Optimization of headspace solid-phase microextraction for analysis of β-caryophyllene in a nanoemulsion dosage form prepared with copaiba (Copaifera multijuga Hayne) oil

Solid Lipid Nanoparticles Based on Babassu Oil and Copaiba Oleoresin: A Promising Approach for Prostate Cancer Therapy

Solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) represent promising nanostructures for drug delivery systems. This study successfully synthesized SLNs containing different proportions of babassu oil (BBS) and copaiba oleoresin (COPA) via the emulsification-ultrasonication method. Before SLN synthesis, the identification and quantification of methyl esters, such as lauric acid and β-caryophyllene, were performed via GC-MS analysis. These methyl esters were used as chemical markers and assisted in encapsulation efficiency experiments. A 22 factorial design with a center point was employed to assess the impact of stearic acid and Tween 80 on particle hydrodynamic diameter (HD) and polydispersity index (PDI). Additionally, the effects of temperature (8 ± 0.5 °C and 25 ± 1.0 °C) and time (0, 7, 15, 30, 40, and 60 days) on HD and PDI values were investigated. Zeta potential (ZP) measurements were utilized to evaluate nanoparticle stability, while transmission electron microscopy provided insights into the morphology and nanometric dimensions of the SLNs. The in vitro cytotoxic activity of the SLNs (10 µg/mL, 30 µg/mL, 40 µg/mL, and 80 µg/mL) was evaluated using the MTT assay with PC-3 and DU-145 prostate cancer cell lines. Results demonstrated that SLNs containing BBS and COPA in a 1:1 ratio exhibited a promising cytotoxic effect against prostate cancer cells, with a percentage of viable cells of 68.5% for PC-3 at a concentration of 30 µg/mL and 48% for DU-145 at a concentration of 80 µg/mL. These findings underscore the potential therapeutic applications of SLNs loaded with BBS and COPA for prostate cancer treatment.

Effect of free and nanoemulsified β-caryophyllene on monocrotaline-induced pulmonary arterial hypertension

Pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH) is characterized by increased pulmonary vascular resistance (PVR), right ventricular (RV) failure and premature death. Compounds with vasodilatory characteristics, such as β-caryophyllene, could be promising therapeutics for PAH. This study aimed to determine the effects of free and nanoemulsified β-caryophyllene in lung oxidative stress and heart function in PAH rats. Male Wistar rats (170 g, n = 6/group) were divided into four groups: control (CO), monocrotaline (MCT), monocrotaline + β-caryophyllene (MCT-Bcar) and monocrotaline + nanoemulsion with β-caryophyllene (MCT-Nano). PAH was induced by MCT (60 mg/kg i.p.), and 7 days later, treatment with β-caryophyllene, either free or in a nanoemulsion (by gavage, 176 mg/kg/day) or vehicle was given for 14 days. Echocardiographic and hemodynamic measurements were performed, and after, the RV was collected for morphometry and the lungs for evaluation of oxidative stress, antioxidant enzymes, total sulfhydryl compounds, nitric oxide synthase (NOS) activity and endothelin-1 receptor expression. RV hypertrophy, increased PVR and RV systolic and diastolic pressures (RVSP and RVEDP, respectively) and increased mean pulmonary arterial pressure (mPAP) were observed in the MCT group. Treatment with both free and nanoemulsified β-caryophyllene reduced RV hypertrophy, mPAP, RVSP and lipid peroxidation. The reduction in RVSP was more pronounced in the MCT-Nano group. Moreover, RVEDP decreased only in the MCT-Nano group. These treatments also increased superoxide dismutase, catalase and NOS activities and decreased endothelin-1 receptors expression. Both β-caryophyllene formulations improved mPAP, PVR and oxidative stress parameters. However, β-caryophyllene in a nanoemulsion was more effective in attenuating the effects of PAH.

