Axonal transport and the cytoskeleton

Microtubule retrograde flow retains neuronal polarization in a fluctuating state

In developing vertebrate neurons, a neurite is formed by more than a hundred microtubules. While individual microtubules are dynamic, the microtubule array has been regarded as stationary. Using live-cell imaging of neurons in culture or in brain slices, combined with photoconversion techniques and pharmacological manipulations, we uncovered that the microtubule array flows retrogradely within neurites to the soma. This flow drives cycles of microtubule density, a hallmark of the fluctuating state before axon formation, thereby inhibiting neurite growth. The motor protein dynein fuels this process. Shortly after axon formation, microtubule retrograde flow slows down in the axon, reducing microtubule density cycles and enabling axon extension. Thus, keeping neurites short is an active process. Microtubule retrograde flow is a previously unknown type of cytoskeletal dynamics, which changes the hitherto axon-centric view of neuronal polarization.

Neurofilament Protein as a Potential Biomarker of Axonal Degeneration in Experimental Autoimmune Encephalomyelitis

Background

Neurofilament proteins as biomarkers of axonal degeneration have the potential to improve our capacity to predict and monitor neurological outcome in experimental autoimmune encephalitis (EAE), a model of multiple sclerosis (MS). We urgently need more accurate early predictive markers to direct the clinician when to provide neuroprotective therapy.

Aims

To highlight the possible roles of neurofilament proteins in physiological and pathophysiological processes in the MS.

Materials and Methods

Fifty female Wistar rats with MOG35-55 peptide induced EAE were randomly divided into two parts: control group and EAE group. All of them were along with expanded disability status scale (EDSS). The mice were sacrificed on day 0, 1, 3, 7, 14, and 28 after the first immunization. Supernatant and pellet were separated at the same time. The degradation rates of NF in the brain nerve and spinal cord of each rat were measured by Western Blotting.

Statistical Analysis

The data were expressed as mean ± SD. Statistical analysis was performed with one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA), followed by LSD's post-hoc tests, which was provided by SPSS 23.0 statistical software.

Results and Conclusions

Neurofilament light protein may be more useful as a measure of ongoing neurodegenerative activity in EAE, which would make this protein a potential candidate for use as a surrogate marker for assessment of treatments aimed at reducing axonal injury. Future studies are warranted to support or refute the value neurofilament in clinical practice.

Neurofilaments and Neurofilament Proteins in Health and Disease

SUMMARYNeurofilaments (NFs) are unique among tissue-specific classes of intermediate filaments (IFs) in being heteropolymers composed of four subunits (NF-L [neurofilament light]; NF-M [neurofilament middle]; NF-H [neurofilament heavy]; and α-internexin or peripherin), each having different domain structures and functions. Here, we review how NFs provide structural support for the highly asymmetric geometries of neurons and, especially, for the marked radial expansion of myelinated axons crucial for effective nerve conduction velocity. NFs in axons extensively cross-bridge and interconnect with other non-IF components of the cytoskeleton, including microtubules, actin filaments, and other fibrous cytoskeletal elements, to establish a regionally specialized network that undergoes exceptionally slow local turnover and serves as a docking platform to organize other organelles and proteins. We also discuss how a small pool of oligomeric and short filamentous precursors in the slow phase of axonal transport maintains this network. A complex pattern of phosphorylation and dephosphorylation events on each subunit modulates filament assembly, turnover, and organization within the axonal cytoskeleton. Multiple factors, and especially turnover rate, determine the size of the network, which can vary substantially along the axon. NF gene mutations cause several neuroaxonal disorders characterized by disrupted subunit assembly and NF aggregation. Additional NF alterations are associated with varied neuropsychiatric disorders. New evidence that subunits of NFs exist within postsynaptic terminal boutons and influence neurotransmission suggests how NF proteins might contribute to normal synaptic function and neuropsychiatric disease states.

Global Conformation of Tau Protein Mapped by Raman Spectroscopy

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is one of the neurodegenerative disease characterized by progressive neuronal loss in the brain. Its two major hallmarks are extracellular senile plaques and intracellular neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs), formed by aggregation of amyloid β-42 (Aβ-42) and Tau protein respectively. Aβ-42 is a transmembrane protein, which is produced after the sequential action of β- and γ-secretases, thus obtained peptide is released extracellularly and gets deposited on the neuron forming senile plaques. NFTs are composed of microtubule-associated protein-Tau (MAPT). Tau protein's major function is to stabilize the microtubule that provides a track on which the cargo proteins are shuttled and the stabilized microtubule also maintains shape and integrity of the neuronal cell. Tau protein is subjected to various modifications such as phosphorylation, ubiquitination, glycation, acetylation, truncation, glycosylation, deamination, and oxidation; these modifications ultimately lead to its aggregation. Phosphorylation is the major modification and is extensively studied with respect to Tau protein. Tau protein, however, undergoes certain level of phosphorylation and dephosphorylation, which regulates its affinity for microtubule and ultimately leading to microtubule assembly and disassembly. Our main aim was to study the native state of longest isoform of Tau (hTau40WT-4R2N) and its shortest isoform, (hTau23WT-3R0N), at various temperatures such as 10, 25, and 37 °C. Raman spectroscopic results suggested that the proportion of random coils or unordered structure depends on the temperature of the protein environment. Upon increase in the temperature from 10 to 37 °C, the proportion of random coils or unordered structures increased in the case of hTau40WT. However, we did not find a significant effect of temperature on the structure of hTau23WT. This current approach enables one to analyze the global conformation of soluble Tau in solution.

Dissociation of Axonal Neurofilament Content from Its Transport Rate

The axonal cytoskeleton of neurofilament (NF) is a long-lived network of fibrous elements believed to be a stationary structure maintained by a small pool of transported cytoskeletal precursors. Accordingly, it may be predicted that NF content in axons can vary independently from the transport rate of NF. In the present report, we confirm this prediction by showing that human NFH transgenic mice and transgenic mice expressing human NFL Ser55 (Asp) develop nearly identical abnormal patterns of NF accumulation and distribution in association with opposite changes in NF slow transport rates. We also show that the rate of NF transport in wild-type mice remains constant along a length of the optic axon where NF content varies 3-fold. Moreover, knockout mice lacking NFH develop even more extreme (6-fold) proximal to distal variation in NF number, which is associated with a normal wild-type rate of NF transport. The independence of regional NF content and NF transport is consistent with previous evidence suggesting that the rate of incorporation of transported NF precursors into a metabolically stable stationary cytoskeletal network is the major determinant of axonal NF content, enabling the generation of the striking local variations in NF number seen along axons.

