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Golding ME, Wu G, Wilkie R, Picard-Meyer E, Servat A, Marston DA, Aegerter JN, Horton DL, McElhinney LM. Investigating the emergence of a zoonotic virus: phylogenetic analysis of European bat lyssavirus 1 in the UK. Virus Evol 2024; 10:veae060. [PMID: 39193178 PMCID: PMC11345707 DOI: 10.1093/ve/veae060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2023] [Revised: 06/27/2024] [Accepted: 07/25/2024] [Indexed: 08/29/2024] Open
Abstract
European bat lyssavirus 1 (EBLV-1, Lyssavirus hamburg) is predominantly detected in serotine bats (Eptesicus serotinus) and is responsible for the majority of bat rabies cases in mainland Europe. A passive bat rabies surveillance scheme detected the virus in a serotine bat in the UK for the first time in October 2018. As of May 2024, 34 cases have been reported, 20 of which involved contact with an animal and 5 reported human contact. We investigated the emergence of EBLV-1 by undertaking comprehensive sequence analysis and Bayesian phylogenetics, based on complete virus genomes of 33 UK sequences and 108 sequences covering six countries in mainland Europe (1968-2023), including 21 French EBLV-1-positive RNA samples sequenced for this study. Sequence analysis revealed extreme similarity among UK EBLV-1 sequences (99.9%-100%), implying a single source of introduction rather than multiple independent introductions. Bayesian analysis revealed that the UK EBLV-1 sequences shared their most recent common ancestor with an EBLV-1 sequence from a serotine bat detected in Brittany, France, in 2001, with an estimated date of divergence of 1997. Within the UK sequences, the earliest divergence was estimated to occur in 2007. This study provides valuable insights into the molecular epidemiology of an emerging zoonotic pathogen and improved understanding of the risks posed to public and animal health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Megan E Golding
- Department of Virology, Animal and Plant Health Agency, Woodham Lane, Addlestone KT15 3NB, United Kingdom
- Department of Comparative Biosciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Surrey, Guildford, Surrey GU2 7XH, United Kingdom
| | - Guanghui Wu
- Department of Virology, Animal and Plant Health Agency, Woodham Lane, Addlestone KT15 3NB, United Kingdom
| | - Rebekah Wilkie
- Department of Virology, Animal and Plant Health Agency, Woodham Lane, Addlestone KT15 3NB, United Kingdom
| | | | - Alexandre Servat
- Nancy Laboratory for Rabies and Wildlife, ANSES, Malzéville 51220, France
| | - Denise A Marston
- Department of Comparative Biosciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Surrey, Guildford, Surrey GU2 7XH, United Kingdom
- Department of Science, Strategy and Planning, Animal and Plant Health Agency, Woodham Lane, Addlestone KT15 3NB, United Kingdom
| | - James N Aegerter
- National Wildlife Management Centre, Wildlife Epidemiology and Modelling, Animal and Plant Health Agency, Sand Hutton, York YO41 1LZ, United Kingdom
| | - Daniel L Horton
- Department of Virology, Animal and Plant Health Agency, Woodham Lane, Addlestone KT15 3NB, United Kingdom
- Department of Comparative Biosciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Surrey, Guildford, Surrey GU2 7XH, United Kingdom
| | - Lorraine M McElhinney
- Department of Virology, Animal and Plant Health Agency, Woodham Lane, Addlestone KT15 3NB, United Kingdom
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2
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Vodopija R, Lojkić I, Hamidović D, Boneta J, Primorac D. Bat Bites and Rabies PEP in the Croatian Reference Centre for Rabies 1995-2020. Viruses 2024; 16:876. [PMID: 38932168 PMCID: PMC11209127 DOI: 10.3390/v16060876] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2024] [Revised: 05/27/2024] [Accepted: 05/28/2024] [Indexed: 06/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Seroprevalence of lyssaviruses in certain bat species has been proven in the Republic of Croatia, but there have been no confirmed positive bat brain isolates or human fatalities associated with bat injuries/bites. The study included a retrospective analysis of bat injuries/bites, post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP) and geographic distribution of bat injuries in persons examined at the Zagreb Antirabies Clinic, the Croatian Reference Centre for Rabies. In the period 1995-2020, we examined a total of 21,910 patients due to animal injuries, of which 71 cases were bat-related (0.32%). Of the above number of patients, 4574 received rabies PEP (20.87%). However, for bat injuries, the proportion of patients receiving PEP was significantly higher: 66 out of 71 patients (92.95%). Of these, 33 received only the rabies vaccine, while the other 33 patients received the vaccine with human rabies immunoglobulin (HRIG). In five cases, PEP was not administered, as there was no indication for treatment. Thirty-five of the injured patients were biologists or biology students (49.29%). The bat species was confirmed in only one of the exposure cases. This was a serotine bat (Eptesicus serotinus), a known carrier of Lyssavirus hamburg. The results showed that the bat bites were rather sporadic compared to other human injuries caused by animal bites. All bat injuries should be treated as if they were caused by a rabid animal, and according to WHO recommendations. People who come into contact with bats should be strongly advised to be vaccinated against rabies. Entering bat habitats should be done with caution and in accordance with current recommendations, and nationwide surveillance should be carried out by competent institutions and in close collaboration between bat experts, epidemiologists and rabies experts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Radovan Vodopija
- Department of Epidemiology, Andrija Štampar Teaching Institute of Public Health, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia; (R.V.); (D.P.)
| | - Ivana Lojkić
- Laboratory for Rabies and General Virology, Croatian Veterinary Institute, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Daniela Hamidović
- Ministry of Environment and Green Transition, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia;
| | - Jelena Boneta
- Institute of Public Health of Zagreb County, 10290 Zaprešić, Croatia;
| | - Dora Primorac
- Department of Epidemiology, Andrija Štampar Teaching Institute of Public Health, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia; (R.V.); (D.P.)
