Application of nanotechnologies for improved immune response against infectious diseases in the developing world

Poly-γ-glutamic acid overproduction of Bacillus licheniformis ATCC 9945a by developing a novel optimum culture medium and glutamate pulse feeding using different experimental design approaches

The commercial production of multifunctional, biocompatible, and biodegradable biopolymers such as poly-γ-glutamic acid via microbial fermentation requires the development of simple and cheap methods for mass production. This study optimized the poly-γ-glutamic acid production of Bacillus licheniformis ATCC 9945a in several steps. At first, the most critical components of the culture medium, including l-glutamic acid, citric acid, and glycerol, were selected by screening nine factors through the Plackett-Burman experimental design and then were optimized using the response surface method and the central composite design algorithm. Under optimal conditions, the production of poly-γ-glutamic acid increased by more than 4.2 times from 11.2 to 47.2 g/L. This is one of the highest production rates of this strain in submerged batch fermentation reported so far using the optimized medium compared to the conventional base medium. A novel and efficient sudden pulse feeding strategy (achieved by a novel one-factorial statistical technique) of l-glutamic acid to the optimized medium increased biopolymer production from 47.2 to 66.1 g/L, the highest value reported in published literature with this strain. This simple, reproducible, and cheap fermentation process can considerably enhance the commercial applications of the poly-γ-glutamic acid synthesized by B. licheniformis ATCC 9945a.

Novel therapeutic approaches for the management of hepatitis infections

Hepatitis B virus (HBV) & hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection is a substantial reason for morbidity and mortality around the world. Chronic hepatitis B (CHB) infection is connected with an enhanced risk of liver cirrhosis, liver decompensation and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Conventional therapy do face certain challenges, for example, poor tolerability and the growth of active resistance. Thus, novel treatment procedures are essential to accomplish the initiation of strong and stable antiviral immune reactions of the individuals. This review explores the current nanotechnology-based carriers for drug and vaccine delivery to treat HBV and HCV.

Challenges and Prospective of Enhancing Hydatid Cyst Chemotherapy by Nanotechnology and the Future of Nanobiosensors for Diagnosis

Hydatid cysts have been widely recognized for decades as a common medical problem that affects millions of people. A revolution in medical treatment may be on the prospect of nanotechnology enhancing chemotherapy against hydatid cysts. An overview of nanotechnology's impact on chemotherapeutics is presented in the current review. It discusses some of the challenges as well as some of the opportunities. The application of nanotechnology to enhance chemotherapy against hydatid cysts is what this review will explore. Nanotechnology is a critical component of delivering therapeutic agents with greater precision and efficiency and targeting hydatid cysts with better efficacy, and minimizing interference with surrounding tissue. However, there are biodistribution challenges, toxicity, and resistance problems associated with nanotherapeutics. Additionally, nanobiosensors are being investigated to enable the early diagnosis of hydatid cysts. A nanobiosensor can detect hydatid cysts by catching them early, non-invasively, rapidly, and accurately. The sensitivity and specificity of diagnostic tests can be enhanced with nanobiosensors because they take advantage of the unique properties of nanomaterials. By providing more precise and customized treatment options for hydatid cysts, nanotechnology may improve therapeutic options and strategies for diagnosing the disease. In conclusion, treatment with nanotechnology to treat hydatid cysts is potentially effective but presents many obstacles. Furthermore, nanobiosensors are being integrated into diagnostic techniques, as well as helping to diagnose patients earlier and more accurately.

Nanoadjuvants: Promising Bioinspired and Biomimetic Approaches in Vaccine Innovation

Adjuvants are the important part of vaccine manufacturing as they elicit the vaccination effect and enhance the durability of the immune response through controlled release. In light of this, nanoadjuvants have shown unique broad spectrum advantages. As nanoparticles (NPs) based vaccines are fast-acting and better in terms of safety and usability parameters as compared to traditional vaccines, they have attracted the attention of researchers. A vaccine nanocarrier is another interesting and promising area for the development of next-generation vaccines for prophylaxis. This review looks at the various nanoadjuvants and their structure-function relationships. It compiles the state-of-art literature on numerous nanoadjuvants to help domain researchers orient their understanding and extend their endeavors in vaccines research and development.