Retinal pigment epithelium response to oxidant injury in the pathogenesis of early age-related macular degeneration

Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) represents the leading cause of vision loss in the elderly. Accumulation of lipid- and protein-rich deposits under the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) heralds the onset of early AMD, but the pathogenesis of subretinal deposit formation is poorly understood. Numerous hypothetical models of deposit formation have been proposed, including hypotheses for a genetic basis, choroidal hypoperfusion, abnormal barrier formation, and lysosomal failure. This review explore the RPE injury hypothesis, characterized by three distinct stages (1) Initial RPE oxidant injury, caused by any number of endogenous or exogenous oxidants, results in extrusion of cell membrane "blebs," together with decreased activity of matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs), promoting bleb accumulation under the RPE as basal laminar deposits (BLD). (2) RPE cells are subsequently stimulated to increase synthesis of MMPs and other molecules responsible for extracellular matrix turnover (i.e., producing decreased collagen), affecting both RPE basement membrane and Bruchs membrane (BrM). This process leads to progression of BLD into basal linear deposits (BLinD) and drusen by admixture of blebs into BrM, followed by the formation of new basement membrane under the RPE to trap these deposits within BrM. We postulate that various hormones and other plasma-derived molecules related to systemic health cofactors are implicated in this second stage. (3) Finally, macrophages are recruited to sites of RPE injury and deposit formation. The recruitment of nonactivated or scavenging macrophages may remove deposits without further injury, while the recruitment of activated or reparative macrophages, through the release of inflammatory mediators, growth factors, or other substances, may promote complications and progression to the late forms of the disease.

Neurofilaments form a highly stable stationary cytoskeleton after reaching a critical level in axons

The ultrastructural view of the axonal cytoskeleton as an extensively cross-linked network of neurofilaments (NFs) and other cytoskeletal polymers contrasts with the dynamic view suggested by axonal transport studies on cytoskeletal elements. Here we reconcile these perspectives by showing that neurons form a large NF network along axons which is unequivocally stationary, metabolically stable, and maintained by NFs and nonfilamentous subunit assemblies undergoing slow transport by intermittent rapid movements and pauses. In mouse primary cortical neurons transfected with EGFP-NFL, formation of this stationary NF network requires a critical level of NFs, which explains its absence in NF-poor developing neurons studied previously. Most NFs at proximal axon regions were in a stationary structure coexisting with a smaller pool of moving EGFP-NFL assemblies that were mainly nonfilamentous. Distally along the same axon, EGFP-labeled NFL was much less abundant, and we detected only short filaments moving bidirectionally by slow transport (rapid movements and pauses) as previously described. In living mice, >25% of radiolabeled newly synthesized NFs remained in optic axons after slowly transported NFs had exited. Retained NF remained fixed over several months in a nonuniform distribution and exhibited exceptionally slow turnover (t(1/2) >2.5 months), implying that, at steady state, >90% of NFs in mature optic axons comprise the stationary cytoskeleton and <10% are undergoing slow transport. These findings reconcile in vitro and in vivo axonal transport observations, showing that slowly transported NFs or subunit oligomers are precursors to a highly stable stationary cytoskeletal network that supports mature axons.

Kinesin superfamily-associated protein 3 is preferentially expressed in glutamatergic neurons and contributes to the excitatory control of female puberty

It was earlier shown that expression of kinesin superfamily-associated protein 3 (KAP3), involved in the neuronal anterograde, microtubule-dependent transport of membrane organelles, increases in the hypothalamus of female rats during the juvenile phase of sexual development. KAP3 mRNA is abundant in the hypothalamus, suggesting that it might be expressed in broadly disseminated neuronal systems controlling neuroendocrine function. The present study identifies one of these systems and provides evidence for an involvement of KAP3 in the excitatory control of female puberty. In situ hybridization and immunohistofluorescence studies revealed that the KAP3 gene is expressed in glutamatergic neurons but not in GABAergic or GnRH neurons. Hypothalamic KAP3 mRNA levels increase during the juvenile period of female prepubertal development, remaining elevated throughout puberty. These changes appear to be, at least in part, estradiol dependent because ovariectomy decreases and estradiol increases KAP3 mRNA abundance. Lowering hypothalamic KAP3 protein levels via intraventricular administration of an antisense oligodeoxynucleotide resulted in reduced release of both glutamate and GnRH from the median eminence and delayed the onset of puberty. The median eminence content of vesicular glutamate transporter 2, a glutamate neuron-selective synaptic protein, and synaptophysin, a synaptic vesicle marker, were also reduced, suggesting that the loss of KAP3 diminishes the anterograde transport of these proteins. Altogether, these results support the view that decreased KAP3 synthesis diminishes GnRH output and delays female sexual development by compromising hypothalamic release of glutamate.

Calpain Inhibitor MDL-28170 Reduces the Functional and Structural Deterioration of Corpus Callosum following Fluid Percussion Injury

It is known that calpain activation is involved in human traumatic brain injury (TBI) and that calpain inhibition can have neuroprotective effects on both gray matter and white matter injury of TBI models. However, the role of calpain activation in the corpus callosum remains unclear and requires elucidation given its potential clinical relevance. We evaluated the neuroprotective effects of calpain inhibitor MDL-28170 on corpus callosum function and structural destruction using a fluid percussion injury (FPI) model. The therapeutic time window for a single administration of MDL-28170 was up to 4 h post injury in protecting the corpus callosum structural integrity, and up to 30 min in protecting the axonal function evaluated 1 day following injury. When given 30 min prior injury, MDL-28170 showed neuroprotective effects that lasted up to 7 days. However, 30 min post injury administration of the drug afforded neuroprotection only up to 3 days. In contrast, two additional reinforcement injections at 24 and 48 h in addition to 30 min post FPI significantly protected both axonal function and structural integrity that lasted 14 days following FPI. Our data indicated that calpain inhibitor MDL-28170 is an effective neuroprotectant for axonal injury in corpus callosum following FPI with a therapeutic time window up to 4 hours. Although delayed treatment (2 or 4 h post FPI) was effective in protecting the axonal structure, the axons saved may not be as functional as normal fibers. Multiple drug administrations may be necessary for achieving a persisting effectiveness of this compound.

Simultaneous observation of stably associated presynaptic varicosities and postsynaptic spines: morphological alterations of CA3-CA1 synapses in hippocampal slice cultures

Dendritic spines are highly motile structures, but the extent and mode of coordination in motility between spines and presynaptic varicosities with synaptic contacts is not clear. To analyze movements of dendritic spines and axonal varicosities simultaneously, we labeled CA1 pyramidal cells with green fluorescent protein and CA3 pyramidal cells with rhodamine-dextran in hippocampal slice cultures. Varicosities and spines were visualized using two-photon microscopy to detect close association of two components. Time-lapse imaging revealed that they performed rapid morphological changes without losing their contacts. The extent of overall structural changes between varicosities and spines was correlated, while the direction of short-term volume changes was regulated independently. Furthermore, alterations of dendritic morphology induced by strong electrical stimulation had little effects on their association. These results indicate the presence of local regulatory mechanisms to coordinate presynaptic and postsynaptic motility.

Neurofilament transport is dependent on actin and myosin

Real-time analyses have revealed that some newly synthesized neurofilament (NF) subunits translocate into and along axonal neurites by moving along the inner plasma membrane surface, suggesting that they may translocate against the submembrane actin cortex. We therefore examined whether or not NF axonal transport was dependent on actin and myosin. Perturbation of filamentous actin in NB2a/d1 cells with cytochalasin B inhibited translocation of subunits into axonal neurites and inhibited bidirectional translocation of NF subunits within neurites. Intravitreal injection of cytochalasin B inhibited NF axonal transport in optic axons in a dose-response manner. NF subunits were coprecipitated from NB2a/d1 cells by an anti-myosin antibody, and myosin colocalized with NFs in immunofluorescent analyses. The myosin light chain kinase inhibitor ML-7 and the myosin ATPase inhibitor 2,3-butanedione-2-monoxime perturbed NF translocation within NB2a/d1 axonal neurites. These findings suggest that some NF subunits may undergo axonal transport via myosin-mediated interactions with the actin cortex.