Copaifera langsdorffii Desf. tree oleoresin-induced antinociception recruits µ1- and κ -opioid receptors in the ventrolateral columns of the periaqueductal gray matter

Popular medicine has been using oleoresin from several species of copaíba tree for the treatment of various diseases and its clinical administration potentially causes antinociception. Electrical stimulation of ventrolateral (vlPAG) and dorsolateral (dlPAG) columns of the periaqueductal gray matter also causes antinociception. The aim this study was to verify the antinociceptive effect of oleoresin extracted from Copaifera langsdorffii tree and to test the hypothesis that oleoresin-induced antinociception is mediated by µ1- and κ-opioid receptors in the vlPAG and dlPAG. Nociceptive thresholds were determined by the tail-flick test in Wistar rats. The copaíba tree oleoresin was administered at different doses (50, 100 and 200 mg/kg) through the gavage technique. After the specification of the most effective dose of copaíba tree oleoresin (200 mg/kg), rats were pretreated with either the µ1-opioid receptor selective antagonist naloxonazine (at 0.05, 0.5 and 5 µg/ 0.2 µl in vlPAG, and 5 µg/ 0.2 µl in dlPAG) or the κ-opioid receptor selective antagonist nor-binaltorphimine (at 1, 3 and 9 nmol/ 0.2 µl in vlPAG, and 9 nmol/ 0.2 µl in dlPAG). The blockade of µ1 and κ opioid receptors of vlPAG decreased the antinociception produced by copaíba tree oleoresin. However, the blockade of these receptors in dlPAG did not alter copaíba tree oleoresin-induced antinociception. These data suggest that vlPAG µ1 and κ opioid receptors are critically recruited in the antinociceptive effect produced by oleoresin extracted from Copaifera langsdorffii.

Co-delivery of beta-caryophyllene and indomethacin in the oily core of nanoemulsions potentiates the anti-inflammatory effect in LPS-stimulated macrophage model

The potentiation of pharmacological effects can be achieved through several strategies, such as the association of substances and delivery in nanostructured systems. In practice, potentiation can be measured by the law of mass action and joint evaluation of the combination index (CI) and dose-response curves. In this context, this study aimed to evaluate the anti-inflammatory effect of the association of β-caryophyllene and indomethacin in the free form and delivered in nanoemulsions using the in vitro model of LPS-stimulated murine macrophage. The results indicated potentiation of the anti-inflammatory effect of nanoemulsified substances compared to free substances, as well as synergistic action between the sesquiterpene and the selected NSAID. In comparison, the association of β-caryophyllene and indomethacin in the free form inhibited the production of nitric oxide by 50% at 48.60 µg/mL (CI = 0.21), while the nanoemulsified association of these substances resulted in an IC50 of 1.45 µg/mL (CI = 0.14). In parallel, cytotoxicity assays on HaCaT and MRC-5 cell lines demonstrated the safety of IC50-equivalent concentrations of the anti-inflammatory action, and no irritating effects on the chorioallantoic membrane of embryonated eggs were observed (HET-CAM assay). The results suggest that β-caryophyllene may be an alternative to replace an inert oily core in nanoemulsion systems when anti-inflammatory effects are desirable.

Correlation between the Skin Permeation Profile of the Synthetic Sesquiterpene Compounds, Beta-Caryophyllene and Caryophyllene Oxide, and the Antiedematogenic Activity by Topical Application of Nanoemulgels

Sesquiterpene compounds are applied as permeation promoters in topical formulations. However, studies exploring their impact on nanostructured systems, changes in permeation profile, and consequently, its biological activity are restricted. This study aimed to investigate the correlation between the skin permeation of the major sesquiterpenes, beta-caryophyllene, and caryophyllene oxide from the oleoresin of Copaifera multijuga, after delivery into topical nanoemulgels, and the in vivo antiedematogenic activity. First, ten nanoemulgels were prepared and characterized, and their in vitro permeation profile and in vivo anti-inflammatory activity were evaluated. In equivalent concentrations, β-caryophyllene permeation was greater from oleoresin nanoemulgels, resulting in greater in vivo antiedematogenic activity. However, an inverse relationship was observed for caryophyllene oxide, which showed its favored permeation and better in vivo anti-inflammatory effect carried as an isolated compound in the nanoemulgels. These results suggest that the presence of similar compounds may interfere with the permeation profile when comparing the profiles of the compounds alone or when presented in oleoresin. Furthermore, the correlation results between the permeation profile and in vivo antiedematogenic activity corroborate the establishment of beta-caryophyllene as an essential compound for this pharmacological activity of C. multijuga oleoresin.

