proteins (ACPs) bind to carbohydrates and have a role in development and immunity. Here we investigated the taxonomic distribution, sequence diversification and origin of ACPs in Metazoa. Most ACPs are present in invertebrates from aquatic or moist environments, including cnidarians, mollusks, echinoderms, cephalochordates, flatworms, water bears, nematodes and annelids. However, ACPs are absent in vertebrates and in most arthropod lineages (e.g. insects and crustaceans) except arachnids. ACPs apparently undergo rapid turnover and diversification, hence no orthologs could be found between (sub)phyla. ApeC can function either as a standalone domain or as a partner domain. It has been found to pair up with over ten different domain types in different ACPs. The partner domains are related to immunity, extracellular matrix, protein-protein and protein-carbohydrate interactions. Notably, the domain pair with the widest taxonomic distribution is MACPF/perforin-ApeC, which represent a classic group of ACPs called apextrins. ApeC also frequently pairs up with itself to form dual-ApeC modules in different phyla. Notably, in parasite flatworms, dual-ApeCs are present in 70% of ACPs and all inherited from a common ancestor. The broad distribution of MACPF-ApeC and dual-ApeC suggest their conserved yet unknown functions. We also discovered distant ApeC homologs in bacteria, hence tracing the origin of ApeC back to prokaryotes. Our findings show that ApeC has an ancient origin and is able to function alone or in complex domain architectures, though it is less prevalent than other versatile domains such as immunoglobulin domains and C-type lectin domains. This work provides a foundation for further functional study of this novel domain type.

An overview on human serum lectins

An extensive literature survey done on the various naturally occurring lectins in human serum upon its salient features such as methods of detection, level and sites of synthesis, binding specificity, cation dependency, modes of isolation, molecular and functional characterization way back from 1930s to till date was presented in a tabulated section. In addition, the generation of lectin and other immune molecules in vertebrates upon treatment with exogenous elicitors has also been framed in a tabular form. Furthermore, ANEW lectin induced in human serum for the very first time by an exogenous elicitor was detected, isolated and characterized by us whose features are also tabulated explicitly.

Comparative analysis of affected and unaffected areas of systemic sclerosis skin biopsies by high-throughput proteomic approaches

Background

Pathogenesis and aetiology of systemic sclerosis (SSc) are currently unclear, thus rendering disease prognosis, diagnosis and treatment challenging. The aim of this study was to use paired skin biopsy samples from affected and unaffected areas of the same patient, in order to compare the proteomes and identify biomarkers and pathways which are associated with SSc pathogenesis.

Methods

Biopsies were obtained from affected and unaffected skin areas of SSc patients. Samples were cryo-pulverised and proteins were extracted and analysed using mass spectrometry (MS) discovery analysis. Differentially expressed proteins were revealed after analysis with the Progenesis QIp software. Pathway analysis was performed using the Enrichr Web server. Using specific criteria, fifteen proteins were selected for further validation with targeted-MS analysis.

Results

Proteomic analysis led to the identification and quantification of approximately 2000 non-redundant proteins. Statistical analysis showed that 169 of these proteins were significantly differentially expressed in affected versus unaffected tissues. Pathway analyses showed that these proteins are involved in multiple pathways that are associated with autoimmune diseases (AIDs) and fibrosis. Fifteen of these proteins were further investigated using targeted-MS approaches, and five of them were confirmed to be significantly differentially expressed in SSc affected versus unaffected skin biopsies.

Conclusion

Using MS-based proteomics analysis of human skin biopsies from patients with SSc, we identified a number of proteins and pathways that might be involved in SSc progression and pathogenesis. Fifteen of these proteins were further validated, and results suggest that five of them may serve as potential biomarkers for SSc.

Common carp pentraxin gene: Evidence for its role in ovarian differentiation and growth

Pentraxins (PTX), belong to an evolutionarily conserved family, containing a PTX protein domain, having role in acute immunological responses and fertility in higher vertebrates. However, information regarding the action of ptx on reproduction is extremely limited in fish. To study this, ptx cDNA was cloned for downstream analysis. Tissue distribution and ontogeny expression analysis indicated the prevalence of ptx in ovary. Varied phase-wise expression during carp ovarian cycle and elevated ptx expression after human chorionic gonadotropin induction, in vitro and in vivo, indicated probable regulation of gonadotropin. In situ hybridization and immunohistochemistry revealed the presence of ptx transcript and protein in the follicular layer of stage-III/IV oocytes indicating a role in ovarian growth. To assess the functional significance of ptx, transient silencing was performed using follicular primary cell culture, in vitro and in common carp, in vivo, through ovary-targeted injection of PEI-siRNA. Transient silencing of ptx-siRNA reduced the expression of various genes/factors related to oogenesis such as transcription factors, several steroidogenic enzymes, and esrs genes. These alterations in expression suggested a plausible role for ptx in ovarian steroidogenesis either, directly or indirectly, which is evident from the changes in the serum estradiol-17β (E₂) and 17α,20β-dihydroxyprogesterone levels. Furthermore, downregulation of aromatase activity was also noticed after transient silencing. Increased ptx expression after E₂ induced sex reversal to juvenile carp showed the correlative role of ptx during ovarian differentiation and development. Taken together, these findings suggest that ptx exerts an important role during ovarian growth, maturation and/or recrudescence of common carp.