2,5-Hexanedione Induced Decrease in Cytoskeletal Proteins of Rat Sciatic?tibial Nerve

Exposure chronically to n-hexane produces peripheral-central axonopathy mediated by 2,5-hexanedione (HD). Previous studies have demonstrated decreases in neurofilament (NF) contents of peripheral and central nervous regions from rats intoxicated with HD, and recent analysis has demonstrated that axonal atrophy, instead of NF-filled swellings, is a specific component of morphologic alterations. To deeply investigate the alterations of cytoskeletal proteins in HD peripheral neuropathy, the relative levels of NF-L, NF-M, NF-H, alpha-tubulin, beta-tubulin and beta-actin of rat sciatic-tibial nerves were determined by SDS-PAGE and immunoblotting. HD was administrated to Wistar rats by intraperitoneal injection at dosage of 200 or 400 mg/kg/day (five-times per week). Rats were sacrificed after 6 weeks of treatment, and sciatic-tibial nerves were dissected, homogenized, and used for the determination of cytoskeletal proteins. Except for supernatant NF-L that could not be assayed, the results showed HD intoxication was associated with significant decreases in NF subunits in both of the supernatant and the pellet fractions of sciatic-tibial nerve homogenates (P < 0.01), and obvious reductions in alpha-tubulin, beta-tubulin and beta-actin only in the supernatant (P < 0.05 or P < 0.01). Among these alterations, the falls in the levels of NF subunits tended to be greater compared to those of the other cytoskeletal proteins in all HD-exposed groups, and the trend for decrements in NF-M was greater than those in the other NF subunits. Thus, HD intoxication was associated with significant declines in cytoskeletal protein contents in rat sciatic-tibial nerves, and the decreases might be related to the involvement of the peripheral axonopathy induced by HD.

Organelle transport along microtubules - the role of KIFs

Organelle transporters are very important for cellular morphogenesis and other cellular functions, conveying and targeting important materials to the correct destination, often at considerable velocities. One of the first proteins to be identified as a motor was kinesin, and recently at least 10 new kinesin superfamily proteins (KIFs) have been described. Characterization of some of them reveals that each member can convey a specific organelle or cargo, although there is some redundancy. It has also become clear that there are distinct subclasses of KIFs that form monomeric, heterodimeric and homodimeric motors. Here, Nobutaka Hirokawa reviews what is known about the kinesin superfamily and discusses how a study of the different types of motors is helping to elucidate the mechanism of mechanical force generation.

Oxidative stress induces axonal beading in cultured human brain tissue

Oxidative stress has been implicated in the pathogenesis of a number of human neurodegenerative disorders of the central nervous system (CNS), including Alzheimer's disease (AD). To better understand the pathological effects of oxidative stress on CNS neurons we used a primary human brain cell culture model of hydrogen peroxide-induced oxidative stress. Neuronal and astrocytic morphology was visualised by immunofluorescence with antibodies to the neuron-specific microtubule component beta-tubulin III and against glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP), respectively. After exposure to 40 mM H(2)O(2) for 60-90 min, axonal swelling was observed, which developed into axonal beading after 48 h. No beading was observed in GFAP-positive astrocytes. Despite the concentration of H(2)O(2) used, neurons remained attached to the substratum and showed no signs of apoptosis. This was attributed to the neuroprotective effect of the B-27 medium supplement, which contained antioxidants. The axonal swelling and beading was consistent with a disruption of microtubules by oxidative stress and subsequent hold-up of axonal transport.

Conventional kinesin KIF5B mediates insulin-stimulated GLUT4 movements on microtubules

Insulin stimulates glucose uptake in muscle and adipose cells by mobilizing intracellular membrane vesicles containing GLUT4 glucose transporter proteins to the plasma membrane. Here we show in live cultured adipocytes that intracellular membranes containing GLUT4-yellow fluorescent protein (YFP) move along tubulin-cyan fluorescent protein-labeled microtubules in response to insulin by a mechanism that is insensitive to the phosphatidylinositol 3 (PI3)-kinase inhibitor wortmannin. Insulin increased by several fold the observed frequencies, but not velocities, of long-range movements of GLUT4-YFP on microtubules, both away from and towards the perinuclear region. Genomics screens show conventional kinesin KIF5B is highly expressed in adipocytes and this kinesin is partially co-localized with perinuclear GLUT4. Dominant-negative mutants of conventional kinesin light chain blocked outward GLUT4 vesicle movements and translocation of exofacial Myc-tagged GLUT4-green fluorescent protein to the plasma membrane in response to insulin. These data reveal that insulin signaling targets the engagement or initiates the movement of GLUT4-containing membranes on microtubules via conventional kinesin through a PI3-kinase-independent mechanism. This insulin signaling pathway regulating KIF5B function appears to be required for GLUT4 translocation to the plasma membrane.

Expression of a novel HsMCAK mRNA splice variant, tsMCAK gene, in human testis

Identification of specifically expressed genes in the adult or fetal testis is very important for the study of genes related to the development and function of the testis. In this study, a human adult testis cDNA microarray was constructed and hybridized with 33P-labeled human adult and embryo testis cDNA probes, respectively. After differential display analyzing, a number of new genes related to the development of testis and spermatogenesis had been identified. One of these new genes is tsMCAK. tsMCAK was expressed 2.62 folds more in human adult testis than fetal testis. The full length of tsMCAK is 2401 bp and contains a 2013 bp open reading frame, encoding a 671-amino-acid protein. Sequence analysis showed that it has a central kinesin motor domain and is homologous to HsMCAK gene of the somatic cells. Blasting human genome database localized tsMCAK to human chromosome 1P34 and further investigation showed that it is a splice variant of HsMCAK. The tissue distribution of tsMCAK was determined by RT-PCR and it is expressed highly and specifically in the testis. Southern blot studies of its expression in patients with infertility indicated its specific expression in spermatogenic cells and its correlation with male infertility. The above results suggested that tsMCAK is a candidate gene for the testis-specific KRPs and its specific expression in the testis was correlated with spermatogenesis and may be correlated with male infertility.

Screening for differentially expressed genes in the rat inner retina and optic nerve after optic nerve crush

Limited optic nerve crush is a model of diffuse mechanical axon injury, the most prevalent cause of secondary neurodegeneration after closed head neurotrauma. In this report, a protocol is presented which allows for the rapid screening of differential gene expression in the inner retina, as well as the optic nerve, in response to partial nerve crush. To prove the reliability of the method, prototypically, the differential expression profiles of three candidate genes (kinesin light chain, ferritin, RYB-A) were verified. The method seems to be suitable to address the question of how differential gene expression contributes to degeneration, survival and axonal repair after partial nerve crush.

Kinesin, dynein and neurofilament transport

The recent demonstration that the fast axonal transport motors kinesin and dynein participate in axonal transport of neurofilaments--known to undergo slow transport--supports and extends recent studies indicating that some neurofilaments exhibit alternating bursts of fast axonal transport interspersed with periods of non-motility. In addition, these findings unify both certain aspects of axonal transport and neurofilament biology. We discuss these data herein in the context of both older and more recent studies of neurofilament dynamics.