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3
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Dundarova H, Ivanova-Aleksandrova N, Bednarikova S, Georgieva I, Kirov K, Miteva K, Neov B, Ostoich P, Pikula J, Zukal J, Hristov P. Phylogeographic Aspects of Bat Lyssaviruses in Europe: A Review. Pathogens 2023; 12:1089. [PMID: 37764897 PMCID: PMC10534866 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens12091089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2023] [Revised: 08/08/2023] [Accepted: 08/22/2023] [Indexed: 09/29/2023] Open
Abstract
During the last few decades, bat lyssaviruses have become the topic of intensive molecular and epidemiological investigations. Since ancient times, rhabdoviruses have caused fatal encephalitis in humans which has led to research into effective strategies for their eradication. Modelling of potential future cross-species virus transmissions forms a substantial component of the recent infection biology of rabies. In this article, we summarise the available data on the phylogeography of both bats and lyssaviruses in Europe and the adjacent reg ions, especially in the contact zone between the Palearctic and Ethiopian realms. Within these zones, three bat families are present with high potential for cross-species transmission and the spread of lyssaviruses in Phylogroup II to Europe (part of the western Palearctic). The lack of effective therapies for rabies viruses in Phylogroup II and the most divergent lyssaviruses generates impetus for additional phylogenetic and virological research within this geographical region.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heliana Dundarova
- Institute of Biodiversity and Ecosystem Research, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, 1 Tsar Osvoboditel Blvd., 1000 Sofia, Bulgaria
| | | | - Sarka Bednarikova
- Department of Ecology and Diseases of Zoo Animals, Game, Fish and Bees, University of Veterinary Sciences Brno, Palackého tř. 1946/1, 612 42 Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Irina Georgieva
- National Centre of Infectious and Parasitic Diseases, 26 Yanko Sakazov Blvd., 1504 Sofia, Bulgaria
| | - Krasimir Kirov
- Faculty of Biology, University of Plovdiv “Paisii Hilendarski”, 24 Tzar Assen Str., 4000 Plovdiv, Bulgaria
| | - Kalina Miteva
- Institute of Biodiversity and Ecosystem Research, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, 1 Tsar Osvoboditel Blvd., 1000 Sofia, Bulgaria
| | - Boyko Neov
- Institute of Biodiversity and Ecosystem Research, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, 1 Tsar Osvoboditel Blvd., 1000 Sofia, Bulgaria
| | - Peter Ostoich
- Institute of Biodiversity and Ecosystem Research, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, 1 Tsar Osvoboditel Blvd., 1000 Sofia, Bulgaria
| | - Jiri Pikula
- Department of Ecology and Diseases of Zoo Animals, Game, Fish and Bees, University of Veterinary Sciences Brno, Palackého tř. 1946/1, 612 42 Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Jan Zukal
- Institute of Vertebrate Biology, Czech Academy of Sciences, Květná 8, 603 65 Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Peter Hristov
- Institute of Biodiversity and Ecosystem Research, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, 1 Tsar Osvoboditel Blvd., 1000 Sofia, Bulgaria
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Arnaout Y, Djelouadji Z, Robardet E, Cappelle J, Cliquet F, Touzalin F, Jimenez G, Hurstel S, Borel C, Picard-Meyer E. Genetic identification of bat species for pathogen surveillance across France. PLoS One 2022; 17:e0261344. [PMID: 34982782 PMCID: PMC8726466 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0261344] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2021] [Accepted: 12/01/2021] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
With more than 1400 chiropteran species identified to date, bats comprise one-fifth of all mammalian species worldwide. Many studies have associated viral zoonoses with 45 different species of bats in the EU, which cluster within 5 families of bats. For example, the Serotine bats are infected by European Bat 1 Lyssavirus throughout Europe while Myotis bats are shown infected by coronavirus, herpesvirus and paramyxovirus. Correct host species identification is important to increase our knowledge of the ecology and evolutionary pattern of bat viruses in the EU. Bat species identification is commonly determined using morphological keys. Morphological determination of bat species from bat carcasses can be limited in some cases, due to the state of decomposition or nearly indistinguishable morphological features in juvenile bats and can lead to misidentifications. The overall objective of our study was to identify insectivorous bat species using molecular biology tools with the amplification of the partial cytochrome b gene of mitochondrial DNA. Two types of samples were tested in this study, bat wing punches and bat faeces. A total of 163 bat wing punches representing 22 species, and 31 faecal pellets representing 7 species were included in the study. From the 163 bat wing punches tested, a total of 159 were genetically identified from amplification of the partial cyt b gene. All 31 faecal pellets were genetically identified based on the cyt b gene. A comparison between morphological and genetic determination showed 21 misidentifications from the 163 wing punches, representing ~12.5% of misidentifications of morphological determination compared with the genetic method, across 11 species. In addition, genetic determination allowed the identification of 24 out of 25 morphologically non-determined bat samples. Our findings demonstrate the importance of a genetic approach as an efficient and reliable method to identify bat species precisely.