Protein-based nano-vaccines against SARS-CoV-2: Current design strategies and advances of candidate vaccines

The outbreak of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) caused by the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) has shaken the global health system. Various nanotechnology-based strategies for vaccine development have played pivotal roles in fighting against SARS-CoV-2. Among them, the safe and effective protein-based nanoparticle (NP) platforms display a highly repetitive array of foreign antigens on their surface, which is urgent for improving the immunogenicity of vaccines. These platforms greatly improved antigen uptake by antigen presenting cells (APCs), lymph node trafficking, and B cell activation, due to the optimal size, multivalence, and versatility of NPs. In this review, we summarize the advances of protein-based NP platforms, strategies of antigen attachment, and the current progress of clinical and preclinical trials in the development of SARS-CoV-2 vaccines based on protein-based NP platforms. Importantly, the lessons learnt and design approaches developed for these NP platforms against SARS-CoV-2 also provide insights into the development of protein-based NP strategies for preventing other epidemic diseases.

A comprehensive review on the COVID-19 vaccine and drug delivery applications of interpenetrating polymer networks

An interpenetrating polymer network (IPNs) is a concoction of two or more polymers (natural, synthetic, and/or a combination of both) in which at least one polymer is synthesized or crosslinked in the intimate presence of the other. These three-dimensional networked systems have gained prominence in a series of biomedical applications, especially in the last two decades. The last decades witnessed a surge in the meaningful applications of interpenetrating polymer networks, especially in drug delivery as simple IPN systems advanced and resulted in the formation of highly efficient microspheres, nanoparticles, nanogels, and hydrogels, intelligent enough to sense and respond to changes in external stimuli such as temperature, pH, and ionic strength. The structure of the polymers, crosslinking agents, crosslinking density, and polymerization method play an integral role in determining the properties and application of IPNs in drug delivery. This review article is a modest effort to highlight the importance and applications of different types of interpenetrating polymer networks for the sustained, site-specific drug delivery of various therapeutic formulations, as witnessed in scientific research literature over the past 22 years (2000-2022). A special section of the manuscript is devoted to studying the efficacy of network polymers in vaccine delivery and highlighting the future scope (if any) of incorporating the IPN system in COVID-related vaccine/drug delivery. Four key focus areas in this review article [1, 2].

Nanobionics: From plant empowering to the infectious disease treatment

Infectious diseases (ID) are serious threats against the global health and socio-economic conditions. Vaccination usually plays a key role in disease prevention, however, insufficient efficiency or immunogenicity may be quite challenging. Using the advanced vectors for delivery of vaccines with suitable efficiency, safety, and immune-modulatory activity, and tunable characteristics could be helpful, but there are no systematic reviews confirming the capabilities of the vaccine delivery systems for covering various types of pathogens. Furthermore, high rates of the infections, transmission, and fatal ratio and diversity of the pathogens and infection mechanisms may negatively influence vaccine effectiveness. The absence of highly-effective antibiotics against the resistant strains of bacteria and longevity of antibiotic testing have provoked increasing needs towards the application of more accurate and specific theranostic strategies including the nanotechnology-based ones. Nanobionics which is based on the charge storage and transport in the molecular structures, could be of key value in the molecular diagnostic tests and highly-specific electro-analytical methods or devices. Such devices based on the early disease diagnostics might be of critical significance against various types of diseases. This article highlights the significance of nanobionics against ID.

Anti-COVID-19 Nanomaterials: Directions to Improve Prevention, Diagnosis, and Treatment

Following the announcement of the outbreak of COVID-19 by the World Health Organization, unprecedented efforts were made by researchers around the world to combat the disease. So far, various methods have been developed to combat this "virus" nano enemy, in close collaboration with the clinical and scientific communities. Nanotechnology based on modifiable engineering materials and useful physicochemical properties has demonstrated several methods in the fight against SARS-CoV-2. Here, based on what has been clarified so far from the life cycle of SARS-CoV-2, through an interdisciplinary perspective based on computational science, engineering, pharmacology, medicine, biology, and virology, the role of nano-tools in the trio of prevention, diagnosis, and treatment is highlighted. The special properties of different nanomaterials have led to their widespread use in the development of personal protective equipment, anti-viral nano-coats, and disinfectants in the fight against SARS-CoV-2 out-body. The development of nano-based vaccines acts as a strong shield in-body. In addition, fast detection with high efficiency of SARS-CoV-2 by nanomaterial-based point-of-care devices is another nanotechnology capability. Finally, nanotechnology can play an effective role as an agents carrier, such as agents for blocking angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) receptors, gene editing agents, and therapeutic agents. As a general conclusion, it can be said that nanoparticles can be widely used in disinfection applications outside in vivo. However, in in vivo applications, although it has provided promising results, it still needs to be evaluated for possible unintended immunotoxicity. Reviews like these can be important documents for future unwanted pandemics.