Tubulin and neurofilament proteins are transported differently in axons of chicken motoneurons

1. We previously showed that actin is transported in an unassembled form with its associated proteins actin depolymerizing factor, cofilin, and profilin. Here we examine the specific activities of radioactively labeled tubulin and neurofilament proteins in subcellular fractions of the chicken sciatic nerve following injection of L-[35S]methionine into the lumbar spinal cord. 2. At intervals of 12 and 20 days after injection, nerves were cut into 1-cm segments and separated into Triton X-100-soluble and particulate fractions. Analysis of the fractions by high-resolution two-dimensional gel electrophoresis, immunoblotting, fluorography, and computer densitometry showed that tubulin was transported as a unimodal wave at a slower average rate (2-2.5 mm/day) than actin (4-5 mm/day). Moreover, the specific activity of soluble tubulin was five times that of its particulate form, indicating that tubulin is transported in a dimeric or small oligomeric form and is assembled into stationary microtubules. 3. Neurofilament triplet proteins were detected only in the particulate fractions and transported at a slower average rate (1 mm/day) than either actin or tubulin. 4. Our results indicate that the tubulin was transported in an unpolymerized form and that the neurofilament proteins were transported in an insoluble, presumably polymerized form.

Hypophosphorylated neurofilament subunits undergo axonal transport more rapidly than more extensively phosphorylated subunits in situ

Axonal transport of neurofilaments (NFs) has long been considered to be regulated by phosphorylation. We present evidence that in optic axons of normal mice, the rate of NF axonal transport is inversely correlated with the NF phosphorylation state. In addition to 200 kDa NF-H and 145 kDa NF-M, axonal cytoskeletons from CNS contained a range of phospho-variants of NF-H migrating between 160-200 kDa, and of NF-M migrating at 97-145 kDa. While 160 kDa phospho-variants of NF-H have been well characterized, we confirmed the identity of the previously-described 97 kDa species as a hypophospho-variant of NF-M since (1) pulse-chase metabolic labeling confirmed the 97 kDa species to be a new synthesis product that was converted by phosphorylation over time into a form migrating at 145 kDa, (2) the 97 kDa protein reacted with multiple NF-M antibodies, including one specific for hypophosphorylated NF-M, and (3) dephosphorylation converted NF-M isoforms to 97 kDa. Autoradiographic analyses following metabolic radiolabeling demonstrated that hypophosphorylated NF-H and NF-M isoforms underwent substantially more rapid transport in situ than did extensively phosphorylated isoforms, while NF-H subunits bearing a developmentally delayed C-terminal phospho-epitope transported at a rate slower than that of total 200 kDa NF-H. Differential transport of phospho-variants also highlights that these variants are not homogeneously distributed among NFs, but are segregated to some extent among distinct, although probably overlapping, NF populations, indicating that axonal NFs are not homogeneous with respect to phosphorylation state.

KIF5C, a novel neuronal kinesin enriched in motor neurons

Kinesin superfamily proteins (KIFs) are the molecular motors conveying cargos along microtubules. KIF5s, the heavy chains of conventional kinesin (KHC), are originally identified members of KIFs, and neuronal KIF5A and ubiquitous KIF5B have been identified so far. In the present work, we cloned a novel member of KIF5, KIF5C, and generated specific antibodies against three KIF5s to investigate their distribution and functions. KIF5A showed pan-neuronal distribution in the nervous system. KIF5B showed a glial cell distribution pattern in general; however, interestingly, its expression was strongly upregulated in axon-elongating neurons, such as olfactory primary neurons and mossy fibers. KIF5C was also a neuronal KIF5 like KIF5A but was highly expressed in lower motor neurons in 2-week-old or older mice, suggesting its important roles in the maintenance of motor neurons rather than in their formation, such as axonal elongation. Because a large part of KIF5s in adult motor neurons were expected to be KIF5C, we generated mice lacking the kif5C gene to investigate the functions of KIF5C in neurons in living animals. The mutant mice showed smaller brain size but were viable and did not show gross changes in the nervous system. Closer examinations revealed the relative loss of motor neurons to sensory neurons. Because three KIF5s showed high similarity in the amino acid sequence, could rescue the KIF5B mutant cells, and could form heterodimers, we think that there are functional redundancy among the three KIF5s and that KIF5A and KIF5B prevented the KIF5C null mice from the severe phenotype.

Disassembly of actin filaments leads to increased rate and frequency of mitochondrial movement along microtubules

In activated sea urchin coelomocytes, cytoplasmic organelles move along distinct actin and microtubule dependent pathways, actin-based motility is driven by an unconventional myosin, and microtubule disassembly does not effect actin-dependent organelle motility [D'Andrea et al., 1994: J. Cell Sci. 107:2081-2094]. Given the growing evidence for potential interactions between components of the actin and microtubule cytoskeletons, we examined the effect of actin filament disassembly on the movement of mitochondria along microtubules in activated coelomocytes. Coelomocytes treated with cytochalasin B (CB), to disrupt actin filaments, exhibited a thinning of the cytoplasm, enhanced lateral undulation of microtubules, and ceased centripetal cortical flow of actin. Interestingly, the loss of actin filaments resulted in a approximately 1.5-fold increase in the average velocity of outward and inward moving mitochondria and increased the frequency of centripetal movement. To test if enhanced motility along microtubules was a consequence of decreased actin-myosin interaction, coelomocytes were treated with 2,3-butanedione monoxime (BDM), a potent inhibitor of myosin activity [Cramer and Mitchison, 1995: J. Cell Biol. 131:179-189]. BDM inhibited all types of actin-based motility observed in these cells including retrograde cortical flow, protrusion and retraction of the cell edge, and movement of intracellular organelles. Surprisingly, BDM treatment stopped the movement of mitochondria in CB-exposed cells, suggesting that BDM can also act as an inhibitor of organelle movement along microtubules. Collectively, these data demonstrated that microtubule-dependent mitochondrial motility and microtubule movement were sensitive to changes in the assembly state of the actin cytoskeleton.

Neurofilament subunits can undergo axonal transport without incorporation into Triton-insoluble structures

We examined the form(s) in which NF subunits undergo axonal transport. Pulse-chase radiolabeling analyses with 35S-methioinine revealed that newly synthesized Triton-soluble NF subunits accumulated within axonal neurites elaborated by NB2a/d1 neuroblastoma prior to the accumulation of Triton-insoluble subunits. Gel chromatographic, immunological, ultrastructural, and autoradiographic analyses of Triton-soluble axonal fractions demonstrated that radiolabeled, Triton-soluble subunits were associated with NFs. Triton-soluble, radiolabeled axonal NF subunits were also detected within retinal ganglion cell axons following intravitreal injection of 35S-methioinine. Microinjected biotinylated subunits were prominent within axonal neurites of NB2a/d1 cells and cultured dorsal root ganglion neurons substantially before they were retained following Triton-extraction. Prevention of biotinylated subunit, but not dextran tracer, translocation into neurites by nocodazole confirmed that microinjected subunits did not enter axons merely due to diffusion or injection-based pressure. Immuno-EM confirmed the association of biotin label with axonal NFs. These findings point towards multiple populations of NF subunits within axons and leave open the possibility that axonal NFs may be more dynamic than previously considered.