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Affiliation(s)
- Youssef Arnaout
- ANSES-Nancy Laboratory for Rabies and Wildlife, WHO Collaborating Centre for Research and Management in Zoonoses Control, OIE Reference Laboratory for Rabies, European Union Reference Laboratory for Rabies, European Union Reference Laboratory for Rabies Serology, Malzéville, France
- VetAgro Sup Lyon Laboratory for Leptospira, Marcy l’Etoile, France
| | | | - Emmanuelle Robardet
- ANSES-Nancy Laboratory for Rabies and Wildlife, WHO Collaborating Centre for Research and Management in Zoonoses Control, OIE Reference Laboratory for Rabies, European Union Reference Laboratory for Rabies, European Union Reference Laboratory for Rabies Serology, Malzéville, France
| | - Julien Cappelle
- UMR ASTRE, CIRAD, INRAE, Université de Montpellier, Montpellier, France
- UMR EPIA, INRAE, VetAgro Sup, Theix, France
| | - Florence Cliquet
- ANSES-Nancy Laboratory for Rabies and Wildlife, WHO Collaborating Centre for Research and Management in Zoonoses Control, OIE Reference Laboratory for Rabies, European Union Reference Laboratory for Rabies, European Union Reference Laboratory for Rabies Serology, Malzéville, France
| | - Frédéric Touzalin
- School of Biology and Environmental Science, Science Centre West, University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| | | | - Suzel Hurstel
- GEPMA, Strasbourg, France
- LPO Alsace, Rosenwiller, France
| | | | - Evelyne Picard-Meyer
- ANSES-Nancy Laboratory for Rabies and Wildlife, WHO Collaborating Centre for Research and Management in Zoonoses Control, OIE Reference Laboratory for Rabies, European Union Reference Laboratory for Rabies, European Union Reference Laboratory for Rabies Serology, Malzéville, France
- * E-mail:
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5
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Retrospective Enhanced Bat Lyssavirus Surveillance in Germany between 2018-2020. Viruses 2021; 13:v13081538. [PMID: 34452403 PMCID: PMC8402685 DOI: 10.3390/v13081538] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2021] [Revised: 07/27/2021] [Accepted: 07/29/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Lyssaviruses are the causative agents for rabies, a zoonotic and fatal disease. Bats are the ancestral reservoir host for lyssaviruses, and at least three different lyssaviruses have been found in bats from Germany. Across Europe, novel lyssaviruses were identified in bats recently and occasional spillover infections in other mammals and human cases highlight their public health relevance. Here, we report the results from an enhanced passive bat rabies surveillance that encompasses samples without human contact that would not be tested under routine conditions. To this end, 1236 bat brain samples obtained between 2018 and 2020 were screened for lyssaviruses via several RT-qPCR assays. European bat lyssavirus type 1 (EBLV-1) was dominant, with 15 positives exclusively found in serotine bats (Eptesicus serotinus) from northern Germany. Additionally, when an archived set of bat samples that had tested negative for rabies by the FAT were screened in the process of assay validation, four samples tested EBLV-1 positive, including two detected in Pipistrellus pipistrellus. Subsequent phylogenetic analysis of 17 full genomes assigned all except one of these viruses to the A1 cluster of the EBLV-1a sub-lineage. Furthermore, we report here another Bokeloh bat lyssavirus (BBLV) infection in a Natterer's bat (Myotis nattereri) found in Lower Saxony, the tenth reported case of this novel bat lyssavirus.
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Regnault B, Evrard B, Plu I, Dacheux L, Troadec E, Cozette P, Chrétien D, Duchesne M, Jean-Michel V, Jamet A, Leruez M, Pérot P, Bourhy H, Eloit M, Seilhean D. First case of lethal encephalitis in Western Europe due to European bat lyssavirus type 1. Clin Infect Dis 2021; 74:461-466. [PMID: 33991184 DOI: 10.1093/cid/ciab443] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2021] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Inaccurate diagnosis of encephalitis is a major issue as immunosuppressive treatments can be deleterious in case of viral infection. The European bat lyssavirus type 1, a virus related to rabies virus, is endemic in European bats. No human case has yet been reported in Western Europe. A 59 year-old patient without specific past medical history died from encephalitis. A colony of bats lived in an outbuilding of his house. No diagnosis was made using standard procedures. METHODS We used a Next Generation Sequencing (NGS) based transcriptomic protocol to search for pathogens in autopsy samples (meninges and brain frontal lobe). Results were confirmed by PCR and by antibody testing in serum. Immunochemistry was used to characterize inflammatory cells and viral antigens in brain lesions. Cells and mice were inoculated with brain extracts for virus isolation. RESULTS The patient's brain lesions were severe and diffuse in white and gray matter. Perivascular inflammatory infiltrates were abundant and rich in plasma cells. NGS identified European bat lyssavirus type 1a in brain, which was confirmed by PCR. A high titer of neutralizing antibodies was found in serum. No viral antigen was detected and the virus could not be isolated by cell culture or by mouse inoculation. CONCLUSIONS The patient died from European bat lyssavirus type 1a infection. NGS was key to identifying this unexpected viral etiology in an epidemiological context that did not suggest rabies. People exposed to bats should be strongly advised to be vaccinated with rabies vaccines, which are effective against EBLV-1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Béatrice Regnault
- Pathogen Discovery Laboratory, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France.,The OIE Collaborating Center for the detection and identification in humans of emerging animal pathogens, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France)
| | - Bruno Evrard
- Medical-Surgical Intensive Care Unit, Dupuytren University Hospital, Limoges, France.,Inserm CIC 1435 and UMR 1092, Dupuytren Teaching Hospital, Limoges, France
| | - Isabelle Plu
- Sorbonne Université, Brain Institute (ICM; INSERM, UMRS 1127; CNRS, UMR 7225), Paris, France.,Département de Neuropathologie Raymond Escourolle, AP-HP-Sorbonne, Groupe Hospitalier Pitié-Salpêtrière, Paris, France
| | - Laurent Dacheux
- Lyssavirus Epidemiology and Neuropathology Unit, National Reference Centre for Rabies, WHO Collaborative Centre for Reference and Research on Rabies, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France
| | - Eric Troadec
- Pathogen Discovery Laboratory, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France.,The OIE Collaborating Center for the detection and identification in humans of emerging animal pathogens, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France)
| | - Pascal Cozette
- Lyssavirus Epidemiology and Neuropathology Unit, National Reference Centre for Rabies, WHO Collaborative Centre for Reference and Research on Rabies, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France
| | - Delphine Chrétien