Advanced Nanomaterials for Preparedness Against (Re-)Emerging Viral Diseases

While the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) accounts for the current global pandemic, the emergence of other unknown pathogens, named "Disease X," remains a serious concern in the future. Emerging or re-emerging pathogens continue to pose significant challenges to global public health. In response, the scientific community has been urged to create advanced platform technologies to meet the ever-increasing needs presented by these devastating diseases with pandemic potential. This review aims to bring new insights to allow for the application of advanced nanomaterials in future diagnostics, vaccines, and antiviral therapies, thereby addressing the challenges associated with the current preparedness strategies in clinical settings against viruses. The application of nanomaterials has advanced medicine and provided cutting-edge solutions for unmet needs. Herein, an overview of the currently available nanotechnologies is presented, highlighting the significant features that enable them to control infectious diseases, and identifying the challenges that remain to be addressed for the commercial production of nano-based products is presented. Finally, to conclude, the development of a nanomaterial-based system using a "One Health" approach is suggested. This strategy would require a transdisciplinary collaboration and communication between all stakeholders throughout the entire process spanning across research and development, as well as the preclinical, clinical, and manufacturing phases.

Application of Nanomaterials as an Advanced Strategy for the Diagnosis, Prevention, and Treatment of Viral Diseases

The coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic poses serious global health concerns with the continued emergence of new variants. The periodic outbreak of novel emerging and re-emerging infectious pathogens has elevated concerns and challenges for the future. To develop mitigation strategies against infectious diseases, nano-based approaches are being increasingly applied in diagnostic systems, prophylactic vaccines, and therapeutics. This review presents the properties of various nanoplatforms and discusses their role in the development of sensors, vectors, delivery agents, intrinsic immunostimulants, and viral inhibitors. Advanced nanomedical applications for infectious diseases have been highlighted. Moreover, physicochemical properties that confer physiological advantages and contribute to the control and inhibition of infectious diseases have been discussed. Safety concerns limit the commercial production and clinical use of these technologies in humans; however, overcoming these limitations may enable the use of nanomaterials to resolve current infection control issues via application of nanomaterials as a platform for the diagnosis, prevention, and treatment of viral diseases.

Metal Nanoparticles: a Promising Treatment for Viral and Arboviral Infections

Globally, viral diseases continue to pose a significant threat to public health. Recent outbreaks, such as influenza, coronavirus, Ebola, and dengue, have emphasized the urgent need for new antiviral therapeutics. Considerable efforts have focused on developing metal nanoparticles for the treatment of several pathogenic viruses. As a result of these efforts, metal nanoparticles are demonstrating promising antiviral activity against pathogenic surrogates and clinical isolates. This review summarizes the application of metal nanoparticles for the treatment of viral infections. It provides information on synthesis methods, size-related properties, nano-bio-interaction, and immunological effects of metal nanoparticles. This article also addresses critical criteria and considerations for developing clinically translatable nanosized metal particles to treat viral diseases.

Nano Based Approach for the Treatment of Neglected Tropical Diseases

Neglected tropical diseases (NTDs) afflict more than one billion peoples in the world’s poorest countries. The World Health Organization (WHO) has recorded seventeen NTDs in its portfolio, mainly caused by bacterial, protozoal, parasitic, and viral infections. Each of the NTDs has its unique challenges on human health such as interventions for control, prevention, diagnosis, and treatment. Research for the development of new drug molecules against NTDs has not been undertaken by pharmaceutical industries due to high investment and low-returns, which results in limited chemotherapeutics in the market. In addition, conventional chemotherapies for the treatment of NTDs are unsatisfactory due to its low efficacy, increased drug resistance, short half-life, potential or harmful fatal toxic side effects, and drug incompetence to reach the site of parasite infection. In this context, active chemotherapies are considered to be re-formulated by overcoming these toxic side effects via a tissue-specific targeted drug delivery system. This review mainly emphasizes the recent developments of nanomaterial-based drug delivery systems for the effective treatment of NTDs especially sleeping sickness, leishmaniasis, chagas disease, soil-transmitted helminthiasis, african trypanosomiasis and dengue. Nanomaterials based drug delivery systems offer enhanced and effective alternative therapy through the re-formulation approach of conventional drugs into site-specific targeted delivery of drugs.