A Comprehensive Review of Alzheimer's Association with Related Proteins: Pathological Role and Therapeutic Significance

Alzheimer's is an insidious, progressive, chronic neurodegenerative disease which causes the devastation of neurons. Alzheimer's possesses complex pathologies of heterogeneous nature counting proteins as one major factor along with enzymes and mutated genes. Proteins such as amyloid precursor protein (APP), apolipoprotein E (ApoE), presenilin, mortalin, calbindin-D28K, creactive protein, heat shock proteins (HSPs), and prion protein are some of the chief elements in the foremost hypotheses of AD like amyloid-beta (Aβ) cascade hypothesis, tau hypothesis, cholinergic neuron damage, etc. Disturbed expression of these proteins results in synaptic dysfunction, cognitive impairment, memory loss, and neuronal degradation. On the therapeutic ground, attempts of developing anti-amyloid, anti-inflammatory, anti-tau therapies are on peak, having APP and tau as putative targets. Some proteins, e.g., HSPs, which ameliorate oxidative stress, calpains, which help in regulating synaptic plasticity, and calmodulin-like skin protein (CLSP) with its neuroprotective role are few promising future targets for developing anti-AD therapies. On diagnostic grounds of AD C-reactive protein, pentraxins, collapsin response mediator protein-2, and growth-associated protein-43 represent the future of new possible biomarkers for diagnosing AD. The last few decades were concentrated over identifying and studying protein targets of AD. Here, we reviewed the physiological/pathological roles and therapeutic significance of nearly all the proteins associated with AD that addresses putative as well as probable targets for developing effective anti-AD therapies.

Functional Genetic Variant of Long Pentraxin 3 Gene Is Associated With Clinical Aspects of Oral Cancer in Male Patients

Long pentraxin 3 (PTX3) is produced by various cell types and is correlated with tumor progression in various tumor types. However, the clinical significance of PTX3 polymorphisms in oral cancer and their correlation with the risk of cancer are still unclear. In this study, we assessed the influence of PTX3 gene polymorphisms and environmental factors on susceptibility to oral tumorigenesis. We recruited 865 cases with oral cancer and 1,189 controls. Four single-nucleotide variations of the PTX3 gene (rs1840680, rs2305619, rs3816527, and rs2120243) were verified using a real-time polymerase chain reaction in control participants and cases with oral cancer. We found that rs3816527 in smokers was correlated with the development of late-stage cancer (odds ratio [OR], 2.328; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.078-5.027) and increased lymph node metastasis (OR, 2.152; 95% CI, 1.047-4.422). Moreover, additional bioinformatics analysis results showed that the rs3816527 C allele variant to the A allele exhibited the strongest exonic splicing enhancer activity. In conclusion, our results suggested that PTX3 rs3816527 plays a role in oral cancer development.

Losmapimod Protected Epileptic Rats From Hippocampal Neuron Damage Through Inhibition of the MAPK Pathway

Objective: This research aimed to validate the therapeutic effect of losmapimod and explore the underlying mechanism in its treatment of epilepsy.

Methods: A rat model of epilepsy was constructed with an injection of pilocarpine. Microarray analysis was performed to screen aberrantly expressed mRNAs and activated signaling pathways between epileptic rats and normal controls. A TdT-mediated dUTP nick-end labeling (TUNEL) assay was used to identify cell apoptosis. Hippocampal cytoarchitecture was visualized with Nissl staining. The secretion of inflammatory factors as well as the marker proteins in the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway were detected by Western blot. A Morris water maze navigation test evaluated the rats’ cognitive functions.

Results: Activation of the MAPK signaling pathway was observed in epilepsy rats. A decrease in the MAPK phosphorylation level by application of losmapimod protected against epilepsy by reducing neuron loss. Losmapimod effectively improved memory, reduced the frequency of seizures, protected the neuron from damage, and limited the apoptosis of neurons in epilepsy rats.

Conclusion: The application of losmapimod could partly reverse the development of epilepsy.

Serum levels and gene expression of pentraxin 3 are elevated in COPD

PURPOSE

Pentraxin 3 (PTX-3) is an acute phase protein that belongs to the pentraxin superfamily. It is synthesized locally at the site of inflammation and its levels are related to the damage of blood vessels. There are only a few studies examining the relationship between PTX-3 and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). The aim of this study was to evaluate the serum levels of PTX-3 and relative PTX-3 gene expression in COPD patients and their correlations with cigarette smoking history and lung function.

MATERIALS/METHODS

A total number of 34 participants were enrolled into this study. Only stable patients without comorbidities were recruited. After obtaining written informed consent all planned procedures were performed (pre- and post-bronchodilator spirometry, blood samples for PTX-3 serum levels and PTX-3 gene expression measurements, demographical data, medical history, COPD patients were also asked for CAT and MMRC questionnaires).

RESULTS

PTX-3 serum levels were significantly higher in the COPD group (29.22 (5.47) ng/ml vs. 14.64 (3.64) ng/ml). PTX-3 gene relative quantification (RQ) values were also significantly higher in the COPD group (0.15 (1.33) vs. -2.80 (1.99)). No differences in CRP serum levels were found between the control group and the COPD group.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study demonstrates that serum levels of PTX-3 and the relative expression values of its gene are elevated in COPD, and can be related to cigarette smoking history.

Comparison of liver gene expression by RNAseq and PCR analysis after 8 weeks of feeding soy protein isolate- or casein-based diets in an obese liver steatosis rat model

Differential expression of genes provides insight into fundamental mechanisms associated with the ability of soy protein isolate to attenuate liver steatosis in genetically obese rats.