- Pathogen Discovery Laboratory, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France.,The OIE Collaborating Center for the detection and identification in humans of emerging animal pathogens, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France)
| | - Mathilde Duchesne
- Pathology Department, Dupuytren University Hospital, Limoges, France
| | | | - Anne Jamet
- Department of Clinical Microbiology, Necker Enfants-Malades Hospital, AP-HP, Centre Université de Paris, Paris, France
| | - Marianne Leruez
- Department of Clinical Microbiology, Necker Enfants-Malades Hospital, AP-HP, Centre Université de Paris, Paris, France
| | - Philippe Pérot
- Pathogen Discovery Laboratory, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France.,The OIE Collaborating Center for the detection and identification in humans of emerging animal pathogens, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France)
| | - Hervé Bourhy
- Lyssavirus Epidemiology and Neuropathology Unit, National Reference Centre for Rabies, WHO Collaborative Centre for Reference and Research on Rabies, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France
| | - Marc Eloit
- Pathogen Discovery Laboratory, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France.,The OIE Collaborating Center for the detection and identification in humans of emerging animal pathogens, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France).,Ecole Nationale Vétérinaire d'Alfort, Maisons-Alfort, France
| | - Danielle Seilhean
- Sorbonne Université, Brain Institute (ICM; INSERM, UMRS 1127; CNRS, UMR 7225), Paris, France.,Lyssavirus Epidemiology and Neuropathology Unit, National Reference Centre for Rabies, WHO Collaborative Centre for Reference and Research on Rabies, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France
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7
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Isolation of a Novel Bat Rhabdovirus with Evidence of Human Exposure in China. mBio 2021; 13:e0287521. [PMID: 35164557 PMCID: PMC8844929 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.02875-21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Bats are well-recognized reservoirs of zoonotic viruses. Several spillover events from bats to humans have been reported, causing severe epidemic or endemic diseases including severe acute respiratory syndrome-coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), SARS-CoV, Middle East respiratory syndrome-CoV (MERS-CoV), henipaviruses, and filoviruses. In this study, a novel rhabdovirus species, provisionally named Rhinolophus rhabdovirus DPuer (DPRV), was identified from the horseshoe bat (Rhinolophus affinis) in Yunnan province, China, using next-generation sequencing. DPRV shedding in the spleen, liver, lung, and intestinal contents of wild bats with high viral loads was detected by real-time quantitative PCR, indicating that DPRV has tropism for multiple host tissues. Furthermore, DPRV can replicate in vitro in multiple mammalian cell lines, including BHK-21, A549, and MA104 cells, with the highest efficiency in hamster kidney cell line BHK-21, suggesting infectivity of DPRV in these cell line-derived hosts. Ultrastructure analysis revealed a characteristic bullet-shaped morphology and tightly clustered distribution of DPRV particles in the intracellular space. DPRV replicated efficiently in suckling mouse brains and caused death of suckling mice; death rates increased with passaging of DPRV in suckling mice. Moreover, 421 serum samples were collected from individuals who lived near the bat collection site and had fever symptoms within 1 year. DPRV-specific antibodies were detected in 20 (4.75%) human serum samples by indirect immunofluorescence assay. Furthermore, 10 (2.38%) serum samples were DPRV positive according to plaque reduction neutralization assay, which revealed potential transmission of DPRV from bats to humans and highlighted the potential public health risk. Potential vector association with DPRV was not found with negative viral RNA in bloodsucking arthropods. IMPORTANCE We identified a novel rhabdovirus from the horseshoe bat (Rhinolophus thomasi) in China with probable infectivity in humans. DPRV was isolated in vitro from several mammalian cell lines, indicating wide host tropism, excluding bats, of DPRV. DPRV replicated in the brains of suckling mice, and the death rate of suckling mice increased with passaging of DPRV in vivo. Serological tests indicated the possible infectivity of DPRV in humans and the potential transmission to humans. The present findings provide preliminary evidence for the potential risk of DPRV to public health. Additional studies with active surveillance are needed to address interspecies transmission and determine the pathogenicity of DPRV in humans.
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Calvelage S, Tammiranta N, Nokireki T, Gadd T, Eggerbauer E, Zaeck LM, Potratz M, Wylezich C, Höper D, Müller T, Finke S, Freuling CM. Genetic and Antigenetic Characterization of the Novel Kotalahti Bat Lyssavirus (KBLV). Viruses 2021; 13:69. [PMID: 33419096 PMCID: PMC7825429 DOI: 10.3390/v13010069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2020] [Revised: 12/14/2020] [Accepted: 12/17/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
There is a growing diversity of bat-associated lyssaviruses in the Old World. In August 2017, a dead Brandt's bat (Myotis brandtii) tested positive for rabies and based on partial sequence analysis, the novel Kotalahti bat lyssavirus (KBLV) was identified. Because the bat was in an autolyzed state, isolation of KBLV was neither successful after three consecutive cell passages on cells nor in mice. Next generation sequencing (NGS) was applied using Ion Torrent ™ S5 technology coupled with target enrichment via hybridization-based capture (myBaits®) was used to sequence 99% of the genome, comprising of 11,878 nucleotides (nt). KBLV is most closely related to EBLV-2 (78.7% identity), followed by KHUV (79.0%) and BBLV (77.6%), supporting the assignment as phylogroup I lyssavirus. Interestingly, all of these lyssaviruses were also isolated from bat species of the genus Myotis, thus supporting that M. brandtii is likely the reservoir host. All information on antigenic and genetic divergence fulfil the species demarcation criteria by ICTV, so that we recommend KBLV as a novel species within the Lyssavirus genus. Next to sequence analyses, assignment to phylogroup I was functionally corroborated by cross-neutralization of G-deleted RABV, pseudotyped with KBLV-G by sera from RABV vaccinated humans. This suggests that conventional RABV vaccines also confer protection against the novel KBLV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sten Calvelage
- Institute of Diagnostic Virology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut (FLI), 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany; (S.C.); (C.W.); (D.H.)
| | - Niina Tammiranta
- Finnish Food Authority, Research Department, Virology Unit, Mustialankatu 3, FI-00790 Helsinki, Finland; (N.T.); (T.N.); (T.G.)
| | - Tiina Nokireki
- Finnish Food Authority, Research Department, Virology Unit, Mustialankatu 3, FI-00790 Helsinki, Finland; (N.T.); (T.N.); (T.G.)