Strategies to Use Nanoparticles to Generate CD4 and CD8 Regulatory T Cells for the Treatment of SLE and Other Autoimmune Diseases

Autoimmune diseases are disorders of immune regulation where the mechanisms responsible for self-tolerance break down and pathologic T cells overcome the protective effects of T regulatory cells (Tregs) that normally control them. The result can be the initiation of chronic inflammatory diseases. Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) and other autoimmune diseases are generally treated with pharmacologic or biological agents that have broad suppressive effects. These agents can halt disease progression, yet rarely cure while carrying serious adverse side effects. Recently, nanoparticles have been engineered to correct homeostatic regulatory defects and regenerate therapeutic antigen-specific Tregs. Some approaches have used nanoparticles targeted to antigen presenting cells to switch their support from pathogenic T cells to protective Tregs. Others have used nanoparticles targeted directly to T cells for the induction and expansion of CD4+ and CD8+ Tregs. Some of these T cell targeted nanoparticles have been formulated to act as tolerogenic artificial antigen presenting cells. This article discusses the properties of these various nanoparticle formulations and the strategies to use them in the treatment of autoimmune diseases. The restoration and maintenance of Treg predominance over effector cells should promote long-term autoimmune disease remission and ultimately prevent them in susceptible individuals.

Biomaterials-Based Opportunities to Engineer the Pulmonary Host Immune Response in COVID-19

The COVID-19 pandemic caused by the global spread of the SARS-CoV-2 virus has led to a staggering number of deaths worldwide and significantly increased burden on healthcare as nations scramble to find mitigation strategies. While significant progress has been made in COVID-19 diagnostics and therapeutics, effective prevention and treatment options remain scarce. Because of the potential for the SARS-CoV-2 infections to cause systemic inflammation and multiple organ failure, it is imperative for the scientific community to evaluate therapeutic options aimed at modulating the causative host immune responses to prevent subsequent systemic complications. Harnessing decades of expertise in the use of natural and synthetic materials for biomedical applications, the biomaterials community has the potential to play an especially instrumental role in developing new strategies or repurposing existing tools to prevent or treat complications resulting from the COVID-19 pathology. Leveraging microparticle- and nanoparticle-based technology, especially in pulmonary delivery, biomaterials have demonstrated the ability to effectively modulate inflammation and may be well-suited for resolving SARS-CoV-2-induced effects. Here, we provide an overview of the SARS-CoV-2 virus infection and highlight current understanding of the host's pulmonary immune response and its contributions to disease severity and systemic inflammation. Comparing to frontline COVID-19 therapeutic options, we highlight the most significant untapped opportunities in immune engineering of the host response using biomaterials and particle technology, which have the potential to improve outcomes for COVID-19 patients, and identify areas needed for future investigations. We hope that this work will prompt preclinical and clinical investigations of promising biomaterials-based treatments to introduce new options for COVID-19 patients.

Advancements in protein nanoparticle vaccine platforms to combat infectious disease

Infectious diseases are a major threat to global human health, yet prophylactic treatment options can be limited, as safe and efficacious vaccines exist only for a fraction of all diseases. Notably, devastating diseases such as acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) and coronavirus disease of 2019 (COVID-19) currently do not have vaccine therapies. Conventional vaccine platforms, such as live attenuated vaccines and whole inactivated vaccines, can be difficult to manufacture, may cause severe side effects, and can potentially induce severe infection. Subunit vaccines carry far fewer safety concerns due to their inability to cause vaccine-based infections. The applicability of protein nanoparticles (NPs) as vaccine scaffolds is promising to prevent infectious diseases, and they have been explored for a number of viral, bacterial, fungal, and parasitic diseases. Many types of protein NPs exist, including self-assembling NPs, bacteriophage-derived NPs, plant virus-derived NPs, and human virus-based vectors, and these particular categories will be covered in this review. These vaccines can elicit strong humoral and cellular immune responses against specific pathogens, as well as provide protection against infection in a number of animal models. Furthermore, published clinical trials demonstrate the promise of applying these NP vaccine platforms, which include bacteriophage-derived NPs, in addition to multiple viral vectors that are currently used in the clinic. The continued investigations of protein NP vaccine platforms are critical to generate safer alternatives to current vaccines, advance vaccines for diseases that currently lack effective prophylactic therapies, and prepare for the rapid development of new vaccines against emerging infectious diseases. This article is categorized under: Therapeutic Approaches and Drug Discovery > Nanomedicine for Infectious Disease Biology-Inspired Nanomaterials > Protein and Virus-Based Structures.