Volatile Organic Compounds Emitted by Aspergillus flavus Strains Producing or Not Aflatoxin B1

Aspergillus flavus is a phytopathogenic fungus able to produce aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), a carcinogenic mycotoxin that can contaminate several crops and food commodities. In A. flavus, two different kinds of strains can co-exist: toxigenic and non-toxigenic strains. Microbial-derived volatile organic compounds (mVOCs) emitted by toxigenic and non-toxigenic strains of A. flavus were analyzed by solid phase microextraction (SPME) coupled with gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) in a time-lapse experiment after inoculation. Among the 84 mVOCs emitted, 44 were previously listed in the scientific literature as specific to A. flavus, namely alcohols (2-methylbutan-1-ol, 3-methylbutan-1-ol, 2-methylpropan-1-ol), aldehydes (2-methylbutanal, 3-methylbutanal), hydrocarbons (toluene, styrene), furans (2,5-dimethylfuran), esters (ethyl 2-methylpropanoate, ethyl 2-methylbutyrate), and terpenes (epizonaren, trans-caryophyllene, valencene, α-copaene, β-himachalene, γ-cadinene, γ-muurolene, δ-cadinene). For the first time, other identified volatile compounds such as α-cadinol, cis-muurola-3,5-diene, α-isocomene, and β-selinene were identified as new mVOCs specific to the toxigenic A. flavus strain. Partial Least Square Analysis (PLSDA) showed a distinct pattern between mVOCs emitted by toxigenic and non-toxigenic A. flavus strains, mostly linked to the diversity of terpenes emitted by the toxigenic strains. In addition, the comparison between mVOCs of the toxigenic strain and its non-AFB1-producing mutant, coupled with a semi-quantification of the mVOCs, revealed a relationship between emitted terpenes (β-chamigrene, α-corocalene) and AFB1 production. This study provides evidence for the first time of mVOCs being linked to the toxigenic character of A. flavus strains, as well as terpenes being able to be correlated to the production of AFB1 due to the study of the mutant. This study could lead to the development of new techniques for the early detection and identification of toxigenic fungi.

Medical food development by dietetic management of the endocannabinoid system through dietary sources of β-caryophyllene

Objective: To research the biological impact on the endocannabinoid system (ECS) from dietary sources of [Formula: see text]-caryophyllene (BCP). This will encompass pre-clinical and clinical research for BCP. The bioavailability of BCP will be explored, focusing on bioavailability improvement. This research will establish if there is justification to warrant the development of a medical food for supporting the ECS through dietetic supplementation of BCP.

Methods: Research and review papers were identified through the search engines Google Scholar, PubMed, and ScienceDirect. Main keywords included [Formula: see text]-caryophyllene, endocannabinoid system, dietary cannabinoids, cannabinoid type-2 receptor, and bioavailability.

Results: The human body is limited in the digestion of BCP from food. This is because BCP is poorly absorbed in the gut. Everyone has different underlying endocannabinoid efficiency and most people do not have the full potential of supporting their ECS through diet.

Conclusion: A medical food can be developed to use BCP with a delivery system, so that the bioactive food cannabinoid is readily absorbed. This will deliver dietary support to the ECS, that otherwise would be available from food.

This review provides insight into the efficacy of using BCP in medical foods as dietary support for the ECS. Supporting the ECS can assist in maintaining homeostasis, regulating immune function, pain intensity, inflammatory markers, sleep patterns, mood, appetite, and stress susceptibility.

