Global prevalence of Toxocara infection in cats

Association between Alzheimer's disease and Toxocara infection/exposure: a case-control study

BACKGROUND

Infections may contribute to Alzheimer's disease (AD) risk. Limited evidence suggests Toxocara spp. infection/exposure could influence AD development.

METHODS

We investigated Toxocara seropositivity and AD in Iranian adults using a matched case-control study. Our sample included 90 AD cases and 91 healthy older adults. Anti-Toxocara immunoglobulin G (IgG) antibodies were assessed via enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. We computed the odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) through univariable and multivariable analyses, adjusting for potential confounders.

RESULTS

There were 33/90 (36.67% [95% CI 26.75 to 47.48]) anti-Toxocara IgG seropositive individuals identified among the AD cases and 21/91 (23.07% [95% CI 14.89 to 33.09]) among the healthy controls. In univariable analysis, a significant association was identified between anti-Toxocara IgG seropositivity and AD (OR 1.93 [95% CI 1.01 to 3.69], p<0.001). Moreover, the association remained significant (OR 2.18 [95% CI 1.05 to 4.49], p<0.001) in multivariable analysis after adjustment for covariates. There was no association between anti-Toxocara IgG seropositivity and the severity of AD (OR 0.75 [95% CI 0.21 to 2.61], p=0.47).

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings indicated that Toxocara exposure/infection could be a potential risk factor for development of AD. To better understand a real causality between Toxocara exposure/infection and AD and related dementias, follow-up designed and adequately powered studies are needed.

Synergistic effects of using sodium hypochlorite (bleach) and desiccation in surface inactivation for Toxocara spp

Toxocara cati and T. canis are parasitic nematodes found in the intestines of cats and dogs respectively, with a cosmopolitan distribution, and the potential for anthropozoonotic transmission, resulting in human toxocariasis. Spread of Toxocara spp. is primarily through the ingestion of embryonated eggs contaminating surfaces or uncooked food, or through the ingestion of a paratenic host containing a third-stage larva. The Toxocara spp. eggshell is composed of a lipid layer providing a permeability barrier, a chitinous layer providing structural strength, and thin vitelline and uterine layers, which combined create a biologically resistant structure, making the Toxocara spp. egg very hardy, and capable of surviving for years in the natural environment. The use of sodium hypochlorite, household bleach, as a disinfectant for Toxocara spp. eggs has been reported, with results varying from ineffective to limited effectiveness depending on parameters including contact time, concentration, and temperature. Desiccation or humidity levels have also been reported to have an impact on larval development and/or survival of Toxocara spp. eggs. However, to date, after a thorough search of the literature, no relevant publications have been found that evaluated the use of sodium hypochlorite and desiccation in combination. These experiments aim to assess the effects of using a combination of desiccation and 10% bleach solution (0.6% sodium hypochlorite) on fertilized or embryonated eggs of T. cati, T. canis, and T. vitulorum. Results of these experiments highlight the synergistic effects of desiccation and bleach, and demonstrate a relatively simple method for surface inactivation, resulting in a decrease in viability or destruction of T. cati, T. canis and T. vitulorum eggs. Implications for these findings may apply to larger scale elimination of ascarid eggs from both research, veterinary, and farming facilities to mitigate transmission.

Awareness of parasitic zoonotic diseases among pet owners in Cairo, Egypt

Egyptians are becoming more interested in owning and raising pets; however, most of them lack essential awareness about the risk of zoonotic parasites that could be transmitted. The objective of the present investigation was to evaluate the degree of awareness Egyptian pet owners possess concerning zoonotic parasitic diseases, the risk of transmission, and preventative measures. A cross-sectional study was conducted using an e-survey. Among 246 pet owners, 64.2% (158) were females, and 67.9% (167) belonged to the 20-30 age group. The majority, 78.9% (194), were raising cats. Only 13.8% (34) visited the veterinarian regularly, with significantly higher results among dog owners (p < 0.05). Only 31.3% (77) participants were regularly deworming their pets, and 19.9% (49) were giving their pets prophylaxis against ectoparasites, with significantly higher results among those who visited the veterinarian regularly (p < 0.0001) and among dog owners (p < 0.05). Only 54.1% (133) had heard about the term "zoonoses" before, and about 8.9% (22) of participants showed a history of zoonotic parasitic diseases, with significantly higher results among those who allowed their animals to play with other animals of neighbors and friends (p < 0.05). The obtained results concluded that the surveyed group had a relatively good degree of knowledge regarding pets as a source of zoonotic illness; raising pet owners' awareness regarding the importance of routine medical examinations and minimizing the contact of pets with other stray animals is essential.

Microscopic and molecular prevalence and associated risk factors with Toxocara and Blastocystis infection in dogs and cats in Mitidja, Algeria

Domestic dogs and cats can serve as a source of environmental contamination with Toxocara spp. and Blastocystis spp., and this represents a neglected public and veterinary health problem. We assessed the microscopic and molecular prevalence of these species in a locality in Algeria and identified the associated risk factors. The faeces of 225 dogs and 78 cats were collected in Mitidja between March and July 2022. The samples were analysed by coproscopy and by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) targeting the Internal Transcribed Spacer 2 (ITS2) and Small Subunit Ribosomal (SSU-RNA) of T. canis and Blastocystis spp. respectively. The overall microscopic prevalence of Toxocara spp. in dogs and cats was 9.78 ± 1.98% and 12.82 ± 7.42%, respectively. The rate of Blastocystis spp. was 15.11 ± 2.39% and 15.38 ± 4.08% in dogs and cats, respectively while the molecular prevalence of T. canis in dogs was 4.89 ± 1.44% and in cats 1.28 ± 1.27%; the prevalence of Blastocystis spp. was 41.78 ± 3.29% and 34.62 ± 5.39% in dogs and cats, respectively. Phylogenetic and phylogeographic analyses identified the presence of the H1 subtype of T. canis in dogs, and the ST1 subtype of Blastocystis in dogs and cats. Dogs with clinical signs were more likely to be infected with T. canis (OR 6.039, P < 0.05) than healthy dogs. This study demonstrates that dogs and cats are carriers of Toxocara spp. and Blastocystis spp. and are therefore a source of environmental contamination. Veterinarians and human health professionals should work together to implement control strategies as part of a "One Health" approach to improving animal health and reducing the risk of transmission to humans.