Iron nanoparticles as novel vaccine adjuvants

The poor immunogenicity of peptide vaccines compared to conventional ones re usually improved by applying different adjuvants. As chemical or biological substances, adjuvants are added to vaccines to enhance and prolong the immune response. According to considerable investigations over the recent years in the context of finding new adjuvants, a handful of vaccine adjuvants have been licensed for human use. Recently, engineered nanoparticles (NPs) have been introduced as novel alternatives to traditional vaccine adjuvant. Metallic nanoparticles (MeNPs) are among the most promising NPs used for vaccine adjuvant as well as the delivery system that can improve immune responses against pathogens. Iron NPs, as an important class of MeNPs, have gained increasing attention as novel vaccine adjuvants. These particles have shown acceptable results in preclinical studies. Hence, understanding the physicochemical properties of iron NPs, including size, surface properties, charge and route of administration, is of substantial importance. The aim of this review is to provide an overview of the immunomodulatory effects of iron NPs as novel adjuvants. Furthermore, physicochemical properties of these NPs were also discussed.

Effect of physicochemical properties on in vivo fate of nanoparticle-based cancer immunotherapies

Current advances of immunotherapy have greatly changed the way of cancer treatment. At the same time, a great number of nanoparticle-based cancer immunotherapies (NBCIs) have also been explored to elicit potent immune responses against tumors. However, few NBCIs are nearly in the clinical trial which is mainly ascribed to a lack understanding of in vivo fate of nanoparticles (NPs) for cancer immunotherapy. NPs for cancer immunotherapy mainly target the immune organs or immune cells to enable efficient antitumor immune responses. The physicochemical properties of NPs including size, shape, elasticity and surface properties directly affect their interaction with immune systems as well as their in vivo fate and therapeutic effect. Hence, systematic analysis of the physicochemical properties and their effect on in vivo fate is urgently needed. In this review, we first recapitulate the fundamentals for the in vivo fate of NBCIs including physio-anatomical features of lymphatic system and strategies to modulate immune responses. Moreover, we highlight the effect of physicochemical properties on their in vivo fate including lymph nodes (LNs) drainage, cellular uptake and intracellular transfer. Challenges and opportunities for rational design of NPs for cancer immunotherapy are also discussed in detail.

DNA Nanostructures in the Fight Against Infectious Diseases

Throughout history, humanity has been threatened by countless epidemic and pandemic outbreaks of infectious diseases, from the Justinianic Plague to the Spanish flu to COVID-19. While numerous antimicrobial and antiviral drugs have been developed over the last 200 years to face these threats, the globalized and highly connected world of the 21st century demands for an ever-increasing efficiency in the detection and treatment of infectious diseases. Consequently, the rapidly evolving field of nanomedicine has taken up the challenge and developed a plethora of strategies to fight infectious diseases with the help of various nanomaterials such as noble metal nanoparticles, liposomes, nanogels, and virus capsids. DNA nanotechnology represents a comparatively recent addition to the nanomedicine arsenal, which, over the past decade, has made great progress in the area of cancer diagnostics and therapy. However, the past few years have seen also an increasing number of DNA nanotechnology-related studies that particularly focus on the detection and inhibition of microbial and viral pathogens. Herein, a brief overview of this rather young research field is provided, successful concepts as well as potential challenges are identified, and promising directions for future research are highlighted.

An overview of chitosan and its application in infectious diseases

Infectious diseases, such as the coronavirus disease-19, SARS virus, Ebola virus, and AIDS, threaten the health of human beings globally. New viruses, drug-resistant bacteria, and fungi continue to challenge the human efficacious drug bank. Researchers have developed a variety of new antiviral and antibacterial drugs in response to the infectious disease crisis. Meanwhile, the development of functional materials has also improved therapeutic outcomes. As a natural material, chitosan possesses good biocompatibility, bioactivity, and biosafety. It has been proven that the cooperation between chitosan and traditional medicine greatly improves the ability of anti-infection. This review summarized the application and design considerations of chitosan-composed systems for the treatment of infectious diseases, looking forward to providing the idea of infectious disease therapy.