Essential Oils and Isolated Terpenes in Nanosystems Designed for Topical Administration: A Review

Essential oils are natural products with a complex composition. Terpenes are the most common class of chemical compounds present in essential oils. Terpenes and the essential oils containing them are widely used and investigated by their pharmacological properties and permeation-enhancing ability. However, many terpenes and essential oils are sensitive to environmental conditions, undergoing volatilization and chemical degradation. In order to overcome the chemical instability of some isolated terpenes and essential oils, the encapsulation of these compounds in nanostructured systems (polymeric, lipidic, or molecular complexes) has been employed. In addition, nanoencapsulation can be of interest for pharmaceutical applications due to its capacity to improve the bioavailability and allow the controlled release of drugs. Topical drug administration is a convenient and non-invasive administration route for both local and systemic drug delivery. The present review focuses on describing the current status of research concerning nanostructured delivery systems containing isolated terpenes and/or essential oils designed for topical administration and on discussing the use of terpenes and essential oils either for their biological activities or as permeation enhancers in pharmaceutic formulations.

Occurrence, chemical composition, biological activities and analytical methods on Copaifera genus-A review

Copaifera is a genus of large trees found in Brazil, mainly in Amazon forest, but also in Atlantic forest and cerrado biomes. It has also been found in other countries in South America. In Africa, it is found mainly in Congo, Cameroon, Guinea and Angola. Its oleoresin has been used in folk medicine in the treatment of numerous healthy disorders, such as urinary, respiratory, skin and inflammatory diseases, for which there are several studies corroborating its ethnopharmacological uses. It is also extensively employed in the pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries in the development of ointments, pills, soaps, perfumes, among others. Copaifera oleoresin contains mainly diterpenes, such as: kaurenoic acid, kaurenol, copalic acid, agathic acid, hardwiickic acid, polyalthic acid, and sesquiterpenes, comprising β-caryophyllene, caryophyllene oxide, α-copaene, α-humulene, γ-muurolene and β-bisabolol, among other compounds. On the other hand, Copaifera leaves contain mainly phenolic compounds, such as flavonoids and methylated galloylquinic acid derivatives. Therefore, considering the economic importance of Copaifera oleoresin, its ethnopharmacological uses, the need to develop new pharmaceuticals for the treatment of many diseases, as well as the pharmacological potential of the compounds found in Copaifera spp., it was undertaken a review covering mostly the last two decades on the distribution, chemistry, pharmacology, quality control and safety of Copaifera species.

Effects of a nanoemulsion with Copaifera officinalis oleoresin against monogenean parasites of Colossoma macropomum: A Neotropical Serrasalmidae

Monogeneans are ectoparasites that may cause losses in production and productivity in the aquaculture of Colossoma macropomum. Chemotherapeutics used in aquaculture usually have major adverse effects on fish; hence, the use of essential oils has been considered advantageous, but these are not soluble in water. Thus, the use of nanostructures to enhance water solubility of compounds and improve bioactivity may be very promising. This study investigated the antiparasitic activity of nanoemulsion prepared with Copaifera officinalis oleoresin (50, 100, 150, 200 and 300 mg/L), against monogenean parasites from the gills of C. macropomum. The particle size distribution and zeta potential suggested that a potentially kinetic stable system was generated. The nanoemulsion from C. officinalis oleoresin achieved high efficacy (100%) at low concentrations (200 and 300 mg/L) after 15 min of exposure. This was the first time that a nanoemulsion was generated from C. officinalis oleoresin using a solvent-free, non-heating and low-energy method. Moreover, this was the first time that an antiparasitic against monogeneans on fish gills, based on nanoemulsion of C. officinalis oleoresin, was tested.