Quantifying the neglected: Initial estimation of the global burden and economic impact of human toxocariasis

Toxocariasis is a parasitic zoonotic infection caused by Toxocara spp., ascarid nematodes of companion animals (dogs and cats) affecting people in both high-income and low/middle-income countries. Toxocariasis can manifest as several distinct syndromes. The most frequent, often termed common toxocariasis, is a self-limiting and mild febrile illness. Ocular and visceral larva migrans are severe disease manifestations affecting the eye and other internal organs, respectively, but their reported occurrence is rare. The vast majority of symptomatic cases are thought due to common toxocariasis, which has also been associated with cognitive impairment in children. Few studies to date have sought to quantity the health burden of toxocariasis in humans. In this study we provide a preliminary estimation using the Disability-Adjusted Life Year (DALY) approach. We estimate a total of 23,084 DALYs are lost annually in 28 selected countries due to common toxocariasis. Extrapolating based on a global average seroprevalence rate of 19%, we estimate 91,714 DALYs per year are lost across all countries due to toxocariasis, of which 40,912 are attributable to less severe forms, i.e. common toxocariasis, and 50,731 to cognitive impairment in children. Clinically diagnosed and reported ocular and visceral larva migrans represent a small proportion of estimated total health burden. We also found a positive correlation at national level between prevalence in cats or dogs and seroprevalence in humans, but no correlation between estimated soil contamination and seroprevalence in humans. Finally, we estimate the potential economic impact of toxocariasis in selected countries at 2.5 billion USD per annum, from costs of medical treatment and lost income. These preliminary estimates should serve as a call to action for further research and evidence-based measures to tackle toxocariasis.

Understanding the research and practical needs required to control toxocariasis in Iran

Human toxocariasis (HT) is a widespread zoonotic infection globally, notably prevalent in tropical areas. Enhancing our understanding of toxocariasis can lead to increased attention towards the socioeconomic impact and control of this neglected zoonosis. We conducted a comprehensive review of all available articles and official documents on toxocariasis in Iran to identify research gaps and critical needs for its control. This review highlights that despite numerous studies exploring various aspects of toxocariasis in definitive and paratenic hosts, as well as humans and environmental contamination, significant data deficiencies and gaps persist across different regions in the country. These gaps involve investigating the worm burden and reinfection rates in definitive hosts, developing more sensitive methods to detect and differentiate of Toxocara species, and understanding the behavior of definitive host animals. Additionally, identifying potential paratenic hosts for HT and exploring the organ-specific affinity and survival duration of Toxocara larvae within these hosts are essential areas for exploration. It's also imperative to comprehend the sylvatic and domestic cycles of the parasite in paratenic hosts. Furthermore, assessing egg density in the environment, exploring potential new sources such as water, and identifying regions with optimal climatic conditions for the survival and development of Toxocara eggs are crucial for the formulation of effective prevention and control strategies. Identifying at-risk groups, developing early diagnosis techniques, employing imaging methods, and identifying long-term complications in humans are also crucial. Community health organizations should prioritize health education for the public and professionals. Furthermore, accurately estimating definitive host populations, monitoring and preventing their movements in public places, implementing regular deworming practices for pets and stray hosts, and recognizing the infection's significance as a health priority are critical. This comprehensive understanding advocates for a holistic "one health" approach to control of HT.

Seroprevalence of Toxocara spp. in Pregnant Women: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Background

Toxocariasis is an important health problem caused by the parasitic species Toxocara canis (T. canis) and Toxocara cati (T. cati). Prevalence of toxocariasis in pregnant women as a vulnerable population is doubly important, and the aim of this study is to estimate the overall prevalence of toxocariasis infection in pregnant women according to the available reports.

Methods

The present study followed the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) checklists. A systematic search was carried out in international scientific databases (Google Scholar, Web of Science, ScienceDirect, Scopus, and PubMed) between 1990 and 2023. The overall prevalence of parasitic infection was estimated with a random-effects model. All analyses (overall prevalence, heterogeneity, publication bias, and sensitivity analysis) were performed with comprehensive meta-analysis (V2.2, Bio stat) software.

Results

Amid the final eleven included studies, based on the random-effects model, the estimation of the pooled prevalence of Toxocara spp. was 20.8% (95% CI, 9.8-38.7%). The association between the risk factors of toxocariasis and the prevalence of the disease was not statistically significant.

Conclusions

In the present study, significant prevalence was reported; however, considering the limited number of studies, it seems that the actual prevalence of the disease is higher. Therefore, it seems necessary to monitor this health problem in pregnant women.

Toxocara cati Infection in Cats (Felis catus): A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Introduction: Toxocariasis is an infection caused in canines, felines, humans, and other vertebrates by species of the genus Toxocara, such as T. canis and T. cati. The embryonated eggs of these parasites are the primary means of acquiring the infection for both definitive hosts, dogs and cats, respectively, and for intermediates, such as humans and other vertebrates. When deposited on park soils, environmental contamination becomes a risk to environmental, human, and animal health. Objective: To determine the global prevalence of Toxocara cati in cats (Felis catus). Methods: A systematic review of the literature was carried out in six databases (Scopus, PubMed, ScienceDirect, SciELO and Google Scholar) to evaluate the global prevalence of Toxocara cati in cats, defined by coproparasitological, histological, and molecular techniques. A meta-analysis was performed using a random effects model to calculate pooled prevalence and 95% confidence intervals (95% CI). A two-tailed 5% alpha level was used for hypothesis testing. Results: Two hundred and eighty-nine studies were included. The global pooled prevalence of Toxocara cati in cats using coproparasitological methods was 17.0% (95.0% CI: 16.2-17.8%). In the subgroup analysis according to country, Nepal had the highest prevalence of T. cati infection (94.4%; 95% CI 89.7-99.2%). The pooled prevalence of T. cati infection by PCR in four studies was 4.9% (95.0% CI: 1.9-7.9%). Conclusions: This systematic review underscores the need for preventive action against toxocariasis due to its widespread prevalence. The interplay between animal and human health should be emphasised, necessitating measures like deworming cats, hygiene practices, and public education to mitigate risks. Safeguarding feline health can also reduce human transmission, benefiting both species.