Advancements in research and development to combat COVID-19 using nanotechnology

The whole world is currently facing a global health crisis due to the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic caused by SARS coronavirus 2, which started in Wuhan City, China, in December 2019. The pandemic has affected 235 countries, areas or territories and infected over 42 million people across the globe as per WHO update on 27 October 2020. More than 1.1 million people have died and the numbers are increasing daily. However, some drugs have been authorized for emergency treatment of patients, medication and vaccines with proven efficacy to prevent and treat the disease is still under various phases of development. The entire world is consistently making efforts to address three major challenges related to COVID-19 including prevention of its spread, prompt and early diagnosis and treatment of patients to save lives. Touted as one of the game-changing technologies of the century, nanotechnology has huge potential to develop solutions against these three major challenges of the disease. Nanotechnology comprises of multidisciplinary prospects encompassing diverse disciplines including medicine, material science, artificial intelligence, environment, virology, physical sciences, chemistry and biology. The numerous challenges can be addressed through the engineering of the various physicochemical properties of materials presents in abundance in nature. Various claims, studies and reports on research and development to combat these challenges associated with COVID-19 have been collectively discussed in this article from the perspectives of nanotechnology.

Nanomedicine for the SARS-CoV-2: State-of-the-Art and Future Prospects

The newly emerged ribonucleic acid (RNA) enveloped human beta-coronavirus, severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection caused the COVID-19 pandemic, severely affects the respiratory system, and may lead to death. Lacking effective diagnostics and therapies made this pandemic challenging to manage since the SARS-CoV-2 transmits via human-to-human, enters via ACE2 and TMPSSR2 receptors, and damages organs rich in host cells, spreads via symptomatic carriers and is prominent in an immune-compromised population. New SARS-CoV-2 informatics (structure, strains, like-cycles, functional sites) motivated bio-pharma experts to investigate novel therapeutic agents that act to recognize, inhibit, and knockdown combinations of drugs, vaccines, and antibodies, have been optimized to manage COVID-19. However, successful targeted delivery of these agents to avoid off-targeting and unnecessary drug ingestion is very challenging. To overcome these obstacles, this mini-review projects nanomedicine technology, a pharmacologically relevant cargo of size within 10 to 200 nm, for site-specific delivery of a therapeutic agent to recognize and eradicate the SARS-CoV-2, and improving the human immune system. Such combinational therapy based on compartmentalization controls the delivery and releases of a drug optimized based on patient genomic profile and medical history. Nanotechnology could help combat COVID-19 via various methods such as avoiding viral contamination and spraying by developing personal protective equipment (PPE) to increase the protection of healthcare workers and produce effective antiviral disinfectants surface coatings capable of inactivating and preventing the virus from spreading. To quickly recognize the infection or immunological response, design highly accurate and sensitive nano-based sensors. Development of new drugs with improved activity, reduced toxicity, and sustained release to the lungs, as well as tissue targets; and development of nano-based immunizations to improve humoral and cellular immune responses. The desired and controlled features of suggested personalized therapeutics, nanomedicine, is a potential therapy to manage COVID-19 successfully. The state-of-the-art nanomedicine, challenges, and prospects of nanomedicine are carefully and critically discussed in this report, which may serve as a key platform for scholars to investigate the role of nanomedicine for higher efficacy to manage the COVID-19 pandemic.

Modulation of immune responses with nanoparticles and reduction of their immunotoxicity

Particles with a size range of 1-100 nm used in various fields of life sciences are called nanoparticles (NPs). Currently, nanotechnology has a wide range of applications in biomedical research, industries and in almost all types of modern technology. The growing applications of nanotechnology in medicine urge scientists to analyze the impact of NPs on human body tissues and the immune system. Easy surface modifications of the NPs enable the modulation of the immune system either by evading the immune system to prevent allergic reactions or by enhancing the immunogenic response. In this review, we discussed the various possible theories and practical implications reported to date for the applications of nanotechnology in immunostimulation and immunosuppression for favorable immune response, such as vaccine delivery and cancer treatments. In the last part of this paper, we also discussed the biocompatibility and unfavorable immunotoxicity of NPs and methods for lowering their toxicity.