Phospho-dependent association of neurofilament proteins with kinesin in situ

Recent studies demonstrate co-localization of kinesin with neurofilament (NF) subunits in culture and suggest that kinesin participates in NF subunit distribution. We sought to determine whether kinesin was also associated with NF subunits in situ. Axonal transport of NF subunits in mouse optic nerve was perturbed by the microtubule (MT)-depolymerizing drug vinblastine, indicating that NF transport was dependent upon MT dynamics. Kinesin co-precipitated during immunoprecipitation of NF subunits from optic nerve. The association of NFs and kinesin was regulated by NF phosphorylation, since (1) NF subunits bearing developmentally delayed phospho-epitopes did not co-purify in a microtubule motor preparation from CNS while less phosphorylated forms did; (2) subunits bearing these phospho-epitopes were selectively not co-precipitated with kinesin; and (3) phosphorylation under cell-free conditions diminished the association of NF subunits with kinesin. The nature and extent of this association was further examined by intravitreal injection of (35)S-methionine and monitoring NF subunit transport along optic axons. As previously described by several laboratories, the wave of NF subunits underwent a progressive broadening during continued transport. The front, but not the trail, of this broadening wave of NF subunits was co-precipitated with kinesin, indicating that (1) the fastest-moving NFs were associated with kinesin, and (2) that dissociation from kinesin may foster trailing of NF subunits during continued transport. These data suggest that kinesin participates in NF axonal transport either by directly translocating NFs and/or by linking NFs to transporting MTs. Both Triton-soluble as well as cytoskeleton-associated NF subunits were co-precipitated with kinesin; these data are considered in terms of the form(s) in which NF subunits undergo axonal transport.

Coat proteins regulating membrane traffic

This review focuses on the roles of coat proteins in regulating the membrane traffic of eukaryotic cells. Coat proteins are recruited to the donor organelle membrane from a cytosolic pool by specific small GTP-binding proteins and are required for the budding of coated vesicles. This review first describes the four types of coat complexes that have been characterized so far: clathrin and its adaptors, the adaptor-related AP-3 complex, COPI, and COPII. It then discusses the ascribed functions of coat proteins in vesicular transport, including the physical deformation of the membrane into a bud, the selection of cargo, and the targeting of the budded vesicle. It also mentions how the coat proteins may function in an alternative model for transport, namely via tubular connections, and how traffic is regulated. Finally, this review outlines the evidence that related coat proteins may regulate other steps of membrane traffic.

Cotransport of glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase and actin in axons of chicken motoneurons

1. To study proteins transported with actin in axons, we pulse-labeled motoneurons in the chicken sciatic nerve with [35S]methionine and, 1-20 days later, isolated actin and its binding proteins by affinity chromatography of Triton soluble nerve extracts on DNase I-Sepharose. The DNase I-purified proteins were electrophoresed on two-dimensional gels and the specific activity of the radioactively labeled protein spots was estimated by fluorography. 2. In addition to actin, which binds specifically to DNase I, a small number of other proteins were labeled, including established actin monomer binding proteins and a protein of 36 kDa and pI 8.5. On the basis of its molecular mass, pI, amino acid composition, and immunostaining, the unrecognized protein was identified as the glycolytic enzyme glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH). 3. The high-affinity binding of GAPDH to actin was confirmed by incubation of Triton-soluble nerve extracts with either mouse anti-GAPDH (or antiactin) and indirect immunomagnetic separation with Dynabeads covalently linked to sheep anti-mouse antibody. Analysis by one-dimensional gel electrophoresis and immunoblotting showed that actin and GAPDH were the main proteins isolated by these methods. 4. Analysis of labeled nerves at 12 and 20 days after pulse labeling showed that GAPDH and actin were transported at the same rate, i.e., 3-5 mm/day, which corresponds to slow component b of axonal transport. These proteins were not associated with rapidly transported proteins that accumulated proximal to a ligation 7 cm from the spinal cord 9 hr after injection of radioactivity. 5. Our results indicate that GAPDH and actin are transported as a complex in axons and raise the possibility that GAPDH could act as a chaperone for monomeric actin, translocating it to intraaxonal sites for exchange with or assembly into actin filaments. Alternatively, actin could be involved in translocating and anchoring GAPDH to specialized sites in axons and nerve terminals that require a source of ATP by glycolysis.

Real-time imaging of the dynamics of secretory granules in growth cones

Secretory granules containing a hybrid protein consisting of the regulated secretory protein tissue plasminogen activator and an enhanced form of green fluorescent protein were tracked at high spatial resolution in growth cones of differentiated PC12 cells. Tracking shows that granules, unlike synaptic vesicles, generally are mobile in growth cones. Quantitative analysis of trajectories generated by granules revealed two dominant modes of motion: diffusive and directed. Diffusive motion was observed primarily in central and peripheral parts of growth cones, where most granules diffused two to four orders of magnitude more slowly than comparably sized spheres in dilute solution. Directed motion was observed primarily in proximal parts of growth cones, where a subset of granules underwent rapid, directed motion at average speeds comparable to those observed for granules in neurites. This high-resolution view of the dynamics of secretory granules in growth cones provides insight into granule organization and release at nerve terminals. In particular, the mobility of granules suggests that granules, unlike synaptic vesicles, are not tethered stably to cytoskeletal structures in nerve terminals. Moreover, the slow diffusive nature of this mobility suggests that secretory responses involving centrally distributed granules in growth cones will occur slowly, on a time scale of minutes or longer.

Kinesin-mediated transport of neurofilament protein oligomers in growing axons

We examined cytoskeleton-associated forms of NF proteins during axonal neuritogenesis in cultured dorsal root ganglion (DRG) neurons and NB2a/d1 neuroblastoma. In addition to filamentous immunoreactivity, we observed punctate NF immunoreactivity throughout perikarya and neurites. Immuno-electron microscopy revealed this punctate immunoreactivity to consist of non-membrane-bound 75 nm round/ovoid structures consisting of amorphous, fibrous material. Endogenous and microinjected NF subunits incorporated into dots prior to their accumulation within filaments. A transfected GFP-conjugated NF-M incorporated into dots and translocated at a rate consistent with slow axonal transport in real-time video analyses. Some dots converted into a filamentous form or exuded filamentous material during transport. Dots contained conventional kinesin immunoreactivity, associated with microtubules, and their transport into axons was blocked by anti-kinesin antibodies and nocodazole. These oligomeric structures apparently represent one form in which NF subunits are transported in growing axons and may utilize kinesin as a transport motor.

Myosin Va movements in normal and dilute-lethal axons provide support for a dual filament motor complex

To investigate the role that myosin Va plays in axonal transport of organelles, myosin Va-associated organelle movements were monitored in living neurons using microinjected fluorescently labeled antibodies to myosin Va or expression of a green fluorescent protein-myosin Va tail construct. Myosin Va-associated organelles made rapid bi-directional movements in both normal and dilute-lethal (myosin Va null) neurites. In normal neurons, depolymerization of microtubules by nocodazole slowed, but did not stop movement. In contrast, depolymerization of microtubules in dilute-lethal neurons stopped movement. Myosin Va or synaptic vesicle protein 2 (SV2), which partially colocalizes with myosin Va on organelles, did not accumulate in dilute-lethal neuronal cell bodies because of an anterograde bias associated with organelle transport. However, SV2 showed peripheral accumulations in axon regions of dilute-lethal neurons rich in tyrosinated tubulin. This suggests that myosin Va-associated organelles become stranded in regions rich in dynamic microtubule endings. Consistent with these observations, presynaptic terminals of cerebellar granule cells in dilute-lethal mice showed increased cross-sectional area, and had greater numbers of both synaptic and larger SV2 positive vesicles. Together, these results indicate that myosin Va binds to organelles that are transported in axons along microtubules. This is consistent with both actin- and microtubule-based motors being present on these organelles. Although myosin V activity is not necessary for long-range transport in axons, myosin Va activity is necessary for local movement or processing of organelles in regions, such as presynaptic terminals that lack microtubules.