Global Seroprevalence of Toxocara spp. in Children: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

In the present study, we performed a systematic review and meta-analysis to assess the global and regional seroprevalence of Toxocara spp. and associated risk factors among children.

METHODS

The present systematic review and meta-analysis was followed based on the Preferred Reporting. Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analyses (PRISMA) protocol. We searched the online databases (PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science) and Google Scholar search engine for studies that measured seroprevalence of Toxocara spp. among children, published between 1 January 2000 and 15 January 2022. Accordingly, the pooled seroprevalence and 95% confidence intervals (CI) were estimated using a random-effects meta-analysis model.

RESULTS

A total of 65 articles from 22 countries met the inclusion criteria. The global seroprevalence of Toxocara spp. infection among children was estimated as 25% (95% CI 22-29). Meta-regression analysis showed that the type of population studied (p = 0.002) and year of publication (p = 0.044) it may be the source of heterogeneity. The highest and lowest pooled seroprevalence of Toxocara spp. infection were estimated in Thailand and Colombia as 58.2% (95% CI 50.9-65.5) and 7.04% (95% CI 3.05-11.3), respectively. Male gender was associated with a higher risk of Toxocara spp. compared to females, and this association was statistically significant (OR = 1.24; 95% CI 1.09-1.41, p = 0.001). However, residing in rural areas did not show a statistically significant increase in risk compared to living in urban areas (OR = 1.39; 95% CI 0.88-2.21, p = 0.143).

CONCLUSION

Toxocariasis is common among children, hence, prevention and control scheme of this helminth in children should be considered by health officials and health policymakers, especially in developing countries, where seroprevalence is highest.

Migratory pattern of zoonotic Toxocara cati and T. canis in experimentally infected pigs

BACKGROUND

Over a billion people are infected with Toxocara canis or T. cati, the roundworms of dogs and cats. Historically, T. canis has been considered the main species responsible for human toxocarosis, but as serodiagnosis cannot discriminate between the two species, this remains unresolved. We used pigs as a relevant large animal model for human infection to assess the migratory pattern of T. cati and T. canis.

METHODS

Pigs were inoculated with T. cati or T. canis eggs or PBS (negative controls) and necropsied 14 or 31 days later. Different organs and tissues were examined for parasites and pathological changes.

RESULTS

Overall, the two parasite species had a similar migration pattern reaching multiple organs and tissues, including the mesenteric lymph nodes, liver, lungs, and diaphragm. We recovered larvae of both species in the brain, suggesting that T. cati also can cause neurological toxocarosis in humans. Both species induced systemic eosinophilia and histopathological changes in the lungs, livers, and mesenteric lymph nodes.

CONCLUSION

This study emphasises the importance of T. cati as a zoonotic agent and the need to develop diagnostic methods that can differentiate between sources of infection in humans.

Seroprevalence and Potential Risk Factors of Toxocariasis among General Population in Southwest Iran: Implications on the One Health Approach

Toxocariasis is one of the most common zoonotic diseases distributed worldwide. This study aimed to estimate the seroprevalence of anti-Toxocara immunoglobulin G (IgG) antibodies and the associated risk factors among general populations living in urban and rural areas of Abadan and Khorramshahr cities in Khuzestan Province, Southwest Iran. This cross-sectional study was conducted between March and September 2022. There were 363 participants (190 females and 173 males) aged from <20 to ≥60 years old. Anti-Toxocara IgG antibodies in serum samples were measured using a commercially available enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). A structured questionnaire was employed to collect information regarding sociodemographic status and probable risk factors associated with toxocariasis. It was found that the seroprevalence rate in males (15.0%, 95% CI = 10.47-21.11) was higher than in females (10.5%, 95% CI = 6.92-15.70). Moreover, we observed that the seroprevalence was higher in participants at younger ages compared to other age ranges (COR = 2.55, 95% CI = 0.92-7.12, p =0.073). The findings of the univariate analysis revealed that residency in rural areas (p  < 0.001), using unpurified water (p  < 0.001), contact with dog (p =0.002), contact with soil (p  < 0.001), consumption of improperly washed vegetables (p  < 0.001), and history of drinking untreated water (p  < 0.001) were risk factors associated with toxocariasis. Further comprehensive studies with a focus on humans and animals should be designed in different areas of the Province. The data represented by the current study are useful to health policymakers to consider precise surveillance and effective prevention measures to control this zoonotic infection among general populations.

A walk on the wild side: A review of the epidemiology of Toxocara canis and Toxocara cati in wild hosts

Toxocara species are cosmopolitan nematode parasites of companion, domestic and wild hosts. Of the 26 known species of Toxocara, only Toxocara canis and Toxocara cati are definitively zoonotic. The significance of wild carnivores as definitive hosts of T. canis and T. cati respectively, has received far less attention compared to domestic dogs and cats. Complex environmental changes have promoted increasing contact between wildlife, domestic animals and humans that can enhance the risk of pathogen spillover. This review lists a total of 19 species of wild canid host that have been shown to act as definitive hosts for T. canis and a total of 21 species of wild felid host. In general, the number of publications focusing on felid host species is fewer in number, reflecting the general paucity of data on T. cati. The wild canids that have received the most attention in the published literature include the red fox (Vulpes vulpes), the wolf (Canis lupus), and the golden jackal (Canis aureus). The wild felid species that has received the most attention in the published literature is the Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx). Some non-canid and non-felid hosts also act as definitive hosts of Toxocara species. Certainly, red foxes would appear to be the most significant wild species in terms of their potential to transmit Toxocara to domestic dogs and humans via environmental contamination. This can be explained by their increasing population densities, encroachment into urban areas and their dietary preferences for a wide range of potential paratenic hosts. However, a major challenge remains to assess the relative importance of wild hosts as contributors to environmental contamination with Toxocara ova. Furthermore, one major constraint to our understanding of the significance of wildlife parasitism is a lack of access to samples, particularly from rare host species.