The Harderian gland transcriptomes of Caraiba andreae, Cubophis cantherigerus and Tretanorhinus variabilis, three colubroid snakes from Cuba

The Harderian gland is a cephalic structure, widely distributed among vertebrates. In snakes, the Harderian gland is anatomically connected to the vomeronasal organ via the nasolacrimal duct, and in some species can be larger than the eyes. The function of the Harderian gland remains elusive, but it has been proposed to play a role in the production of saliva, pheromones, thermoregulatory lipids and growth factors, among others. Here, we have profiled the transcriptomes of the Harderian glands of three non-front-fanged colubroid snakes from Cuba: Caraiba andreae (Cuban Lesser Racer); Cubophis cantherigerus (Cuban Racer); and Tretanorhinus variabilis (Caribbean Water Snake), using Illumina HiSeq2000 100 bp paired-end. In addition to ribosomal and non-characterized proteins, the most abundant transcripts encode putative transport/binding, lipocalin/lipocalin-like, and bactericidal/permeability-increasing-like proteins. Transcripts coding for putative canonical toxins described in venomous snakes were also identified. This transcriptional profile suggests a more complex function than previously recognized for this enigmatic organ.

The putative immune recognition repertoire of the model cnidarian Hydractinia symbiolongicarpus is large and diverse

Immune recognition of molecular patterns from microorganisms or self-altered cells activate effector responses that neutralize and eliminate these potentially harmful agents. In virtually every metazoan group the process is carried out by pattern recognition receptors, typically constituted by immunoglobulin (Ig), leucine rich repeat (LRR), and/or lectin domains. In order to get insights into the ancestral immune recognition repertoire of animals, we have sequenced the transcriptome of bacterially challenged colonies of the model cnidarian Hydractinia symbiolongicarpus using the Illumina platform. Over 116,000 assembled contigs were annotated by sequence similarity, domain architecture, and functionally. From these, a subset of 315 unique transcripts was predicted as the putative immune recognition repertoire of H. symbiolongicarpus. Interestingly, canonical Toll-like receptors (TLR) were not predicted, nor any transmembrane protein with the Toll/interleukine-1 receptor (TIR) domain. Yet, a variety of predicted proteins with transmembrane domains associated with LRR ectodomains were identified, as well as homologs of the key transduction factor NF-kB, and its associated regulatory proteins. This also has been documented in Hydra, and suggests that recognition and signaling initiation has been decoupled in the TLR system of hydrozoans. In contrast, both canonical and non-canonical NOD-like receptors were identified in H. symbiolongicarpus, showing a higher diversity than the TLR system and perhaps a wider functional landscape. The collection of Ig-like containing putative immune recognition molecules was diverse, and included at least 26 unique membrane-bound predicted proteins and 88 cytoplasmic/secreted predicted molecules. In addition, 25 and 5 transcripts encoding the Ig-like containing allorecognition determinants ALR1 and ALR2, respectively, were identified. Sequence and phylogenetic analyses suggested the presence of various transcriptionally active alr loci, and the action of recombination-based mechanisms diversifying them. Transcripts encoding at least six lectin families with putative roles in immune recognition were found, including 19 unique C-type lectins and 21 unique rhamnose-binding lectins. Other predicted immune recognition receptors included scavenger receptors from three families, lipopolysaccharide-binding proteins, cell-adhesion molecules and thioester-bond containing proteins. This analysis demonstrated that the putative immune recognition repertoire of H. symbiolongicarpus is large and diverse.

Study on Association of Pentraxin 3 and Diabetic Nephropathy in a Rat Model

Diabetic nephropathy (DN) is a serious microvascular complication of diabetes. Compared with other therapies for diabetic patients, islet transplantation can effectively prevent and reverse diabetes-induced microvascular disease, such as diabetic retinopathy and nephropathy. PTX3 is the only long pentraxin that can be detected in renal tissue. In this study, we investigated the expression of PTX3 when early DN was reversed after islet transplantation. Methods. Diabetes was induced in rats by injecting streptozotocin (STZ). Twelve weeks later, the diabetic rats were divided into 2 groups: the islet transplantation group (IT) and the diabetic nephropathy group (DN). Renal injury, renal function, and the expression of PTX3 in the plasma and the kidneys were assessed with urinalysis, immunohistochemical staining, and Western blot, respectively. Results. The expression of PTX3 in the kidney was significantly decreased in the DN group but increased in the IT group because of the reversal of DN. Conclusions. Our data showed that the level of PTX3 in renal tissue is closely related to renal injury in DN. This may be used to quantify the extent of renal injury in DN, provide a potential early indicator of renal tubular injury in early DN patients, and assess DN clinical progression.

Long pentraxin 3: A novel multifaceted player in cancer

Since its discovery in 1992, long pentraxin 3 (PTX3) has been characterized as soluble patter recognition receptor, a key player of the innate immunity arm with non-redundant functions in pathogen recognition and inflammatory responses. As a component of the extra-cellular matrix milieu, PTX3 has been implicated also in wound healing/tissue remodeling, cardiovascular diseases, fertility, and infectious diseases. Consequently, PTX3 levels in biological fluids have been proposed as a fluid-phase biomarker in different pathological conditions. In the last decade, experimental evidences have shown that PTX3 may exert a significant impact also on different aspects of cancer biology, including tumor onset, angiogenesis, metastatic dissemination and immune-modulation. However, it remains unclear whether PTX3 acts as a good cop or bad cop in cancer. In this review, we will summarize and discuss the scientific literature data focusing on the role of PTX3 in experimental and human tumors, including its putative translational implications.