| | - Tuija Gadd
- Finnish Food Authority, Research Department, Virology Unit, Mustialankatu 3, FI-00790 Helsinki, Finland; (N.T.); (T.N.); (T.G.)
| | - Elisa Eggerbauer
- Institute of Molecular Virology and Cell Biology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut (FLI), WHO Collaborating Centre for Rabies Surveillance and Research, OIE Reference Laboratory for Rabies, 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany; (E.E.); (L.M.Z.); (M.P.); (T.M.); (S.F.)
| | - Luca M. Zaeck
- Institute of Molecular Virology and Cell Biology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut (FLI), WHO Collaborating Centre for Rabies Surveillance and Research, OIE Reference Laboratory for Rabies, 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany; (E.E.); (L.M.Z.); (M.P.); (T.M.); (S.F.)
| | - Madlin Potratz
- Institute of Molecular Virology and Cell Biology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut (FLI), WHO Collaborating Centre for Rabies Surveillance and Research, OIE Reference Laboratory for Rabies, 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany; (E.E.); (L.M.Z.); (M.P.); (T.M.); (S.F.)
| | - Claudia Wylezich
- Institute of Diagnostic Virology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut (FLI), 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany; (S.C.); (C.W.); (D.H.)
| | - Dirk Höper
- Institute of Diagnostic Virology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut (FLI), 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany; (S.C.); (C.W.); (D.H.)
| | - Thomas Müller
- Institute of Molecular Virology and Cell Biology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut (FLI), WHO Collaborating Centre for Rabies Surveillance and Research, OIE Reference Laboratory for Rabies, 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany; (E.E.); (L.M.Z.); (M.P.); (T.M.); (S.F.)
| | - Stefan Finke
- Institute of Molecular Virology and Cell Biology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut (FLI), WHO Collaborating Centre for Rabies Surveillance and Research, OIE Reference Laboratory for Rabies, 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany; (E.E.); (L.M.Z.); (M.P.); (T.M.); (S.F.)
| | - Conrad M. Freuling
- Central Duties, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut (FLI), 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
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9
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Parize P, Travecedo Robledo IC, Cervantes‐Gonzalez M, Kergoat L, Larrous F, Serra‐Cobo J, Dacheux L, Bourhy H. Circumstances of Human–Bat interactions and risk of lyssavirus transmission in metropolitan France. Zoonoses Public Health 2020; 67:774-784. [DOI: 10.1111/zph.12747] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2019] [Revised: 05/18/2020] [Accepted: 05/19/2020] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Perrine Parize
- Unit Lyssavirus Dynamics and Host Adaptation Institut Pasteur National Reference Center for Rabies and WHO Collaborating Centre for Reference and Research on Rabies Paris France
| | - Isabel Cristina Travecedo Robledo
- Unit Lyssavirus Dynamics and Host Adaptation Institut Pasteur National Reference Center for Rabies and WHO Collaborating Centre for Reference and Research on Rabies Paris France
| | - Minerva Cervantes‐Gonzalez
- Unit Lyssavirus Dynamics and Host Adaptation Institut Pasteur National Reference Center for Rabies and WHO Collaborating Centre for Reference and Research on Rabies Paris France
| | - Lauriane Kergoat
- Unit Lyssavirus Dynamics and Host Adaptation Institut Pasteur National Reference Center for Rabies and WHO Collaborating Centre for Reference and Research on Rabies Paris France
| | - Florence Larrous
- Unit Lyssavirus Dynamics and Host Adaptation Institut Pasteur National Reference Center for Rabies and WHO Collaborating Centre for Reference and Research on Rabies Paris France
| | - Jordi Serra‐Cobo
- Department of Evolutionary Biology, Ecology and Environmental Sciences Biodiversity Research Institute (IRBIO) University of Barcelona Barcelona Spain
| | - Laurent Dacheux
- Unit Lyssavirus Dynamics and Host Adaptation Institut Pasteur National Reference Center for Rabies and WHO Collaborating Centre for Reference and Research on Rabies Paris France
| | - Hervé Bourhy
- Unit Lyssavirus Dynamics and Host Adaptation Institut Pasteur National Reference Center for Rabies and WHO Collaborating Centre for Reference and Research on Rabies Paris France
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10
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Orłowska A, Smreczak M, Freuling CM, Müller T, Trębas P, Rola J. Serological Survey of Lyssaviruses in Polish Bats in the Frame of Passive Rabies Surveillance Using an Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay. Viruses 2020; 12:v12030271. [PMID: 32121200 PMCID: PMC7150987 DOI: 10.3390/v12030271] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2019] [Revised: 02/17/2020] [Accepted: 02/27/2020] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: Bats are known to host a number of nonpathogenic viruses, as well as highly pathogenic viruses causing fatal diseases like rabies. Serological surveys as part of active and passive bat rabies surveillance mainly use seroneutralization assays, demonstrating the presence of lyssavirus-specific antibodies in a variety of European bats, particularly against European bat lyssaviruses type 1 (EBLV-1). Here, we present the first serological survey in European bats of this kind during which European bats from Poland collected in the frame of passive rabies surveillance between 2012 and 2018, as well as Serotine bats (Eptesicus serotinus) and North American Big Brown bats (Eptesicus fuscus) from previous experimental studies, were tested using a commercial ELISA kit for the detection of anti-lyssavirus antibodies. Results: Lyssavirus-specific antibodies were detected in 35 (30.4%) out of 115 Polish bats of both sexes, representing nine out of 13 identified bat species endemic mainly to Central Southern Europe and Western Asia, i.e., Eptesicus serotinus, Nyctalus noctula, Myotis daubentonii, Plecotus auritus, Vespertillo murinus, Pipistrellus pipistrellus, Pipistrellus pipilstrellus/Pipistrellus pygmaeus, Myotis brandtii, and Barbastella barbastellus. Seroprevalence was highest in bat species of Nyctalus noctula, Eptesicus serotinus, Plecotus auritus, and Myotis daubentonii. More than 60% of the ELISA seropositive bats originated from the voivodeships of Silesia, Lower-Silesian, Warmian-Mazurian, and Mazowian. Rabies-specific antibodies were also found in Eptesicus fuscus bats from North America. Conclusions: The study demonstrates the principal application of the BioPro Rabies ELISA Ab Kit for the detection of anti-lyssavirus specific antibodies in body fluids and serum samples of bats. However, results may only be reliable for North American bats, whereas interpretation of results for European bats per se is difficult because proper validation of the test is hampered by the protected status of these species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Orłowska
- Department of Virology, National Veterinary Research Institute, 24-100 Puławy, Poland; (P.T.); (J.R.)