Review of Toxocariasis at a Children's Hospital Prompting Need for Public Health Interventions

BACKGROUND

Toxocariasis, caused the by dog and cat roundworm, is one of the most common zoonotic helminth infections in the United States and can lead to severe lifelong morbidity in children. Although historical seroprevalence studies have identified a high frequency of toxocariasis regionally in the United States, there are few studies linking epidemiology and clinical disease in children. The study objective was to examine the contemporary epidemiology of pediatric toxocariasis within an endemic US region.

METHODS

We conducted an epidemiologic study analyzing children diagnosed with toxocariasis presenting to a tertiary pediatric hospital in Texas from 2010 to 2021. We examined risk factors and performed a geospatial analysis, including a comparative analysis of human cases and locations of surrendered infected stray animals in the same region.

RESULTS

Children diagnosed with toxocariasis were most commonly of Hispanic/Latino ethnicity (30/46; 65%), white race (41/45; 91%) and receiving Medicaid (34/44, 77%). Many infected children had contact with dogs or cats. Ocular toxocariasis was associated with a lack of peripheral eosinophilia ( P < 0.001). No other Toxocara syndromes were associated with defined absolute eosinophil count levels. Post-treatment resolution of eosinophilia was variable, ranging from 1 to 172 weeks. A Toxocara hotspot was identified in northeast Houston, comprising one of the lowest median household incomes in the region.

CONCLUSIONS

Toxocariasis is a devastating zoonotic infection in children living in the US. As it is not a reportable disease, the true burden remains unknown. It is critical to increase awareness of toxocariasis to direct public health interventions and ultimately reduce Toxocara -induced morbidity in US children.

Toxocara Infection in Dogs and Cats in Isfahan Province of Iran in 2021

Background

Toxocariasis is an acute or chronic disease caused by parasites of the Ascaridae family, especially Toxocara of dogs and cats. Eggs are excreted out by feces of these animals on soil. Infective eggs develop on soil which can be infective to human. In this study, infection rate of Toxocara spp. in dogs and cats of urban and rural areas of Isfahan province of Iran has been investigated.

Materials and Methods

Three hundred and seventy-five stray dog feces and 230 stray cat feces were collected from the public environment (slaughterhouses, parks, children's playgrounds, student dormitories, university environment, streets and squares) in Isfahan province of Iran. At first, dogs' and cats' feces were examined for the presence of Toxocara spp. eggs using formalin ether method. In the second stage, by using molecular methods, Toxocara eggs spp. (Toxocara canis or Toxocara cati) were identified.

Results

From 375 dog fecal samples, 39 (10.40%) and from 230 cat fecal samples, 38 (16.52%) were positive for presence of the Toxocara eggs.

Conclusion

Dogs and cats in Isfahan province of Iran were infected with Toxocara parasite. These infections can be potential risk for human toxocariasis.

Deglycosylation of Excretory-Secretory Antigens of the Second-Stage Larvae of Toxocara cati Improves Its Efficacy in the Diagnosis of Human Toxocariasis

Background

Toxocariasis is an important zoonotic infection, especially in tropical areas. One of the significant challenges in the serodiagnosis of human toxocariasis is the cross-reaction of Toxocara antigens with other parasites due to their relatively similar glycan structures. Removing the glycan structure from Toxocara excretory-secretory (TES) antigens may increase the efficacy of these antigens in the diagnosis of toxocariasis. The current study aimed to assess the efficacy of deglycosylated Toxocara cati excretory-secretory (dTES) antigens for the serodiagnosis of human toxocariasis.

Methods

Toxocara ES antigens were prepared from T. cati second-stage larvae and deglycosylated using sodium hydroxide (NaOH). The TES antigens, along with the dTES antigens, were used in an ELISA as well as a western blotting system for the detection of anti-Toxocara antibodies. Sera samples collected from 30 confirmed cases of toxocariasis, 30 patients with other diseases, and 30 healthy subjects were evaluated by both systems.

Results

The sensitivity of TES and dTES ELISA for the diagnosis of human toxocariasis was 96.67% (95% CI = 82.78-99.92) and 93.33% (95% CI = 77.93-99.18), respectively, while the specificity of dTES (88.33%; 95% CI = 77.43-95.18) increased significantly compared to the TES (80.00%; 95% CI = 67.67-89.22). The sensitivity of both antigens was 100% (95% CI = 88.43-100) by the western blotting system. Moreover, the specificity of TES and dTES antigens was 95% (95% CI = 86.08-98.96) and 98.33% (95% CI = 91.06-99.96), respectively, when using the western blotting system.

Conclusion

Results of the current study indicate that the chemical removal of the glycan epitopes of T. cati ES antigens significantly reduces cross-reactivity rates with other parasitic infections. Considering the findings of the present study, the dTES antigens seem to be suitable antigens for the serodiagnosis of human toxocariasis.

Toxocariasis in Ghanaian neighbourhoods: a need for action

Background

Animal reservoirs of Toxocara spp., a neglected parasitic infection, are frequently found in many Ghanaian neighbourhoods. Despite various interactions occurring between these animals and humans which sustain zoonosis, not much focus has been directed at disease surveillance in Ghana, necessitating this study.

Methods

The study was cross-sectional. It combined the collection of biological samples with the survey approach. The study used purposive and convenience sampling techniques to collect data from eligible participants in the Greater Accra region of Ghana. Besides the collection of biological samples from animals which were processed using molecular techniques, semi-structured questionnaires were administered to the pet owners.