Randomization of left-right asymmetry due to loss of nodal cilia generating leftward flow of extraembryonic fluid in mice lacking KIF3B motor protein

Microtubule-dependent motor, murine KIF3B, was disrupted by gene targeting. The null mutants did not survive beyond midgestation, exhibiting growth retardation, pericardial sac ballooning, and neural tube disorganization. Prominently, the left-right asymmetry was randomized in the heart loop and the direction of embryonic turning. lefty-2 expression was either bilateral or absent. Furthermore, the node lacked monocilia while the basal bodies were present. Immunocytochemistry revealed KIF3B localization in wild-type nodal cilia. Video microscopy showed that these cilia were motile and generated a leftward flow. These data suggest that KIF3B is essential for the left-right determination through intraciliary transportation of materials for ciliogenesis of motile primary cilia that could produce a gradient of putative morphogen along the left-right axis in the node.

Microtubule-dependent vesicle transport: modulation of channel and transporter activity in liver and kidney

Microtubule-based vesicle transport driven by kinesin and cytoplasmic dynein motor proteins facilitates several membrane-trafficking steps including elements of endocytosis and exocytosis in many different cell types. Most early studies on the role of microtubule-dependent vesicle transport in membrane trafficking focused either on neurons or on simple cell lines. More recently, other work has considered the role of microtubule-based vesicle transport in other physiological systems, including kidney and liver. Investigation of the role of microtubule-based vesicle transport in membrane trafficking in cells of the kidney and liver suggests a major role for microtubule-based vesicle transport in the rapid and directed movement of ion channels and transporters to and from the apical plasma membranes, events essential for kidney and liver function and homeostasis. This review discusses the evidence supporting a role for microtubule-based vesicle transport and the motor proteins, kinesin and cytoplasmic dynein, in different aspects of membrane trafficking in cells of the kidney and liver, with emphasis on those functions such as maintenance of ion channel and transporter composition in apical membranes that are specialized functions of these organs. Evidence that defects in microtubule-based transport contribute to diseases of the kidney and liver is also discussed.

Nociceptor hyper-responsiveness during vincristine-induced painful peripheral neuropathy in the rat

Neuropathic pain accompanies peripheral nerve injury after a wide variety of insults including metabolic disorders, traumatic nerve injury, and neurotoxic drugs. Chemotherapy-induced neuropathic pain, caused by drugs such as vincristine and taxol, occurs in cancer patients who receive these drugs as antineoplastic agents. Although a variety of remediations have been attempted, the absence of knowledge concerning mechanisms of chemotherapy-induced neuropathic pain has hindered the development of treatment strategies. Vincristine, a widely used chemotherapeutic agent, produces painful peripheral neuropathy in humans and mechanical hyperalgesia in rats. To test the hypothesis that alterations in C-fiber nociceptor function occur during vincristine-induced painful peripheral neuropathy, we performed in vivo extracellular recordings of single neurons from the saphenous nerve of vincristine-treated rats. Forty-one percent of C-fiber nociceptors were significantly hyper-responsive to suprathreshold mechanical stimulation. As a population, these mechanically hyper-responsive nociceptors also had significantly greater responses to suprathreshold heat stimulation; however, heat hyper-responsiveness was found only in a subset of these nociceptors and was never detected in the absence of mechanical hyper-responsiveness. In addition, mean conduction velocities of A-fibers and C-fibers in vincristine-treated rats were significantly slowed. Mean heat and mechanical activation thresholds of C-fiber nociceptors, their distribution among subclasses, and the percentage of spontaneously active neurons in vincristine-treated rats were not statistically different from controls. Vincristine does not, therefore, cause generalized impairment of C-fiber nociceptor function but rather specifically interferes with mechanisms underlying responsiveness to suprathreshold stimuli. Furthermore, vincristine-induced nociceptor hyper-responsiveness may involve alterations specifically in mechanotransduction in some nociceptors and alterations in general cellular adaptation mechanisms in others.

Real-time imaging of the axonal transport of granules containing a tissue plasminogen activator/green fluorescent protein hybrid

A hybrid protein, tPA/GFP, consisting of rat tissue plasminogen activator (tPA) and green fluorescent protein (GFP) was expressed in PC12 cells and used to study the distribution, secretory behavior, and dynamics of secretory granules containing tPA in living cells with a neuronal phenotype. High-resolution images demonstrate that tPA/GFP has a growth cone-biased distribution in differentiated cells and that tPA/GFP is transported in granules of the regulated secretory pathway that colocalize with granules containing secretogranin II. Time-lapse images of secretion reveal that secretagogues induce substantial loss of cellular tPA/GFP fluorescence, most importantly from growth cones. Time-lapse images of the axonal transport of granules containing tPA/GFP reveal a surprising complexity to granule dynamics. Some granules undergo canonical fast axonal transport; others move somewhat more slowly, especially in highly fluorescent neurites. Most strikingly, granules traffic bidirectionally along neurites to an extent that depends on granule accumulation, and individual granules can reverse their direction of motion. The retrograde component of this bidirectional transport may help to maintain cellular homeostasis by transporting excess tPA/GFP back toward the cell body. The results presented here provide a novel view of the axonal transport of secretory granules. In addition, the results suggest that tPA is targeted for regulated secretion from growth cones of differentiated cells, strategically positioning tPA to degrade extracellular barriers or to activate other barrier-degrading proteases during axonal elongation.

Mechanisms of trafficking in axons and dendrites: implications for development and neurodegeneration

In the area of routing and sorting of dendritic traffic, the current phenomenological data beg questions about the cellular mechanisms utilized not only to transport material but also to modulate activity in a process, even apoptosis. To aid in formulating testable hypotheses, many plausible models are developed here and linked with some of the preliminary data that supports them. We first assume that in long dendrites the sorting of membranous proteins into transport vesicles also involves the linkage of motor proteins to the vesicles. Second, we assume that the cytoskeleton in dendrites is altered from the cytoskeleton in axons and the cell body. Viral glycoproteins, MAP2 and specific mRNA sorting into dendrites provide the simplest models for analyzing vesicular, cytoskeletal and RNA sorting. In the case of viral glycoproteins, initial sorting appears to occur at the Golgi but additional routing steps involve further complexities that could best be served by an additional sorting step at the junction of the cell body and the process. Transport of the specialized cytoskeletal proteins and specific mRNAs as well as vesicular material could be controlled by a similar gatekeeper at the mouth of a process. Studies of the microtubule-organelle motor complex, regulation of microtubule-based motility by microtubule-associated proteins, and slow axonal transport all provide insights into important aspects of the routing and sorting. These processes are in turn controlled by extracellular signals such as those generated by matrix molecules or their hydrolysis products in the case of amyloid precursor protein (APP). Routing and sorting mechanisms may be central to the development of Alzheimer's disease in view of evidence that APP processing is affected, transport is disturbed, and intracellular vesicles (early endosomes) hypertrophied. Further it is possible that routing mechanisms play a role in cell-cell interactions as, for example, the possibility that pathogenic/cellular stress signals may be passed along circuits transsynaptically.