New Insights into the Role of Inflammation in the Pathogenesis of Atherosclerosis

Atherosclerosis is a chronic inflammatory disease characterized by the accumulation of lipids, smooth muscle cell proliferation, cell apoptosis, necrosis, fibrosis, and local inflammation. Immune and inflammatory responses have significant effects on every phase of atherosclerosis, and increasing evidence shows that immunity plays a more important role in atherosclerosis by tightly regulating its progression. Therefore, understanding the relationship between immune responses and the atherosclerotic microenvironment is extremely important. This article reviews existing knowledge regarding the pathogenesis of immune responses in the atherosclerotic microenvironment, and the immune mechanisms involved in atherosclerosis formation and activation.

Serum C-Reactive Protein as a Prognostic Biomarker in Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis

Importance

Various factors have been proposed as possible candidates associated with the prognosis of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS); however, there is still no consensus on which biomarkers are reliable prognostic factors. C-reactive protein (CRP) is a biomarker of the inflammatory response that shows significant prognostic value for several diseases.

Objective

To examine the prognostic significance of CRP in ALS.

Design, Setting, and Participants

Patients' serum CRP levels were evaluated from January 1, 2009, to June 30, 2015, in a large cohort of patients with ALS observed by an Italian tertiary multidisciplinary center. Results were replicated in an independent cohort obtained from a population-based registry of patients with ALS. A post hoc analysis was performed of the phase 2 trial of NP001 to determine whether stratification by levels of CRP improves differentiation of responders and nonresponders to the drug.

Main Outcomes and Measures

Serum CRP levels from the first examination were recorded to assess their effect on disease progression and survival.

Results

A total of 394 patients with ALS (168 women and 226 men; mean [SD] age at diagnosis, 60.18 [13.60] years) were observed in a tertiary multidisciplinary center, and the analysis was replicated in an independent cohort of 116 patients with ALS (50 women and 66 men; mean [SD] age at diagnosis, 67.00 [10.74] years) identified through a regional population-based registry. Serum CRP levels in the 394 patients with ALS correlated with severity of functional impairment, as measured by total score on the ALS Functional Rating Scale-Revised, at first evaluation (r = -0.14818; P = .004), and with patient survival (hazard ratio, 1.129; 95% CI, 1.033-1.234; P = .007). Similar results were found in the independent cohort (hazard ratio, 1.044; 95% CI, 1.016-1.056; P ≤ .001). Moreover, a post hoc analysis of the phase 2 trial of NP001 using the same CRP threshold showed that patients with elevated baseline CRP levels receiving the higher dose of NP001 had significantly less functional impairment after the treatment period compared with patients with normal baseline CRP, regardless of whether patients with normal CRP levels received NP001 or placebo (3.00 [3.62] vs -7.31 [6.23]; P = .04).

Conclusions and Relevance

These findings suggest that patients with ALS and elevated serum CRP levels progress more rapidly than do those with lower CRP levels and that this elevation may reflect a neuroinflammatory state potentially responsive to the immune regulators such as NP001.

CsPTX1, a pentraxin of Cynoglossus semilaevis, is an innate immunity factor with antibacterial effects

Pentraxin 1 (PTX1) is a member of the pentraxin protein family, which plays important roles in the innate immunity of vertebrates. In fish, the biological function of PTX1 is essentially unknown. In this study, we examined the expression and function of a PTX homologue (CsPTX1) from the tongue sole, Cynoglossus semilaevis. CsPTX1 contains 223 amino acids and shares 49.3%-38.8% overall sequence identity with other known fish pentraxins. CsPTX1 is expressed in multiple tissues and is upregulated by bacterial and viral infection. CsPTX1 contains a pentraxin domain, which is known to bind extracellular antigens, and recombinant CsPTX1 (rCsPTX1) bound a wide range of Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. rCsPTX1 also agglutinated all the bacteria tested in a Ca(2+)-dependent manner and the agglutinating capacity of rCsPTX1 was abolished in the absence of calcium. As well as its ability to agglutinate bacterial cells, rCsPTX1 displayed apparent bacteriostatic activity against Pseudomonas fluorescens in vitro by influencing the permeability of the microbial envelope. When introduced in vivo, rCsPTX1 enhanced the host's resistance to bacterial infection. These results indicate that CsPTX1 is a classic pattern recognition molecule that defends C. semilaevis against bacterial infection.

The inflammatory protein Pentraxin 3 in cardiovascular disease

The acute phase protein Pentraxin 3 (PTX3) plays a non-redundant role as a soluble pattern recognition receptor for selected pathogens and it represents a rapid biomarker for primary local activation of innate immunity and inflammation. Recent evidence indicates that PTX3 exerts an important role in modulating the cardiovascular system in humans and experimental models. In particular, there are conflicting points concerning the effects of PTX3 in cardiovascular diseases (CVD) since several observations indicate a cardiovascular protective effect of PTX3 while others speculate that the increased plasma levels of PTX3 in subjects with CVD correlate with disease severity and with poor prognosis in elderly patients.

In the present review, we discuss the multifaceted effects of PTX3 on the cardiovascular system focusing on its involvement in atherosclerosis, endothelial function, hypertension, myocardial infarction and angiogenesis. This may help to explain how the specific modulation of PTX3 such as the use of different dosing, time, and target organs could help to contain different vascular diseases. These opposite actions of PTX3 will be emphasized concerning the modulation of cardiovascular system where potential therapeutic implications of PTX3 in humans are discussed.