Results

In sum, 32.2% (95% CI, 27.6%-37.0%) of the targeted animals were positive for Toxocara canis, with most of the cases being found in dogs and rodents. Among the 204 rodents, more Praomys tulbergi were positive for this parasite compared to the others. From the survey, some risk factors culminating in high disease exposure were identified: more than one-third of pet owners did not deworm their pets although about a fourth shared bed with them. In addition, many respondents' kids played with these pets but not all supervised them to practice hand hygiene. Also, a good number of pet owners confirmed the frequent exposure of their pets to rodents.

Conclusions

The relatively high prevalence of T. canis recorded in animals and the increasing exposure of humans to this parasite point to a higher risk for human toxocariasis. Furthermore, T. canis found in cats cannot be ignored and merits further investigations. For Ghana to achieve SDG 3 by 2030, priority must also be placed on neglected diseases which calls for an integrated approach to disease surveillance and a redirection of research focus using the one health concept.

Gastrointestinal helminth parasites of pets: Retrospective study at the veterinary teaching hospital, IPB University, Bogor, Indonesia

Background and Aim

Dogs and cats are popular pets that play integral roles in human societies worldwide. Unfortunately, they can carry potential zoonotic helminths that can be transmitted to humans. However, data on the gastrointestinal helminths affecting dogs and cats in Bogor, Indonesia, are currently lacking. This study aimed to investigate the occurrence of gastrointestinal helminth parasites in pets from this area using a retrospective analysis.

Materials and Methods

A retrospective study was conducted at the Veterinary Teaching Hospital of IPB University, Bogor. Cat and dog patients from January 2014 to April 2019 were tested for helminth infections and the results as well as their age, sex, and breed data were analyzed using the Chi-square test.

Results

Among the dogs and cats examined for internal parasites, 61.11% (33/51) of the dogs and 53.80% (92/171) of the cats were infected by helminths. Among the dogs, hookworm (37.04%) and Toxocara spp. (24.07%) were detected, while in the cats, hookworm (11.11%), Toxocara spp. (38.01%), and Dipylidium caninum (4.68%) were detected. The prevalence of hookworm and D. caninum was higher in older pets, while Toxocara spp. infected younger cats and dogs (<1 year) more frequently. The prevalence of Toxocara spp. in the Indonesian local dog breed was higher when than other breeds. Sex did not significantly affect the prevalence of parasites in dogs or cats.

Conclusion

The discovery of zoonotic helminth parasites in the cat and dog pets from Bogor raises concerns for the inhabitants. Initiatives will be required to inform pet owners about prevention strategies for these parasitic diseases.

Prevalence of Intestinal Parasites in Dogs and Cats from the Kvarner Region in Croatia

Intestinal parasites of dogs and cats may affect their health with a significant zoonotic risk to public health. Therefore, establishing an efficient control program should pass through the determination of the diversity, prevalence, and pathogenicity of those parasites. This study aimed to determine the prevalence of intestinal parasites in dogs and cats and proceed to infection comparisons between young and adult animals. The detection of parasites in fecal samples was determined using flotation and immunofluorescent methods across 320 dogs and 64 cats from the Kvarner region in Croatia. The prevalence was calculated for each detected parasite in its host. Differences in prevalence between young animals and adults were analyzed. Parasites were detected in 32 dogs and 34.4% of cats. In total, 12 different genera were detected; Giardia spp. was the most prevalent parasite in both species, infecting 24.7% and 18.8% of investigated dogs and cats, respectively. Cryptosporidium spp. and Toxocara cati had a prevalence of (18.4%) and (6.3%), respectively. Prevalences of Giardia spp., Cryptosporidium spp., and Cystoisospora spp. were significantly (P < 0.05) higher in puppies compared to adult dogs. Pentatrichomonas hominis (P. hominis) was detected in one puppy. In addition to the first report of P. hominis, a relatively high prevalence of intestinal parasites in dogs and cats in the Kvarner region of Croatia was recorded, posing a potential zoonotic risk.

Gastrointestinal parasites of cats in Egypt: high prevalence high zoonotic risk

BACKGROUND

Several gastrointestinal parasites that infect cats pose potential health threats for humans and animals. The present study is the first to report gastrointestinal (GIT) parasites in feces of stray cats from Gharbia governorate, Egypt. Findings were combined with those published in the earlier surveys from various Egyptian governorates, and various meta-analyses were conducted to underline the parasitic zoonoses from cats in Egypt.

RESULTS

Out of 143 samples tested in Gharbia, 75 (52.4%) were found infected with 13 different parasites. Co-infections were observed in 49.3% of positives. Several parasites were detected, e.g., Toxocara cati (30.0%), Toxascaris leonina (22.4%), hookworms (8.4%), taeniids (4.2%), Strongyloides spp. (2.1%), Physaloptera spp. (2.1%), Alaria spp. (1.4%) and Dipylidium caninum (0.7%). Opisthorchis-like eggs were found in a single sample being the first report from cats in Africa. Oocysts of 4 coccidian parasites were identified, and a few Toxoplasma gondii-like oocysts were detected in 2 samples (1.4%). Results of the meta-analysis illustrated that occurrence of T. gondii oocysts in feces of cats from Egypt may have been overestimated in earlier studies; 1432 cats have been tested and displayed a 5 times higher pooled prevalence (11.9%) than the published global pooled prevalence for T. gondii oocysts in cats. This overestimation might have occurred because some small-sized oocysts that belong to other coccidian parasites were mis-identified as T. gondii. Toxocara cati had a high pooled prevalence (22.5%) in cats from Egypt, which is even greater than the published pooled prevalence in cats globally; however, several reports from Egypt have neglected the role of T. cati in human toxocarosis. Dipylidium caninum displayed also a high prevalence (26.7%).

CONCLUSION

Several zoonotic parasite species have been found in stray cats from Egypt, raising concerns about the risks to the Egyptian human population as well as environmental contamination. Prompt surveillance supervised by the government and accompanied by data dissemination will be helpful for developing effective control strategies.