Binding of murine leukemia virus Gag polyproteins to KIF4, a microtubule-based motor protein

A cDNA clone encoding a cellular protein that interacts with murine leukemia virus (MuLV) Gag proteins was isolated from a T-cell lymphoma library. The sequence of the clone is identical to the C terminus of a cellular protein, KIF4, a microtubule-associated motor protein that belongs to the kinesin superfamily. KIF4-MuLV Gag associations have been detected in vitro and in vivo in mammalian cells. We suggest that KIF4 could be involved in Gag polyprotein translocation from the cytoplasm to the cell membrane.

Targeted disruption of mouse conventional kinesin heavy chain, kif5B, results in abnormal perinuclear clustering of mitochondria

Mouse kif5B gene was disrupted by homologous recombination. kif5B-/- mice were embryonic lethal with a severe growth retardation at 9.5-11.5 days postcoitum. To analyze the significance of this conventional kinesin heavy chain in organelle transport, we studied the distribution of major organelles in the extraembryonic cells. The null mutant cells impaired lysosomal dispersion, while brefeldin A could normally induce the breakdown of their Golgi apparatus. More prominently, their mitochondria abnormally clustered in the perinuclear region. This mitochondrial phenotype was reversed by an exogenous expression of KIF5B, and a subcellular fractionation revealed that KIF5B is associated with mitochondria. These data collectively indicate that kinesin is essential for mitochondrial and lysosomal dispersion rather than for the Golgi-to-ER traffic in these cells.

Assembly of tropomyosin isoforms into the cytoskeleton of avian muscle cells

Tropomyosin (TM) is a component of microfilaments of most eukaryotic cells. In striated muscle, TM helps confer calcium sensitivity to the actin-myosin interaction. TM is a fibrillar, self-associating protein that binds to the extended actin filament system. We hypothesized that these structural features would permit TM to undergo assembly into the cytoskeleton during translation, or cotranslational assembly. Pulse-chase experiments with [35S]methionine and pulse experiments with [3H]puromycin followed by extraction and immunoprecipitation of TM were performed to examine the mechanism of assembly of TM into the cytoskeleton in cultured avian muscle cells. Pulse-chase experiments provide kinetic evidence for cotranslational assembly of TM in skeletal and cardiac muscle. Demonstration of a large majority of completed TM on purified skeletal muscle microfilaments after a short labeling period confirms that these kinetic data are not related to trapping of TM within the actin network of the cytoskeleton. Nascent TM peptides are demonstrated on the cytoskeleton of muscle cells after a short metabolic pulse followed by puromycin treatment to release nascent peptides from ribosomes or after labeling with [3H]puromycin. Nascent chain localization to the cytoskeleton independent of ribosomal attachment further confirms the high degree of cotranslational assembly of this protein. The extent of cotranslational assembly is similar before and after the formation of significant myofibril in myotubes, suggesting that cotranslational assembly of TM is active during contractile apparatus assembly in muscle differentiation. This is the first report where assembly mechanism has been predicted to be cotranslational based upon structural features of a cytoskeletal protein.

Defect in synaptic vesicle precursor transport and neuronal cell death in KIF1A motor protein-deficient mice

The nerve axon is a good model system for studying the molecular mechanism of organelle transport in cells. Recently, the new kinesin superfamily proteins (KIFs) have been identified as candidate motor proteins involved in organelle transport. Among them KIF1A, a murine homologue of unc-104 gene of Caenorhabditis elegans, is a unique monomeric neuron- specific microtubule plus end-directed motor and has been proposed as a transporter of synaptic vesicle precursors (Okada, Y., H. Yamazaki, Y. Sekine-Aizawa, and N. Hirokawa. 1995. Cell. 81:769-780). To elucidate the function of KIF1A in vivo, we disrupted the KIF1A gene in mice. KIF1A mutants died mostly within a day after birth showing motor and sensory disturbances. In the nervous systems of these mutants, the transport of synaptic vesicle precursors showed a specific and significant decrease. Consequently, synaptic vesicle density decreased dramatically, and clusters of clear small vesicles accumulated in the cell bodies. Furthermore, marked neuronal degeneration and death occurred both in KIF1A mutant mice and in cultures of mutant neurons. The neuronal death in cultures was blocked by coculture with wild-type neurons or exposure to a low concentration of glutamate. These results in cultures suggested that the mutant neurons might not sufficiently receive afferent stimulation, such as neuronal contacts or neurotransmission, resulting in cell death. Thus, our results demonstrate that KIF1A transports a synaptic vesicle precursor and that KIF1A-mediated axonal transport plays a critical role in viability, maintenance, and function of neurons, particularly mature neurons.

The regulation of phosphorylation of tau in SY5Y neuroblastoma cells: the role of protein phosphatases

In Alzheimer disease brain the microtubule associated protein (MAP) tau is abnormally hyperphosphorylated. The role of protein phosphatases (PP) in the regulation of phosphorylation of tau was studied in undifferentiated SY5Y cells. In cells treated with 10 nM okadaic acid (OA), a PP-2A/PP-1 inhibitor, the PP-1 and -2A activities decreased by 60% and 100% respectively and the activities of MAPKs, cdc2 kinase and cdk5, but not of GSK-3, increased. OA increased the phosphorylation of tau at Thr-231/Ser-235 and Ser-3961404, but not at Ser-262/356 or Ser-199/202. An increase in tyrosinated/detyrosinated tubulin ratio, a decrease in the microtubule binding activities of tau, MAP1b and MAP2, and cell death were observed. Treatment with 1 microm taxol partially inhibited the cell death. These data suggest (1) that OA induced hyperphosphorylation of tau is probably the result of activated MAPK and cdks in addition to decreased PP-2A and PP-1 activities and (2) that in SY5Y cells the OA induced cell death is associated with a decrease in stable microtubules.

Golgi vesiculation and lysosome dispersion in cells lacking cytoplasmic dynein

Cytoplasmic dynein, a minus end-directed, microtubule-based motor protein, is thought to drive the movement of membranous organelles and chromosomes. It is a massive complex that consists of multiple polypeptides. Among these polypeptides, the cytoplasmic dynein heavy chain (cDHC) constitutes the major part of this complex. To elucidate the function of cytoplasmic dynein, we have produced mice lacking cDHC by gene targeting. cDHC-/- embryos were indistinguishable from cDHC+/-or cDHC+/+ littermates at the blastocyst stage. However, no cDHC-/- embryos were found at 8.5 d postcoitum. When cDHC-/- blastocysts were cultured in vitro, they showed interesting phenotypes. First, the Golgi complex became highly vesiculated and distributed throughout the cytoplasm. Second, endosomes and lysosomes were not concentrated near the nucleus but were distributed evenly throughout the cytoplasm. Interestingly, the Golgi "fragments" and lysosomes were still found to be attached to microtubules. These results show that cDHC is essential for the formation and positioning of the Golgi complex. Moreover, cDHC is required for cell proliferation and proper distribution of endosomes and lysosomes. However, molecules other than cDHC might mediate attachment of the Golgi complex and endosomes/lysosomes to microtubules.