- Correspondence: (A.O.); (M.S.); Tel.: +48-818-893-072 (A.O.); +48818-893-029 (M.S.)
| | - Marcin Smreczak
- Department of Virology, National Veterinary Research Institute, 24-100 Puławy, Poland; (P.T.); (J.R.)
- Correspondence: (A.O.); (M.S.); Tel.: +48-818-893-072 (A.O.); +48818-893-029 (M.S.)
| | - Conrad Martin Freuling
- Institute of Molecular Virology and Cell Biology, FLI, WHO Collaborating Centre for Rabies Surveillance and Research, OIE Reference Laboratory for Rabies, 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany; (C.M.F.); (T.M.)
| | - Thomas Müller
- Institute of Molecular Virology and Cell Biology, FLI, WHO Collaborating Centre for Rabies Surveillance and Research, OIE Reference Laboratory for Rabies, 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany; (C.M.F.); (T.M.)
| | - Paweł Trębas
- Department of Virology, National Veterinary Research Institute, 24-100 Puławy, Poland; (P.T.); (J.R.)
| | - Jerzy Rola
- Department of Virology, National Veterinary Research Institute, 24-100 Puławy, Poland; (P.T.); (J.R.)
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11
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Shipley R, Wright E, Selden D, Wu G, Aegerter J, Fooks AR, Banyard AC. Bats and Viruses: Emergence of Novel Lyssaviruses and Association of Bats with Viral Zoonoses in the EU. Trop Med Infect Dis 2019; 4:tropicalmed4010031. [PMID: 30736432 PMCID: PMC6473451 DOI: 10.3390/tropicalmed4010031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2019] [Revised: 01/31/2019] [Accepted: 02/01/2019] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Bats in the EU have been associated with several zoonotic viral pathogens of significance to both human and animal health. Virus discovery continues to expand the existing understating of virus classification, and the increased interest in bats globally as reservoirs or carriers of zoonotic agents has fuelled the continued detection and characterisation of new lyssaviruses and other viral zoonoses. Although the transmission of lyssaviruses from bat species to humans or terrestrial species appears rare, interest in these viruses remains, through their ability to cause the invariably fatal encephalitis—rabies. The association of bats with other viral zoonoses is also of great interest. Much of the EU is free of terrestrial rabies, but several bat species harbor lyssaviruses that remain a risk to human and animal health. Whilst the rabies virus is the main cause of rabies globally, novel related viruses continue to be discovered, predominantly in bat populations, that are of interest purely through their classification within the lyssavirus genus alongside the rabies virus. Although the rabies virus is principally transmitted from the bite of infected dogs, these related lyssaviruses are primarily transmitted to humans and terrestrial carnivores by bats. Even though reports of zoonotic viruses from bats within the EU are rare, to protect human and animal health, it is important characterise novel bat viruses for several reasons, namely: (i) to investigate the mechanisms for the maintenance, potential routes of transmission, and resulting clinical signs, if any, in their natural hosts; (ii) to investigate the ability of existing vaccines, where available, to protect against these viruses; (iii) to evaluate the potential for spill over and onward transmission of viral pathogens in novel terrestrial hosts. This review is an update on the current situation regarding zoonotic virus discovery within bats in the EU, and provides details of potential future mechanisms to control the threat from these deadly pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rebecca Shipley
- Wildlife Zoonoses and Vector-borne Diseases Research Group, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA), KT15 3NB Weybridge-London, UK.
- School of Life Sciences, University of Sussex, Falmer, BN1 9QG Brighton, UK.
| | - Edward Wright
- School of Life Sciences, University of Sussex, Falmer, BN1 9QG Brighton, UK.
| | - David Selden
- Wildlife Zoonoses and Vector-borne Diseases Research Group, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA), KT15 3NB Weybridge-London, UK.
| | - Guanghui Wu
- Wildlife Zoonoses and Vector-borne Diseases Research Group, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA), KT15 3NB Weybridge-London, UK.
| | - James Aegerter
- APHA - National Wildlife Management Centre, Wildlife Epidemiology and Modelling, Sand Hutton, YO41 1LZ York, UK.
| | - Anthony R Fooks
- Institute for Infection and Immunity, St. George's Hospital Medical School, University of London, London, SW17 0RE, UK.
- Department of Clinical Infection, Microbiology and Immunology, Institute of Infection and Global Health, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, L69 7BE, UK.
| | - Ashley C Banyard
- Wildlife Zoonoses and Vector-borne Diseases Research Group, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA), KT15 3NB Weybridge-London, UK.
- School of Life Sciences, University of Sussex, Falmer, BN1 9QG Brighton, UK.
- Institute for Infection and Immunity, St. George's Hospital Medical School, University of London, London, SW17 0RE, UK.