CsSAP, a teleost serum amyloid P component, interacts with bacteria, promotes phagocytosis, and enhances host resistance against bacterial and viral infection

Serum amyloid P component (SAP) is a member of the pentraxins family that plays important roles in innate immunity in vertebrates. In fish, the biological function of SAP is essentially unknown. In this study, we examined the expression and function of a SAP homologue (CsSAP) from tongue sole Cynoglossus semilaevis. CsSAP shares 46%-58% overall sequence identities with known fish SAP and was upregulated in expression by bacterial and viral infection. Recombinant CsSAP (rCsSAP) exhibited differential binding capacities to a wide range of Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria and promoted uptake of the bound bacteria by host phagocytes. When introduced in vivo, rCsSAP enhanced host resistance not only to bacterial infection but also to viral infection. Consistently, antibody blockage of CsSAP significantly weakened the ability of tongue sole to clear invading bacteria. These results provide the first evidence that fish SAP contributes significantly to both antibacterial and antiviral immunities.

High serum levels of proinflammatory markers during epileptogenesis. Can omega-3 fatty acid administration reduce this process?

During the epileptogenic process, several events may occur, such as an important activation of the immune system in the central nervous system. The response to seizure activity results in an inflammation in the brain as well as in the periphery. Moreover, CRP and cytokines may be able to interact with numerous ligands in response to cardiac injury caused by sympathetic stimulation in ictal and postictal states. Based on this, we measured the serum levels of C-reactive protein (CRP) and cytokines during acute, silent, and chronic phases of rats submitted to the pilocarpine model of epilepsy. We have also analyzed the effect of a chronic treatment of these rats with omega-3 fatty acid in CRP and cytokine levels, during an epileptic focus generation. C-reactive protein and cytokines such as IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α presented high concentration in the blood of rats, even well after the occurrence of SE. We found reduced levels of CRP and all proinflammatory cytokines in the blood of animals with chronic seizures, treated with omega-3, when compared with those treated with vehicle solution. Taken together, our results strongly suggest that the omega-3 is an effective treatment to prevent SUDEP occurrence due to its capability to act as an anti-inflammatory compound, reducing the systemic inflammatory parameters altered by seizures.

Solubilization and purification of recombinant modified C-reactive protein from inclusion bodies using reversible anhydride modification

The precise function of C-reactive protein (CRP) as a regulator of inflammation in health and disease continues to evolve. The true understanding of its role in host defense responses has been hampered by numerous reports of comparable systems with contradictory interpretations of CRP as a stimulator, suppressor, or benign contributor to such processes. These discrepancies may be explained in part by the existence of a naturally occurring CRP isoform, termed modified CRP (i.e., mCRP), that is expressed when CRP subunits are dissociated into monomeric structures. The free mCRP subunit undergoes a non-proteolytic conformational change that has unique solubility, antigenicity, and bioactivity compared to the subunits that remain associated in the native, pentameric CRP molecule (i.e., pCRP). As specific reagents have been developed to identify and quantify mCRP, it has become apparent that this isoform can be formed spontaneously in calcium-free solutions. Furthermore, mCRP can be expressed on perturbed cell membranes with as little as 24–48 h incubation in tissue culture. Because mCRP has the same size as pCRP subunits as evaluated by SDS-PAGE, its presence in a pCRP reagent would not be apparent using this technique to evaluate purity. Finally, because many antibody reagents purported to be specific for “CRP” contains some, or substantial specificity to mCRP, antigen-detection techniques using such reagents may fail to distinguish the specific CRP isoform detected. All these caveats concerning CRP structures and measurements suggest that the aforementioned contradictory studies may reflect to some extent on distinctive bioactivities of mCRP rather than on pCRP. To provide a reliable, abundant supply of mCRP for separate and comparable studies, a recombinant protein was engineered and expressed in E. coli (i.e., recombinant mCRP or r_mCRP). Synthesized protein was produced as inclusion bodies which proved difficult to solubilize for purification and characterization. Herein, we describe a method using anhydride reagents to effectively solubilize r_mCRP and allow for chromatographic purification in high yield and free of contaminating endotoxin. Furthermore, the purified r_mCRP reagent represents an excellent comparable protein to the biologically produced mCRP and as a distinctive reagent from pCRP. Deciphering the true function of CRP in both health and disease requires a knowledge, understanding, and reliable supply of each of its structures so to define the distinctive effects of each on the body’s response to tissue damaging events.

The immunotranscriptome of the Caribbean reef-building coral Pseudodiploria strigosa

The viability of coral reefs worldwide has been seriously compromised in the last few decades due in part to the emergence of coral diseases of infectious nature. Despite important efforts to understand the etiology and the contribution of environmental factors associated to coral diseases, the mechanisms of immune response in corals are just beginning to be studied systematically. In this study, we analyzed the set of conserved immune response genes of the Caribbean reef-building coral Pseudodiploria strigosa by Illumina-based transcriptome sequencing and annotation of healthy colonies challenged with whole live Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. Searching the annotated transcriptome with immune-related terms yielded a total of 2782 transcripts predicted to encode conserved immune-related proteins that were classified into three modules: (a) the immune recognition module, containing a wide diversity of putative pattern recognition receptors including leucine-rich repeat-containing proteins, immunoglobulin superfamily receptors, representatives of various lectin families, and scavenger receptors; (b) the intracellular signaling module, containing components from the Toll-like receptor, transforming growth factor, MAPK, and apoptosis signaling pathways; and (3) the effector module, including the C3 and factor B complement components, a variety of proteases and protease inhibitors, and the melanization-inducing phenoloxidase. P. strigosa displays a highly variable and diverse immune recognition repertoire that has likely contributed to its resilience to coral diseases.