Development of Nanoemulsions to Enhance the Antileishmanial Activity of Copaifera paupera Oleoresins

Based on the ethnopharmacological evidences about the antileishmanial activity of Copaifera spp. oleoresins, the effects of crude extracts and fractions of oleoresin of two specimens from Copaifera paupera were evaluated on Leishmania amazonensis and Leishmania infantum strains. The oleoresin rich in α-copaene (38.8%) exhibited the best activity against L. amazonensis (IC₅₀ = 62.5 μg/mL) and against L. infantum (IC₅₀ = 65.9 μg/mL). The sesquiterpene α-copaene isolated was tested alone and exhibited high antileishmanial activity in vitro with IC₅₀ values for L. amazonensis and L. infantum of 17.2 and 11.4 μg/mL, respectively. In order to increase antileishmanial activity, nanoemulsions containing copaiba oleoresin and α-copaene were developed and assayed against L. amazonensis and L. infantum promastigotes. The nanoemulsion containing α-copaene (NANOCOPAEN) showed the best activity against both species, with IC₅₀ of 2.5 and 2.2 μg/mL, respectively. This is the first report about the antileishmanial activity of α-copaene.

Copaiba oil enhances in vitro/in vivo cutaneous permeability and in vivo anti-inflammatory effect of celecoxib

OBJECTIVES

The aim of this article was to use copaiba oil (C.O) to improve skin permeability and topical anti-inflammatory activity of celecoxib (Cxb).

METHODS

Formulations containing C.O (1-50%) were associated with Cxb (2%). In vitro skin permeability studies were conducted using porcine ear skin. Histological analysis of the hairless mice skin samples after application of formulations was achieved with the routine haematoxylin/eosin technique. The anti-inflammatory activity was assessed using the AA-induced ear oedema mice model.

KEY FINDINGS

The formulation containing 25% C.O promoted the highest levels of in vitro Cxb permeation through pig ear skin, retention in the stratum corneum (SC) and epidermis/dermis of pig ear skin in vitro (~5-fold) and hairless mice skin in vivo (~2.0-fold), as compared with the control formulation. At 25%, C.O caused SC disorganization and increased cell infiltration and induced angiogenesis without clear signs of skin irritation. The formulation added to 25% C.O as adjuvant inhibited ear oedema and protein extravasation by 77.51 and 89.7%, respectively, and that it was, respectively, 2.0- and 3.4-fold more efficient than the commercial diethylammonium diclofenac cream gel to suppress these inflammatory parameters.

CONCLUSIONS

25% C.O is a potential penetration enhancer for lipophilic drugs like Cxb that can improve cutaneous drug penetration and its anti-inflammatory activity.

Anti-inflammatory Effect from a Hydrogel Containing Nanoemulsified Copaiba oil (Copaifera multijuga Hayne)

Copaiba oil is used as a popular medicine in the Amazonian forest region, especially due to its anti-inflammatory properties. In this paper, we describe the formulation of hydrogel containing copaiba oil nanoemulsions (with positive and negative charges), its skin permeation, and its anti-inflammatory activity in two in vivo models: mouse ear edema and rat paw edema. Three hydrogels were tested (Carbopol^®, hydroxyethylcellulose and chitosan), but only Carbopol^® and hydroxyethylcellulose hydrogels presented good stability and did not interfere with the nanoemulsions droplet size and polydispersity index. In skin permeation assay, both formulations, positively charged nanoemulsion (PCN) and negatively charged nanoemulsion (NCN), presented a high retention in epidermis (9.76 ± 2.65 μg/g and 7.91 ± 2.46 μg/cm², respectively) followed by a smaller retention in the dermis (2.43 ± 0.91 and 1.95 ± 0.56 μg/cm², respectively). They also presented permeation to the receptor fluid (0.67 ± 0.22 and 1.80 ± 0.85 μg/cm², respectively). In addition, anti-inflammatory effect was observed to NCN and PCN with edema inhibitions of 69 and 67% in mouse ear edema and 32 and 72% in rat paw edema, respectively. Histological cuts showed the decrease of inflammatory factors, such as dermis and epidermis hyperplasia and inflammatory cells infiltration, confirming the anti-inflammatory effect from both copaiba oil nanoemulsions incorporated in hydrogel.