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12
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Picard-Meyer E, Beven V, Hirchaud E, Guillaume C, Larcher G, Robardet E, Servat A, Blanchard Y, Cliquet F. Lleida Bat Lyssavirus isolation in Miniopterus schreibersii in France. Zoonoses Public Health 2018; 66:254-258. [PMID: 30460779 DOI: 10.1111/zph.12535] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2018] [Revised: 10/12/2018] [Accepted: 10/15/2018] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
Bat rabies cases are attributed in Europe to five different Lyssavirus species of 16 recognized Lyssavirus species causing rabies. One of the most genetically divergent Lyssavirus spp. has been detected in a dead Miniopterus schreibersii bat in France. Brain samples were found positive for the presence of antigen, infectious virus and viral RNA by classical virological methods and molecular methods respectively. The complete genome sequence was determined by next-generation sequencing. The analysis of the complete genome sequence confirmed the presence of Lleida bat lyssavirus (LLEBV) in bats in France with 99.7% of nucleotide identity with the Spanish LLEBV strain (KY006983).
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Alexandre Servat
- ANSES-Nancy Laboratory for Rabies and Wildlife, Malzéville, France
| | | | - Florence Cliquet
- ANSES-Nancy Laboratory for Rabies and Wildlife, Malzéville, France
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13
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Smreczak M, Orłowska A, Marzec A, Trębas P, Müller T, Freuling CM, Żmudziński JF. Bokeloh bat lyssavirus isolation in a Natterer's bat, Poland. Zoonoses Public Health 2018; 65:1015-1019. [PMID: 30198169 DOI: 10.1111/zph.12519] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2018] [Revised: 06/28/2018] [Accepted: 08/07/2018] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
In recent years, Bokeloh bat lyssavirus (BBLV), a member of the novel lyssavirus genus Bokeloh bat lyssavirus in the family Rhabdoviridae, has been detected in Germany (five cases) and France (two cases). Here, we report the isolation of BBLV in a Natterer's bat (Myotis nattereri) in Poland. The bat brain tested positive for rabies using classical diagnostics tests (FAT and RTCIT) and then subsequently confirmed by molecular techniques. Viral RNA was found in all peripheral organs tested, and the highest viral loads were detected in brain, the salivary gland and bladder. Phylogenetic analysis performed on complete viral genome sequences revealed the closest homology to representatives of BBLV lineage B, isolated previously in southern Germany. This case provides further evidence that BBLV is widespread in Europe.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcin Smreczak
- Department of Virology, National Veterinary Research Institute, Puławy, Poland
| | - Anna Orłowska
- Department of Virology, National Veterinary Research Institute, Puławy, Poland
| | - Anna Marzec
- Department of Virology, National Veterinary Research Institute, Puławy, Poland
| | - Paweł Trębas
- Department of Virology, National Veterinary Research Institute, Puławy, Poland
| | - Thomas Müller
- Institute of Molecular Virology and Cell Biology, WHO Collaborating Centre for Rabies Surveillance and Research, Friedrich - Loeffler Institut, Greiifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Conrad M Freuling
- Institute of Molecular Virology and Cell Biology, WHO Collaborating Centre for Rabies Surveillance and Research, Friedrich - Loeffler Institut, Greiifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Jan F Żmudziński
- Department of Virology, National Veterinary Research Institute, Puławy, Poland
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14
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Banyard AC, Selden D, Wu G, Thorne L, Jennings D, Marston D, Finke S, Freuling CM, Müller T, Echevarría JE, Fooks AR. Isolation, antigenicity and immunogenicity of Lleida bat lyssavirus. J Gen Virol 2018; 99:1590-1599. [PMID: 29745870 DOI: 10.1099/jgv.0.001068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
The lyssaviruses are an important group of viruses that cause a fatal encephalitis termed rabies. The prototypic lyssavirus, rabies virus, is predicted to cause more than 60 000 human fatalities annually. The burden of disease for the other lyssaviruses is undefined. The original reports for the recently described highly divergent Lleida bat lyssavirus were based on the detection of virus sequence alone. The successful isolation of live Lleida bat lyssavirus from the carcass of the original bat and in vitro characterization of this novel lyssavirus are described here. In addition, the ability of a human rabies vaccine to confer protective immunity following challenge with this divergent lyssavirus was assessed. Two different doses of Lleida bat lyssavirus were used to challenge vaccinated or naïve mice: a high dose of 100 focus-forming units (f.f.u.) 30 µl-1 and a 100-fold dilution of this dose, 1 f.f.u. 30 µl-1. Although all naïve control mice succumbed to the 100 f.f.u. 30 µl-1 challenge, 42 % (n=5/12) of those infected intracerebrally with 1 f.f.u. 30 µl-1 survived the challenge. In the high-challenge-dose group, 42 % of the vaccinated mice survived the challenge (n=5/12), whilst at the lower challenge dose, 33 % (n=4/12) survived to the end of the experiment. Interestingly, a high proportion of mice demonstrated a measurable virus-neutralizing antibody response, demonstrating that neutralizing antibody titres do not necessarily correlate with the outcome of infection via the intracerebral route. Assessing the ability of existing rabies vaccines to protect against novel divergent lyssaviruses is important for the development of future public health strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ashley C Banyard
- 1Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA), Wildlife Zoonoses and Vector Borne Disease Research Group, (WHO Collaborating Centre for the Characterisation of Rabies and Rabies-Related Viruses, OIE Reference Laboratory for Rabies), Weybridge, New Haw, Surrey, KT15 3NB, UK
| | - David Selden
- 1Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA), Wildlife Zoonoses and Vector Borne Disease Research Group, (WHO Collaborating Centre for the Characterisation of Rabies and Rabies-Related Viruses, OIE Reference Laboratory for Rabies), Weybridge, New Haw, Surrey, KT15 3NB, UK
| | - Guanghui Wu