Larva migrans in BALB/c mice experimentally infected with Toxocara cati ensured by PCR assay

BACKGROUND

Toxocara cati, the cat roundworm, is a parasitic nematode that known to cause toxocariasis in intermediate hosts and humans. In this study, we characterized the dynamics of T. cati larvae migration in BALB/c mice after inoculation with eggs and ensured the migration detecting the larval DNA by a PCR. To evaluate the dynamics of larval migration and distribution, twenty-four BALB/c mice were orally inoculated with 2500 T. cati infective eggs and the visceral organs of the infected animals were examined by pepsin digestion and microscopic parasite counts, followed by PCR at day 1 to 28 post-inoculation.

RESULTS

The PCR assays were successfully used for detection of T. cati larvae in tissue samples and T. cati larvae and the DNAs were found in the liver, lungs, heart, kidneys and the brain. We detected T. cati in 92.2% of tissue samples by PCR, 30% higher than the conventional pepsin digestion technique.

CONCLUSION

Our findings demonstrated that the PCR assay is a sensitive and specific for the detection of T. cati larvae. Therefore, it could become a useful tool for the investigation of the dynamics of larval migration and Toxocara infection in murine model.

Toxocara canis- and Toxocara cati-Induced Neurotoxocarosis Is Associated with Comprehensive Brain Transcriptomic Alterations

Toxocara canis and Toxocara cati are globally occurring zoonotic roundworms of dogs and cats. Migration and persistence of Toxocara larvae in the central nervous system of paratenic hosts including humans may cause clinical signs of neurotoxocarosis (NT). As pathomechanisms of NT and host responses against Toxocara larvae are mostly unknown, whole-genome microarray transcription analysis was performed in cerebra and cerebella of experimentally infected C57Bl/6J mice as paratenic host model at days 14, 28, 70, 98, and 120 post-infection. Neuroinvasion of T. cati evoked 220 cerebral and 215 cerebellar differentially transcribed genes (DTGs), but no particular PANTHER (Protein ANalysis THrough Evolutionary Relationships) pathway was affected. In T. canis-infected mice, 1039 cerebral and 2073 cerebellar DTGs were identified. Statistically significant dysregulations occurred in various pathways, including cholesterol biosynthesis, apoptosis signaling, and the Slit/Robo mediated axon guidance as well as different pathways associated with the immune and defense response. Observed dysregulations of the cholesterol biosynthesis, as well as the Alzheimer disease-amyloid secretase pathway in conjunction with previous histopathological neurodegenerative findings, may promote the discussion of T. canis as a causative agent for dementia and/or Alzheimer’s disease. Furthermore, results contribute to a deeper understanding of the largely unknown pathogenesis and host-parasite interactions during NT, and may provide the basis for prospective investigations evaluating pathogenic mechanisms or designing novel diagnostic and therapeutic approaches.

The global prevalence of Toxocara spp. in pediatrics: a systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Toxocariasis is a zoonotic parasitic disease caused by Toxocara canis and Toxocara cati in humans. Various types of T. canis are important.

PURPOSE

The current study aimed to investigate the prevalence of Toxocara spp. in pediatrics in the context of a systematic review and meta-analysis.

METHODS

The MEDLINE (PubMed), Web of Sciences, Embase, Google Scholar, Scopus, and Cumulative Index of Nursing and Allied Health databases were searched to identify peer-reviewed studies published between January 2000 and December 2019 that report the prevalence of Toxocara spp. in pediatrics. The evaluation of articles based on the inclusion and exclusion criteria was performed by 2 researchers individually.

RESULTS

The results of 31 relevant studies indicated that the prevalence of Toxocara spp. was 3%-79% in 10,676 cases. The pooled estimate of global prevalence of Toxocara spp. in pediatrics was 30 (95% confidence interval, 22%-37%; I2=99.11%; P=0.00). The prevalence was higher in Asian populations than in European, American, and African populations.

CONCLUSION

Health policymakers should be more attentive to future research and approaches to Toxocara spp. and other zoonotic diseases to improve culture and identify socioeconomically important factors.

Prevalence and Molecular Characterization of Toxocara cati Infection in Feral Cats in Alexandria City, Northern Egypt

Background

This study was performed to determine the prevalence and to identify precisely Toxocara spp., which infects feral cats in Alexandria, Egypt based on morphological and molecular approaches.

Methods

This cross-sectional study was carried out on 100 feral cats trapped from different areas of Alexandria during 2018. Adult male and female worms were recovered from small intestinal contents after euthanasia and dissection of cats. Distinct morphological features were initially determined using available keys, and then after amplification and sequencing of the mitochondrial NADH dehydrogenase subunit 1 (nad1) gene was carried out and phylogenetic trees were constructed.

Results

Forty out of 100 cats were infected with Toxocara spp. Intensity of infection ranged from 1 to 9 worms/cat, with a mean of 2.27±1.6. All isolates were confirmed as T. cati based on morphological features and the sequence of nad1 gene. Results of the current study clearly show that Egyptian T. cati isolate examined herein is genetically similar to those recorded in other countries.

Conclusion

The current work revealed high prevalence of T. cati in feral cats in the study area. This is the first genetic study that confirms T. cati from feral cats in Egypt. In addition, it demonstrated the suitability and need of genetic markers such as nad1 for identification of Toxocara spp. Furthermore highlights the public health importance of T. cati in Egypt.