Optimization and characterization of the formation of oil-in-water diazinon nanoemulsions: Modeling and influence of the oil phase, surfactant and sonication

Nanoemulsions are particularly suitable as a platform in the development of delivery systems for lipophilic functional agents. Current research describes the formation of oil-in-water (O/W) diazinon nanoemulsions using synthetic and natural additives by adopting a high-energy (ultrasound) emulsification method. The diazinon nanoemulsions were spontaneously formed by adding dropwise a mixture of diazinon, solvent and co-solvent in an aqueous solution containing a surfactant (tween or lecithin) with continuous stirring. The nanoemulsions were then formed by ultra-sonication. The effects of three levels of active ingredient, solvent, co-solvent, surfactant, sonication time and sonication cycle and power were performed by Minitab software to design the experiment. Effects of these factors on droplet size, polydispersity index (PDI), viscosity and pH of nanoemulsions were investigated. The results of the modeling showed that the experimental data could be adequately adapted in a second-order polynomial model with a multiple regression coefficient r² of 0.821 for the prediction of particle size, PDI and viscosity. The long-term and thermodynamic stability of the prepared nanoemulsions were tested. The droplet size and morphology of the nanoemulsions were measured by dynamic light scattering (DLS) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). On this basis, a water-insoluble insecticide diazinon was incorporated into 26 optimized nanoemulsion systems to demonstrate potential applications in pest control. The results of DLS and TEM measurements showed that most of prepared nanoemulsions had an almost monodisperse droplet size distribution (PDI < 200 nm). Incorporation of diazinon had no significant effect on the size and stability of the nanoemulsions and the formulated nanoemulsion remained stable after four months of storage.

Nanoemulsion as pharmaceutical carrier for dermal and transdermal drug delivery: Formulation development, stability issues, basic considerations and applications

The use of nanoemulsion in augmenting dermal and transdermal effectiveness of drugs has now well established. The development of nanoemulsion based semisolid dosage forms is an active area of present research. However, thickening or liquid-to-semisolid conversion of the nanoemulsions provides opportunities to the formulation scientist to explore novel means of solving instability issues during transformation. Extending knowledge about the explicit role of nature/magnitude of zeta potential, types of emulsifiers and selection of appropriate semisolid bases could place these versatile carriers from laboratory to industrial scale. This article reviews the progressive advancement in the delivery of medicament via nanoemulsion with special reference to the dermal and transdermal administration. It is attempted to explore the most suitable semi solid dosage form for the particular type of nanoemulsion (o/w, w/o and others) and effect of particle size and zeta potential on the delivery of drugs through dermal or transdermal route. Finally, this review also highlights the basic principles and fundamental considerations of nanoemulsion manufacture, application of nanoemulsion based semisolid dosage forms in the dermal/transdermal administration and basic considerations during the nanoemulsion absorption into and through skin.

Determination of β-caryophyllene skin permeation/retention from crude copaiba oil (Copaifera multijuga Hayne) and respective oil-based nanoemulsion using a novel HS-GC/MS method

Copaiba oil is largely used in the Amazonian region for the treatment of inflammation, and recent studies demonstrated that one of the major components of the oil, β-caryophyllene (CAR), is a potent anti-inflammatory. The nanoemulsification of this oleoresin, which has unctuous character, converts it in a more acceptable hydrophilic formulation and may improve CAR penetration through the skin due to the small droplet size and the high contact surface afforded by the nanoemulsions. This paper describes the validation of a novel, sensitive, practical and solvent free method that uses gas chromatography in headspace mode coupled with mass spectrometry to evaluate the skin permeation/retention of CAR from the crude copaiba oil and its nanoemulsion. Our results show that the bioanalytic method was fully validated, demonstrating linearity (r(2)>0.99), specificity (no peaks co-eluting with CAR retention time), precision (RSD<15%) and accuracy (recovery>90%) within the accepted parameters and that the copaiba oil nanoemulsion presented a better skin penetration compared to the crude oil, with CAR achieving the most profound layer of the skin, the dermis.