Protein-carbohydrate interactions as part of plant defense and animal immunity

The immune system consists of a complex network of cells and molecules that interact with each other to initiate the host defense system. Many of these interactions involve specific carbohydrate structures and proteins that specifically recognize and bind them, in particular lectins. It is well established that lectin-carbohydrate interactions play a major role in the immune system, in that they mediate and regulate several interactions that are part of the immune response. Despite obvious differences between the immune system in animals and plants, there are also striking similarities. In both cases, lectins can play a role as pattern recognition receptors, recognizing the pathogens and initiating the stress response. Although plants do not possess an adaptive immune system, they are able to imprint a stress memory, a mechanism in which lectins can be involved. This review will focus on the role of lectins in the immune system of animals and plants.

Neuronal pentraxin 1 negatively regulates excitatory synapse density and synaptic plasticity

In mature neurons, the number of synapses is determined by a neuronal activity-dependent dynamic equilibrium between positive and negative regulatory factors. We hypothesized that neuronal pentraxin (NP1), a proapoptotic protein induced by low neuronal activity, could be a negative regulator of synapse density because it is found in dystrophic neurites in Alzheimer's disease-affected brains. Here, we report that knockdown of NP1 increases the number of excitatory synapses and neuronal excitability in cultured rat cortical neurons and enhances excitatory drive and long-term potentiation in the hippocampus of behaving mice. Moreover, we found that NP1 regulates the surface expression of the Kv7.2 subunit of the Kv7 family of potassium channels that control neuronal excitability. Furthermore, pharmacological activation of Kv7 channels prevents, whereas inhibition mimics, the increase in synaptic proteins evoked by the knockdown of NP1. These results indicate that NP1 negatively regulates excitatory synapse number by modulating neuronal excitability and show that NP1 restricts excitatory synaptic plasticity.

Association of the long pentraxin PTX3 gene polymorphism (rs3816527) with migraine in an Iranian population

BACKGROUND

Migraine is a common neurovascular disorder with multifactorial and polygenic inheritance. It has been shown that migraine may be a form of sterile neurogenic inflammation. Pentaxins 3 (PTX3) has been detected in brain during inflammatory responses. The aim of our study was to investigate the association of rs3816527 polymorphism of the PTX3 gene and migraine in an Iranian population.

METHOD

We included 103 newly diagnosed migraine patients and 148 healthy subjects as control group. Genomic DNA samples extracted from the peripheral blood and genotypes of PTX3 rs3816527 gene polymorphism were determined. The patients filled out HIT-6 questionnaire as a scale to evaluate the severity of headache.

RESULTS

The genotype frequency of PTX3 was significantly different between the migraine patients and the control subjects. CC variant homozygote genotype was statistically more frequent in the patients than in the controls (P<0.05; OR=1.74, 95% CI=1.04-2.94). Also the C allele was not significantly more frequent in the patients (P=0.096; OR=1.27, 95% CI=0.88-1.85). A separate analysis in male and female subjects showed no significant differences between the different genotypes and phenotypes of PTX3 rs3816527 gene and susceptibility to migraine in female subjects. Total HIT-6 score was significantly different between three PTX3 genotypes (P=0.008).

CONCLUSION

In conclusion our results showed the association between the PTX3 rs3816527 gene polymorphism with susceptibility to migraine only in the male patients. Also total HIT-6 scores as a scale for assessment of the severity were related to the PTX3 rs3816527 gene polymorphism. But this relation was not established by headache frequency.

Critical role of extracellularly secreted neuronal pentraxin 1 in ischemic neuronal death

Background

Developing brain is highly susceptible to hypoxic-ischemic injury leading to severe neurological disabilities in surviving infants and children. Previously we reported induction of neuronal pentraxin 1 (NP1) in hypoxic-ischemic injury in neonatal brain and NP1 co-localization with the excitatory AMPA receptors GluR1 at the synaptic sites. However, how NP1 contributes to hypoxic-ischemic neuronal injury is not completely understood.

Results

Here we report that extracellular secretion of NP1 is required for ischemic neuronal death. Primary cortical neurons at days in vitro (DIV) 12 were subjected to oxygen glucose deprivation (OGD), an in vitro model of ischemic stroke, for different time periods (2–8 h). Oxygen glucose deprivation showed characteristic morphological changes of dying cells, OGD time-dependent induction of NP1 (2-4-fold) and increased neuronal death. In contrast, the NP1-KO cortical neurons were healthy and showed no sign of dying cells under similar conditions. NP1gene silencing by NP1-specific small interfering RNA (NP1-siRNA) protected cortical neurons from OGD-induced death. Conditioned media (CM) collected from OGD exposed WT cortical cultures caused neurotoxicity when added to a subset of DIV 12 normoxia control WT cortical cultures. In contrast, CM from OGD-exposed NP1-KO cultures did not induce cell toxicity in control WT cultures, suggesting a role for extracellular NP1 in neuronal death. However, NP1-KO neurons, which showed normal neuronal morphology and protection against OGD, sustained enhanced death following incubation with CM from WT OGD-exposed cultures. Western blot analysis of OGD exposed WT CM showed temporal increase of NP1 protein levels in the CM. Most strikingly, in contrast to NP1-KO CM, incubation of normal cortical cultures with CM from OGD exposed NP2-KO cultures showed neurotoxicity similar to that observed with CM from OGD exposed WT neuronal cultures. Western immunoblotting further confirmed the increased presence of NP1 protein in OGD-exposed NP2-KO CM. Live immunofluorescence analysis show intense cell surface clustering of NP1 with AMPA GluR1 receptors.