The Role of Nile Tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) in the Life Cycle of Toxocara spp

The present study aimed to experimentally assess Nile tilapia as potential paratenic host of Toxocara spp. A total of 15 Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) were fed with 300 embryonated Toxocara canis eggs by oral gavage, while five others of the control group received distilled water. The fish were individually analyzed at 16, 24, 48, 72, and 240 h after inoculation. Water contamination was assessed, and tissue migration by liver, gastrointestinal tract (GIT), eyes, and central nervous system. A murine model was used as the paratenic host for egg infectivity assessment. Eggs and larvae were found in plastic tank water and fish GIT, ranging from 23 to 86% per fish. Eggs and larvae were recovered from the tank water (76.3%) and fish GIT (23.7%). The counting of eggs and larvae observed was negatively correlated with number of eggs and larvae in the water tank (rho = -0.698, p = 0.003). Shedding of embryonated eggs was first detected at 16 and up to 240 h, with significant egg and larvae yield decrease on water-shedding (p = 0.001) and in the GIT (p = 0.007). Although no T. canis larva was recovered in fish tissues, egg infectivity after fish GIT transit was experimentally confirmed by mice assessment. In conclusion, despite shedding viable embryonated eggs through the gastrointestinal tract, tilapias may not play a role as a suitable paratenic hosts for Toxocara spp., posing low risk of zoonotic transmission by fish meat consumption.

Endoparasites of European Wildcats (Felis silvestris) in Greece

The European wildcat (Felis silvestris) is the only wild felid living in Greece. Wildcat populations are declining due to anthropogenic and phenological unfavourable conditions, and parasites may have an additional negative impact. In the present study, the occurrence of endoparasites in wildcats in Greece and the potential threats posed to wildcats, domestic animals, and humans in the study areas has been investigated. In a six-year period, 23 road-killed wildcats and 62 wildcat faecal samples were collected from different areas of the country. Necropsy for the detection of endoparasites and standard parasitological examinations of faecal samples were performed. Parasites were morphologically identified and, in selected cases, molecularly analysed. All necropsied wildcats (100%) were infected by three to 10 different parasite taxa, with the most prevalent being Taenia taeniaeformis (73.9%), Toxocara cati (60.9%), Angiostrongylus chabaudi (56.5%), Ancylostoma tubaeforme (39.1%), Cylicospirura spp. (34.8%), Troglostrongylus brevior (34.8%), and Capillaria aerophila (33.8%). Of the 62 faecal samples examined, 53 (85.5%) were positive for one or more parasite elements (larvae, eggs, or oocysts). The most frequent were T. cati (45.2%), A. chabaudi (29%), C. aerophila (24.2%), and Ancylostomatidae (17.7%). This is the first survey on endoparasites affecting wildcats in Greece. Some of the parasites here found are frequent in domestic and wild felids, while others, i.e., Oslerus rostratus and Cylicospirura petrowi, were described for the first time in the European wildcat. Most of them have a significant pathogenic potential, causing severe to hazardous diseases to infected felids and some, under specific circumstances, can also threaten human health.

Keys to Unlock the Enigma of Ocular Toxocariasis: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis

Purpose: Ocular toxocariasis (OT) is a zoonotic infection caused by larval stages of Toxocara canis and T. cati. The current review and meta-analysis aimed to evaluate the global prevalence of OT.Methods: Five English (PubMed, Scopus, Science Direct, Web of Science, and Google Scholar) databases were explored and 101 articles met the inclusion criteria.Results: The pooled prevalence (95% confidence interval) of OT was higher in immunological studies (9%. 6-12%) than in studies that applied ophthalmic examination (1%. 1-2%). The lower middle-income level countries had the highest prevalence (6%. 2-12%) as well as the African region (10%. 7-13%). The highest infection rate (4%. 2-7%) was detected in the 1-25 mean age group.Conclusion: Regular anthelminthic treatment of cats and dogs, and removal of animal feces from public places must be considered.

Global prevalence of Cryptosporidium spp. in cats: A systematic review and meta-analysis

The One-Health approach highlights that the health of human populations is closely connected to the health of animals and their shared environment. Cryptosporidiosis is an opportunistic zoonotic disease considering as global public health concern. Cats are considered as one of potential host for transmitting the Cryptosporidium spp. infection to humans. A random-effects meta-analysis model was used to estimate the overall and the subgroup-pooled prevalence of Cryptosporidium spp. across studies, and the variance between studies (heterogeneity) were quantified by I² index. Eighty articles (including 92 datasets), from 29 countries met eligibility criteria for analysis. The pooled global prevalence (95% CI) of Cryptosporidium spp. in cats was 6% (4-8%), being highest in Africa 14% (0-91%) and lowest in South and Central America 4% (3-7%) countries. Considering the detection methods, the pooled prevalence was estimated to be 26% (1-67%) using serological detection methods, 6% (3-10%) using coproantigen detection methods, 5% (3-7%) using molecular detection methods, and 4% (3-7%) using microscopic detection methods. The highest prevalence of Cryptosporidium spp. was found in stray cats 10% (5-17%), while pet (domestic) cats 4% (3-7%) had the lowest prevalence. These results emphasize the role of cats as reservoir hosts for human-infecting Cryptosporidium spp. Prevention and control of this zoonosis in cats should receive greater attention by health officials and health policymakers, especially in countries where prevalence are highest.

Toxocara infection/exposure and the risk of schizophrenia: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Toxocariasis is an important neglected disease that could have a role in the development of some neurological disorders, such as schizophrenia (SCZ). We performed the first systematic review and meta-analysis on observational studies to evaluate the possible association between Toxocara infection/exposure and SCZ. Systematic searching (PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science and Google Scholar) was performed, up to 15 August 2020, to identify the relevant studies. We used a random effects meta-analysis model to generate the pooled OR and 95% CIs. The research process resulted in the identification of six studies related to the subject of interest entailing 411 SCZ patients and 2047 controls. Our results demonstrated that the SCZ patients (15%; 95% CI 6.8 to 29.9%) had higher pooled seroprevalence of Toxocara infection/exposure than the control group (3.3%; 95% CI 1.1 to 9.4%), showing a significant association (pooled OR, 4.06; 95% CI 1.14 to 14.43). Our findings suggested that Toxocara infection/exposure might have an important but neglected contribution to SCZ development. However, further well-designed and large-scale observational studies are needed to illuminate this association. Because many other environmental and genetic factors may be strong confounders, more mechanistic/experimental studies in animal models are also necessary to further define the mechanism of this association.