- 1Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA), Wildlife Zoonoses and Vector Borne Disease Research Group, (WHO Collaborating Centre for the Characterisation of Rabies and Rabies-Related Viruses, OIE Reference Laboratory for Rabies), Weybridge, New Haw, Surrey, KT15 3NB, UK
| | - Leigh Thorne
- 1Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA), Wildlife Zoonoses and Vector Borne Disease Research Group, (WHO Collaborating Centre for the Characterisation of Rabies and Rabies-Related Viruses, OIE Reference Laboratory for Rabies), Weybridge, New Haw, Surrey, KT15 3NB, UK
| | - Daisy Jennings
- 1Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA), Wildlife Zoonoses and Vector Borne Disease Research Group, (WHO Collaborating Centre for the Characterisation of Rabies and Rabies-Related Viruses, OIE Reference Laboratory for Rabies), Weybridge, New Haw, Surrey, KT15 3NB, UK
| | - Denise Marston
- 1Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA), Wildlife Zoonoses and Vector Borne Disease Research Group, (WHO Collaborating Centre for the Characterisation of Rabies and Rabies-Related Viruses, OIE Reference Laboratory for Rabies), Weybridge, New Haw, Surrey, KT15 3NB, UK
| | - Stefan Finke
- 2Friedrich-Loeffler-Institute (FLI), (WHO Collaborating Centre, OIE Reference Laboratory for Rabies), Institute of Molecular Virology and Cell Biology, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Conrad M Freuling
- 2Friedrich-Loeffler-Institute (FLI), (WHO Collaborating Centre, OIE Reference Laboratory for Rabies), Institute of Molecular Virology and Cell Biology, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Thomas Müller
- 2Friedrich-Loeffler-Institute (FLI), (WHO Collaborating Centre, OIE Reference Laboratory for Rabies), Institute of Molecular Virology and Cell Biology, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | | | - Anthony R Fooks
- 1Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA), Wildlife Zoonoses and Vector Borne Disease Research Group, (WHO Collaborating Centre for the Characterisation of Rabies and Rabies-Related Viruses, OIE Reference Laboratory for Rabies), Weybridge, New Haw, Surrey, KT15 3NB, UK.,4University of Liverpool, Institute of Infection & Global Health, Liverpool, UK.,5University of London, St George's Hospital Medical School, Institute for Infection and Immunity, London, UK
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15
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McElhinney LM, Marston DA, Wise EL, Freuling CM, Bourhy H, Zanoni R, Moldal T, Kooi EA, Neubauer-Juric A, Nokireki T, Müller T, Fooks AR. Molecular Epidemiology and Evolution of European Bat Lyssavirus 2. Int J Mol Sci 2018; 19:ijms19010156. [PMID: 29303971 PMCID: PMC5796105 DOI: 10.3390/ijms19010156] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2017] [Revised: 12/26/2017] [Accepted: 12/29/2017] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Bat rabies cases in Europe are mainly attributed to two lyssaviruses, namely European Bat Lyssavirus 1 (EBLV-1) and European Bat Lyssavirus 2 (EBLV-2). Prior to the death of a bat worker in Finland in 1985, very few bat rabies cases were reported. Enhanced surveillance in the two subsequent years (1986-1987) identified 263 cases (more than a fifth of all reported cases to date). Between 1977 and 2016, 1183 cases of bat rabies were reported, with the vast majority (>97%) being attributed to EBLV-1. In contrast, there have been only 39 suspected cases of EBLV-2, of which 34 have been confirmed by virus typing and presently restricted to just two bat species; Myotis daubentonii and Myotis dasycneme. The limited number of EBLV-2 cases in Europe prompted the establishment of a network of European reference laboratories to collate all available viruses and data. Despite the relatively low number of EBLV-2 cases, a large amount of anomalous data has been published in the scientific literature, which we have here reviewed and clarified. In this review, 29 EBLV-2 full genome sequences have been analysed to further our understanding of the diversity and molecular evolution of EBLV-2 in Europe. Analysis of the 29 complete EBLV-2 genome sequences clearly corroborated geographical relationships with all EBLV-2 sequences clustering at the country level irrespective of the gene studied. Further geographical clustering was also observed at a local level. There are high levels of homogeneity within the EBLV-2 species with nucleotide identities ranging from 95.5-100% and amino acid identities between 98.7% and 100%, despite the widespread distribution of the isolates both geographically and chronologically. The mean substitution rate for EBLV-2 across the five concatenated genes was 1.65 × 10-5, and evolutionary clock analysis confirms the slow evolution of EBLV-2 both between and within countries in Europe. This is further supported by the first detailed EBLV-2 intra-roost genomic analysis whereby a relatively high sequence homogeneity was found across the genomes of three EBLV-2 isolates obtained several years apart (2007, 2008, and 2014) from M. daubentonii at the same site (Stokesay Castle, Shropshire, UK).
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Affiliation(s)
- Lorraine M McElhinney
- Wildlife Zoonoses and Vector Borne Disease Research Group, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA), Surrey KT15 3NB, UK.
- Institute of Global Health, University of Liverpool, Liverpool L69 3BX, UK.
| | - Denise A Marston
- Wildlife Zoonoses and Vector Borne Disease Research Group, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA), Surrey KT15 3NB, UK.
| | - Emma L Wise
- Wildlife Zoonoses and Vector Borne Disease Research Group, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA), Surrey KT15 3NB, UK.
| | - Conrad M Freuling
- Institute of Molecular Virology and Cell Biology, Friedrich Loeffler Institute, (FLI), 17493 Greifswald, Germany.
| | - Hervé Bourhy
- Institut Pasteur, Unit Lyssavirus Dynamics and Host Adaptation, 75015 Paris, France.
| | - Reto Zanoni
- Institute of Virology and Immunology, University of Berne, 3012 Berne, Switzerland.
| | | | - Engbert A Kooi
- Wageningen Bioveterinary Research, 8221 RA Lelystad, The Netherlands.
| | | | - Tiina Nokireki
- Finnish Food Safety Authority Evira, 00790 Helsinki, Finland.
| | - Thomas Müller
- Institute of Molecular Virology and Cell Biology, Friedrich Loeffler Institute, (FLI), 17493 Greifswald, Germany.
| | - Anthony R Fooks
- Wildlife Zoonoses and Vector Borne Disease Research Group, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA), Surrey KT15 3NB, UK.
- Institute of Global Health, University of Liverpool, Liverpool L69 3BX, UK.
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