Conclusions

Collectively, our results demonstrate that extracellular release of NP1 promote hypoxic-ischemic neuronal death possibly via surface clustering with GluR1 at synaptic sites and that NP1, not its family member NP2, is involved in the neuronal death mechanisms.

Type IV collagen is an activating ligand for the adhesion G protein-coupled receptor GPR126

GPR126 is an orphan heterotrimeric guanine nucleotide-binding protein (G protein)-coupled receptor (GPCR) that is essential for the development of diverse organs. We found that type IV collagen, a major constituent of the basement membrane, binds to Gpr126 and activates its signaling function. Type IV collagen stimulated the production of cyclic adenosine monophosphate in rodent Schwann cells, which require Gpr126 activity to differentiate, and in human embryonic kidney (HEK) 293 cells expressing exogenous Gpr126. Type IV collagen specifically bound to the extracellular amino-terminal region of Gpr126 containing the CUB (complement, Uegf, Bmp1) and pentraxin domains. Gpr126 derivatives lacking the entire amino-terminal region were constitutively active, suggesting that this region inhibits signaling and that ligand binding relieves this inhibition to stimulate receptor activity. A new zebrafish mutation that truncates Gpr126 after the CUB and pentraxin domains disrupted development of peripheral nerves and the inner ear. Thus, our findings identify type IV collagen as an activating ligand for GPR126, define its mechanism of activation, and highlight a previously unrecognized signaling function of type IV collagen in basement membranes.

Pentraxin 3 is a marker of early joint inflammation in patients with juvenile idiopathic arthritis

Pentraxin 3 (PTX3) is an acute phase protein produced in different body tissues. The aims of this study were to characterize PTX3 secretion in synovial fluid (SF) of juvenile idiopathic arthritis (JIA) patients and to analyze the correlation of PTX3 levels in SF with clinical characteristics and the course of the disease. SF-PTX3 levels were measured in a cohort of 75 consecutive JIA patients followed in a single center. Patients' clinical characteristics, disease course, and therapies were analyzed for their correlation with SF-PTX3 levels. A synovial cell line was used to study the kinetics of PTX3 secretion by synoviocytes. SF-PTX3 levels varied over a wide range. Elevated SF-PTX3 levels were detected in patients who subsequently required treatment with disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs during the follow-up period. SF-PTX3 levels were found to be inversely correlated with the length of time from onset of joint swelling. No correlation was found between synovial and serum PTX3 or C-reactive protein (CRP). Following in vitro stimulation of synovial cell line with TNFa or IL1, the secretion of PTX3 increases transiently in the first 48-72 h. A similar increase was obtained in patients' synovial fluids but not with IL6. Higher SF-PTX3 levels were found when tested closer to arthritis exacerbation and 48-72 h after in vitro stimulation of cells from a synovial cell line, implying that PTX3 plays a role in early stages of inflammation. Higher SF-PTX3 levels were associated with several clinical features reflecting disease severity and prognostic data. Measuring SF-PTX3 levels may help in providing a more focused and patient-adjusted treatment.

Pentraxin 3: an immuno-regulator in the lungs

Pentraxin 3 (PTX3) is a soluble pattern recognition receptor that is a humoral component of the innate immune system. It interacts with pathogenic moieties, infected and dying host cells and facilitates their removal through activation of appropriate innate and adaptive mechanisms. PTX3 is secreted by a diverse variety of cells, ranging from immune cells to structural cells, in response to Toll like receptor (TLR) engagement, inflammatory stimuli, and physical and chemical stress. Further, PTX3 plays an essential role in female fertility as it facilitates the organization of extracellular matrix in the cumulus oophorus. Such activity is also implicated in post-inflammation tissue repair. PTX3 is a multifunctional protein and plays a non-redundant role in providing immunity against potential immunological dangers. Thus, we assessed its role in lung immunity, as lungs are at a constant risk of infections and tissue damage that is attributable to perpetual exposure to foreign agents.

The C-reactive protein of tongue sole Cynoglossus semilaevis is an acute phase protein that interacts with bacterial pathogens and stimulates the antibacterial activity of peripheral blood leukocytes

Pentraxins are a family of evolutionarily conserved proteins that play an important part in innate immunity. C-reactive protein (CRP) is a member of the pentraxin family and in humans is known to be the major acute phase protein. In this work, we report the identification and analysis of a CRP, CsCRP, from half-smooth tongue sole (Cynoglossus semilaevis). CsCRP is composed of 228 amino acid residues and possesses a Pentraxin/CRP domain. Expression of CsCRP occurred in a wide range of tissues and was upregulated by pathogen infection in kidney, spleen, blood, and, in particular, liver. Following bacterial infection, CsCRP level in blood rose rapidly within 12 h and was approximately 3.8 fold of that of the basal level. Purified recombinant CsCRP (rCsCRP) was able to interact with Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria including those of pathogenic nature in a dose-dependent manner. When peripheral blood leukocytes (PBL) were infected with bacterial pathogen in the presence of rCsCRP, the respiratory burst and phagocytic capacity of the cells were increased to significant extents. Taken together, these results indicate that CsCRP is an acute phase protein that plays a role in innate immune defense against bacterial infection.