Systematic review and meta-analysis on the risk potential of zoonotic toxocariasis from soil contamination of public places in India

Parasitic zoonoses despite of their potential threats to human health remain neglected especially in developing countries. Toxocara canis and Toxocara cati worms are considered important zoonotic parasites and the ability of their infective ova to sustain longer in suitable edaphic environments poses constant risk of infection to humans. This systematic review and meta-analysis aims to highlight the burden and importance of soil borne toxocariasis in India. A total of 14 primary prevalence studies spanned over a period from 1985 to 2017 were included in this study. Due to expected variation between studies, a random-effects model was applied by using MetaXL add-on. The apparent prevalence based on the soil samples tested positive was found in the range of 2.11 to 31.0% while the weighted pooled prevalence was estimated as 11.26 (95% CI 07.59 - 15.54%). A high heterogeneity between studies (I² = 93.39 and Q = 227.024, p = 0.00) confirmed the diversity of the populations under study. This meta-analysis highlights the need of more studies on soil transmission of zoonotic toxocariasis in India.

Toxocara cati and Other Parasitic Enteropathogens: More Commonly Found in Owned Cats with Gastrointestinal Signs Than in Clinically Healthy Ones

Intestinal parasites are involved in the health and wellbeing of cats and some of them, due to their zoonotic potential, represent a problem for public health. This study aimed to assess the prevalence of parasitic infections in cats with gastrointestinal signs. Fecal samples collected from 137 cats were analyzed by the flotation method using a sodium chloride saturated solution. The overall prevalence of intestinal parasites was 50.4%. Intestinal parasites were significantly (p < 0.0001) more common in cats with digestive clinical signs (66.7%) than in clinically healthy ones (19.2%). Toxocara cati (40.2%) was the most frequently identified intestinal parasite, followed by Cystoisospora spp. (10.2%), hookworms (3.7%), Taeniidae (2.2%), Giardia duodenalis (2.2%), and Toxoplasma gondii (0.7%). Toxocara cati (53.3%, p < 0.0001) and Cystoisospora spp. (15.6%, p < 0.001) were significantly more frequently diagnosed in cats with clinical signs. A lack of deworming in the last three months (OR: 15.9), outdoor access (OR: 13.8), the presence of digestive symptoms (OR: 5.4), and young age (OR: 4.2) were identified as risk factors for T. cati infection by logistic regression analysis. Regardless of age, gastrointestinal signs like vomiting, diarrhea, and inappetence were positively associated with T. cati.

Global prevalence of microsporidia infection in cats: A systematic review and meta-analysis of an emerging zoonotic pathogen

Microsporidiosis in pet and stray cats is an emerging zoonotic threat with public health significance worldwide. However, the epidemiological patterns of feline microsporidiosis is still neglected around the world. Hence, current systematic review and meta-analysis aimed at characterizing the prevalence estimates and genotypes of microsporidian parasites among cats of the world. Several databases (PubMed, Web of Science, Scopus, and Google scholar) were systematically explored to find relevant studies. Evaluation of the weighted prevalences among included studies was done using random-effects model. Totally, 30 studies (34 datasets) reported from 19 countries were included in the present work. Microsporidia infection demonstrated higher prevalence rates using microscopy 29.7 % (19.7-42.2 %), followed by serology and molecular techniques with 11 % (4.6-24.2 %) and 8.2 % (5.9-11.4 %), respectively. Moreover, molecular data showed Enterocytozoon bieneusi as the most dominant reported species with 7.4 % (5.1-10.5 %). Also, investigations (11 studies) mostly isolated D genotype among all E. bieneusi genotypes. These results highlight cats as a potential reservoir for acquisition of microsporidia infection in humans, and surveillance programs should be implemented in high-risk areas.

"Begging the Question"-Does Toxocara Infection/Exposure Associate with Multiple Sclerosis-Risk?

Although the cause of multiple sclerosis (MS) is unclear, infectious agents, including some parasitic roundworms (nematodes), have been proposed as possible risk factors or contributors. Here, we conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis of published observational studies to evaluate whether there is a possible association between infection with, or exposure to, one or more members of the genus Toxocara (phylum Nematoda; superfamily Ascaridoidea) and MS. We undertook a search of public literature databases to identify relevant studies and then used a random-effects meta-analysis model to generate the pooled odds ratio (OR) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs). This search identified six of a total of 1371 articles that were relevant to the topic; these published studies involved totals of 473 MS patients and 647 control subjects. Anti-Toxocara IgG serum antibodies were detected in 62 MS patients and 37 controls, resulting in respective seroprevalences of 13.1% (95% CI: 8.2-20.3) and 4.8% (95% CI: 2.5-9.2), indicating an association (pooled OR, 3.01; 95% CI: 1.46-6.21). Because of the publication bias identified (six eligible studies), well-designed and -controlled studies are required in the future to rigorously test the hypothesis that Toxocara infection/exposure has an association with MS.

Global Prevalence Estimates of Toxascaris leonina Infection in Dogs and Cats

Toxascaris leonina is an ascaridoid nematode of dogs and cats; this parasite affects the health of these animals. This study estimated the global prevalence of Ta. leonina infection in dogs and cats using random effects meta-analysis as well as subgroup, meta-regression and heterogeneity analyses. The data were stratified according to geographical region, the type of dogs and cats and environmental variables. A quantitative analysis of 135 published studies, involving 119,317 dogs and 25,364 cats, estimated prevalence rates of Ta. leonina in dogs and cats at 2.9% and 3.4%, respectively. Prevalence was highest in the Eastern Mediterranean region (7.2% for dogs and 10.0% for cats) and was significantly higher in stray dogs (7.0% vs. 1.5%) and stray cats (7.5% vs. 1.8%) than in pets. The findings indicate that, worldwide, ~26 million dogs and ~23 million cats are infected with Ta. leonina; these animals would shed substantial numbers of Ta. leonina eggs into the environment each year and might represent reservoirs of infection to other accidental or paratenic hosts. It is important that populations of dogs and cats as well as other canids and felids be monitored and dewormed for Ta. leonina and (other) zoonotic helminths.