Kinesin and dynein superfamily proteins and the mechanism of organelle transport

Cells transport and sort proteins and lipids, after their synthesis, to various destinations at appropriate velocities in membranous organelles and protein complexes. Intracellular transport is thus fundamental to cellular morphogenesis and functioning. Microtubules serve as a rail on which motor proteins, such as kinesin and dynein superfamily proteins, convey their cargoes. This review focuses on the molecular mechanism of organelle transport in cells and describes kinesin and dynein superfamily proteins.

Molecular cloning and expression of the KIF3A gene in the frog brain and testis

KIF3A is a member of the kinesin superfamily proteins (KIFs), but its gene has been cloned only in mouse and sea urchin. We have cloned a homolog of KIF3A from the frog, Rana rugosa (rrKIF3A). The sequence encoded a 699 amino acid protein that shares 93% similarity with mouse KIF3A (mKIF3A) and 69% with sea urchin kinesin-related protein (SpKRP85). The putative ATP-binding domain was completely identical to that of mKIF3A and SpKRP85. The level of rrKIF3A mRNA appeared to be high in the brain and testis of adult frogs, but low in the heart, lung and kidney. The results suggest that the rrKIF3A gene is expressed in the brain and testis more than other tissues of adult frogs examined, and that KIF3A is widely distributed in eukaryotic organisms.

B-50, the growth associated protein-43: modulation of cell morphology and communication in the nervous system

The growth-associated protein B-50 (GAP-43) is a presynaptic protein. Its expression is largely restricted to the nervous system. B-50 is frequently used as a marker for sprouting, because it is located in growth cones, maximally expressed during nervous system development and re-induced in injured and regenerating neural tissues. The B-50 gene is highly conserved during evolution. The B-50 gene contains two promoters and three exons which specify functional domains of the protein. The first exon encoding the 1-10 sequence, harbors the palmitoylation site for attachment to the axolemma and the minimal domain for interaction with G0 protein. The second exon contains the "GAP module", including the calmodulin binding and the protein kinase C phosphorylation domain which is shared by the family of IQ proteins. Downstream sequences of the second and non-coding sequences in the third exon encode species variability. The third exon also contains a conserved domain for phosphorylation by casein kinase II. Functional interference experiments using antisense oligonucleotides or antibodies, have shown inhibition of neurite outgrowth and neurotransmitter release. Overexpression of B-50 in cells or transgenic mice results in excessive sprouting. The various interactions, specified by the structural domains, are thought to underlie the role of B-50 in synaptic plasticity, participating in membrane extension during neuritogenesis, in neurotransmitter release and long-term potentiation. Apparently, B-50 null-mutant mice do not display gross phenotypic changes of the nervous system, although the B-50 deletion affects neuronal pathfinding and reduces postnatal survival. The experimental evidence suggests that neuronal morphology and communication are critically modulated by, but not absolutely dependent on, (enhanced) B-50 presence.

Slow axonal transport: the subunit transport model

A central problem concerning slow transport of cytoskeletal proteins along nerve axons is where they are assembled and the form in which they are transported. The polymer and subunit transport models are the two major hypotheses. Recent developments using molecular and cellular biophysics, molecular cell biology and gene technology have enabled visualization of moving forms of cytoskeletal proteins during their transport. Here, we argue that these studies support the subunit transport theory.

The mechanisms of fast and slow transport in neurons: identification and characterization of the new kinesin superfamily motors

Progress in the identification and characterization of new carboxy-terminal motor domain type kinesin superfamily proteins (KIFs)-KIFC2, 16 new KIFs and KIF-associated protein 3 (KAP3)-has provided further insight into the molecular mechanisms of organelle transport in neurons. Developments in molecular and cellular biophysics and recombinant adenovirus infection techniques combined with transgenic mice technology have enhanced the visualization of moving forms of cytoskeletal proteins during slow transport. The results of these studies strongly support the subunit transport theory.

Suppression of KIF2 in PC12 cells alters the distribution of a growth cone nonsynaptic membrane receptor and inhibits neurite extension

In the present study, we present evidence about the cellular functions of KIF2, a kinesin-like superfamily member having a unique structure in that its motor domain is localized at the center of the molecule (Noda Y., Y. Sato-Yoshitake, S. Kondo, M. Nangaku, and N. Hirokawa. 1995. J. Cell Biol. 129:157-167.). Using subcellular fractionation techniques, isopicnic sucrose density centrifugation of microsomal fractions from developing rat cerebral cortex, and immunoisolation with KIF2 antibodies, we have now identified a type of nonsynaptic vesicle that associates with KIF2. This type of organelle lacks synaptic vesicle markers (synapsin, synaptophysin), amyloid precursor protein, GAP-43, or N-cadherin. On the other hand, it contains betagc, which is a novel variant of the beta subunit of the IGF-1 receptor, which is highly enriched in growth cone membranes. Both betagc and KIF2 are upregulated by NGF in PC12 cells and highly concentrated in growth cones of developing neurons. We have also analyzed the consequences of KIF2 suppression by antisense oligonucleotide treatment on nerve cell morphogenesis and the distribution of synaptic and nonsynaptic vesicle markers. KIF2 suppression results in a dramatic accumulation of betagc within the cell body and in its complete disappearance from growth cones; no alterations in the distribution of synapsin, synaptophysin, GAP-43, or amyloid percursor protein are detected in KIF2-suppressed neurons. Instead, all of them remained highly enriched at nerve terminals. KIF2 suppression also produces a dramatic inhibition of neurite outgrowth; this phenomenon occurs after betagc has disappeared from growth cones. Taken collectively, our results suggest an important role for KIF2 in neurite extension, a phenomenon that may be related with the anterograde transport of a type of nonsynaptic vesicle that contains as one of its components a growth cone membrane receptor for IGF-1, a growth factor implicated in nerve cell development.

Differential display reveals transcriptional up-regulation of the motor molecules for both anterograde and retrograde axonal transport during nerve regeneration

RNA fingerprinting using an arbitrary primed polymerase chain reaction was carried out to compare differences in expression of mRNAs between axotomized and normal hypoglossal motoneurons in the mouse. In this survey, the kinesin light chain (KLC) was identified as a nerve injury-associated molecule. This was also confirmed by in situ hybridization using hemihypoglossal nerve-transected brain sections. In order to identify the exact species of molecules belonging to the KLC family, in situ hybridization was carried out with oligonucleotide probes specific to rat KLC A, KLC B and KLC C, using the rat hypoglossal nerve injury model. In addition, expression of both ubiquitous and neuron-specific kinesin heavy chain and cytoplasmic dynein which is a retrograde motor, was also examined. Expression of all the members of the KLC (A-C) family and dynein was up-regulated during nerve regeneration, whereas the abundant expression of the neuron-specific KHC mRNA was not changed. The present results indicate that the molecules associated with both anterograde and retrograde axonal transport are up-regulated in their expression during efferent motor nerve regeneration, suggesting that the retrograde transport of growth factors and anterograde transport of vesicles, providing membrane material, could be increased during motor nerve regeneration.

Actin-based organelle movement

Evidence for actin-dependent organelle movement was first obtained from studies of cytoplasmic streaming in plants. These studies, together with cell-free organelle motility studies and biophysical analyses of muscle myosin, support a model whereby organelle-associated motor molecules utilize the energy of adenosine triphosphate binding and hydrolysis to drive movement along F-actin tracks. Recent studies indicate that this mechanism for organelle movement may be responsible for organelle and vesicle movement during secretion, endocytosis and mitochondrial inheritance in a variety of eukaryotes.