Molecular characterization and expression analysis of two new C-reactive protein genes from common carp (Cyprinus carpio)

C-Reactive protein (CRP) plays an important role in the acute phase response. Transcripts encoding two new CRP-like molecules (ccCRP1 and ccCRP2) from European common carp have been characterized which has enabled seven CRP-like genes to be identified in zebrafish. 79.3% (ccCRP1) and 74.5% (ccCRP2) identity to CRP from East-Asian common carp occurs and fish CRP genes form a distinct clade. ccCRP2 gene organization comprises four exons and three introns, in contrast to the two exons/one intron organization of mammalian CRP genes. Gene expression assays showed both ccCRP-like molecules are constitutively expressed in liver, skin, gill, gut, muscle, kidney, spleen and blood. Protein levels of ccCRP in serum and spleen were significantly different from other organs analyzed, and levels were greatest in the liver. It is proposed that the two carp CRP genes defined differ in their expression profiles which may suggest differences in their biological activities.

FcγRI mediates serum amyloid P inhibition of fibrocyte differentiation

Fibrotic diseases, such as cardiac and pulmonary fibrosis, have a poor prognosis with no FDA approved therapies. Monocyte-derived, fibroblast-like cells, called fibrocytes, participate in the formation of fibrotic lesions. The conserved pentraxin protein SAP inhibits fibrocyte differentiation in cell culture, and injections of SAP significantly reduce fibrosis in several animal models. SAP binds to the receptors for the Fc portion of IgG (FcγR) and has been crystallized bound to FcγRIIa (CD32a). The in vivo activity of SAP appears to be dependent on the FcRγ. We find that mutagenesis of the residues critical for SAP binding to FcγRIIa only moderately decreases the ability of SAP to inhibit fibrocyte differentiation. In murine cells, deletion of FcRγ or FcγRI (CD64) significantly reduced sensitivity to SAP. Deletion of the combination of FcγRIIb, FcγRIIIa, and FcγRIV did not significantly affect sensitivity to SAP, whereas deletion of just the inhibitory receptor FcγRIIb (CD32b) increased sensitivity to SAP. In human cells, siRNA-mediated reduction of FcRγ or FcγRI levels significantly decreased sensitivity to SAP, whereas reduction of FcγRIIb levels increased sensitivity to SAP. These observations suggest that SAP, at least in part, uses FcγRI and FcRγ to inhibit fibrocyte differentiation.

Adaptive diversity of innate immune receptor family short pentraxins in Murinae

The short pentraxins C-reactive protein (CRP) and serum amyloid P component (SAP) constitute a group of innate immune receptors that trigger immune activation by detecting molecules of the microbial cell wall. Here, we examined the evolution of short pentraxins in Murinae lineages. By molecular evolutionary analysis, CRP and SAP have been experiencing rapid diversification, driven by adaptive selection. Further, our protein modeling demonstrates that adaptively selected amino acids lie in the ligand-binding region and contact region between subunits. Our findings suggest that rapid diversification of these regions could contribute to the determinants of recognizing specificity and the interaction between subunits.

The role of humoral innate immunity in hepatitis C virus infection

Infection with Hepatitis C Virus (HCV) causes chronic disease in approximately 80% of cases, resulting in chronic inflammation and cirrhosis. Current treatments are not completely effective, and a vaccine has yet to be developed. Spontaneous resolution of infection is associated with effective host adaptive immunity to HCV, including production of both HCV-specific T cells and neutralizing antibodies. However, the supporting role of soluble innate factors in protection against HCV is less well understood. The innate immune system provides an immediate line of defense against infections, triggering inflammation and playing a critical role in activating adaptive immunity. Innate immunity comprises both cellular and humoral components, the humoral arm consisting of pattern recognition molecules such as complement C1q, collectins and ficolins. These molecules activate the complement cascade, neutralize pathogens, and recruit antigen presenting cells. Here we review the current understanding of anti-viral components of the humoral innate immune system that play a similar role to antibodies, describing their role in immunity to HCV and their potential contribution to HCV pathogenesis.

Construction and characterization of Japanese medaka (Oryzias latipes) hepatic cDNA library and its implementation to biomarker screening in aquatic toxicology

To strengthen the toxicogenomic study, we constructed a library of hepatic cDNA from Japanese medaka under influence of specific chemical mediated stress responses. Gene expression profile analysis of the cDNA microarrays followed by real time RT-PCR assay were conducted to screen particular biomarkers for 17-beta estradiol (E2), nonylphenol (NP) and 2-chlorophenol (2CP). Information of 1509 high-quality ESTs including 260 new ESTs was added onto GenBank and dbEST. The ESTs were clustered and assembled into 159 contigs and 372 singletons. Among them, 128 contigs and 163 singletons (54.8%) were functionally characterized and 13 UniESTs (2.5%) were hypothetical proteins. Ontology analysis resulting in 282 UniESTs which involved with 2102 GOs and 93 sequences associated with 116 enzyme codes. For each test chemical, two specific biomarkers were selected from the gene expression profiling of microarrays. The expression patterns of the marker genes in real time PCR analysis were consistent with the regulated gene expression patterns in microarrays. The tentative biomarkers showed unique gene expression patterns depending on chemical concentration(s) and exposure duration in real time RT-PCR analysis. The analysis accomplished of the hepatic cDNA library and its information added to genetic and genomic resources could be sufficiently valuable specifically for aquatic toxicity studies.