Lignin nanoparticles as a promising vaccine adjuvant and delivery system for ovalbumin

Vaccination is the most effective strategy of preventing and treating infectious diseases and the most significant issue in the development of potent vaccines is the sufficient immunogenicity and safety of vaccines. The main goal of the present study is to develop a potent and safe vaccine adjuvant that can also stabilize antigen formulations during preparation and storage. In this study, the model antigen ovalbumin (OVA) was encapsulated in polymeric nanoparticles based on lignin (OVA-LNPs). The nanoparticles had a particle size of 216 nm and a low polydispersity index. The nanoparticles were negatively charged (-26.7 mV) with high encapsulation efficiency 81.6% of OVA antigen. In vitro studies of the nanoparticles were tested against dendritic cells (DCs), specialized antigen-presenting cells (APCs). The results showed no cytotoxic effect from LNPs and a significantly higher percentage of dendritic cells have taken up the antigen when encapsulated inside LNPs in contrast to free OVA. The nanoparticle was administered intradermally to BALB/c mice and the resulting time-dependent systemic immune responses towards OVA were assessed by measuring the OVA-specific IgG titers using an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). In vivo immunization with OVA-LNPs induced a stronger IgG antibody response than that induced by free OVA or alum adjuvanted OVA. Enhanced immunization by OVA-LNPs was attributed to the observed efficient uptake of the antigen by dendritic cells. These findings demonstrate that LNPs are promising to be used as vaccine adjuvant and delivery system for the induction of long-term immune responses.

DNA Nanostructure as an Efficient Drug Delivery Platform for Immunotherapy

Immunotherapy has received increasing attention due to its low potential side effects and high specificity. For instance, cancer immunotherapy has achieved great success. CpG is a well-known and commonly used immunotherapeutic and vaccine adjuvant, but it has the disadvantage of being unstable and low in efficacy and needs to be transported through an effective nanocarrier. With perfect structural programmability, permeability, and biocompatibility, DNA nanostructures are one of the most promising candidates to deliver immune components to realize immunotherapy. However, the instability and low capability of the payload of ordinary DNA assemblies limit the relevant applications. Consequently, DNA nanostructure with a firm structure, high drug payloads is highly desirable. In the paper, the latest progress of biostable, high-payload DNA nanoassemblies of various structures, including cage-like DNA nanostructure, DNA particles, DNA polypods, and DNA hydrogel, are reviewed. Cage-like DNA structures hold drug molecules firmly inside the structure and leave a large space within the cavity. These DNA nanostructures use their unique structure to carry abundant CpG, and their biocompatibility and size advantages to enter immune cells to achieve immunotherapy for various diseases. Part of the DNA nanostructures can also achieve more effective treatment in conjunction with other functional components such as aPD1, RNA, TLR ligands.

Soft matter DNA nanoparticles hybridized with CpG motifs and peptide nucleic acids enable immunological treatment of cancer

Nucleic acids have been used as building blocks to assemble nanostructures by their sequence specific self-recognition properties, and resulting DNA architectures were applied as potential multifunctional drug carriers. Here, we report an amphiphilic lipid-DNA aggregate hybridized with pharmaceutically active DNA and peptide segments for cancer immunotherapy. The facile formulation of the CpG sequence and antigen peptide-bearing peptide nucleic acid representing immune-adjuvant and antigen, respectively, enabled the highly efficacious induction of antigen-specific immune activation. This immunotherapeutic formulation was evaluated in terms of multiple types of tumor growth and metastasis in vivo.

Nanomedicinal strategies as efficient therapeutic interventions for delivery of cancer vaccines

The applications of gene therapy-based treatment of cancers were started almost two decades back as a boon over the chemotherapeutic treatment strategies. Gene therapy helps in correcting the genetic sequences for treatment of cancers, thus also acts like a vaccine to induce the cellular and humoral immunity. However, the cancer vaccines typically suffer from a series of biopharmaceutical challenges due to poor solubility, low systemic availability and lack of targeting ability. Owing to these challenges, the physicians and pharmaceutical scientists have explored the applications of nanocarriers as quite promising systems for effective treatment against the tumors. A series of nanotherapeutic systems are available to date for diverse drug therapy applications. Systematic understanding on the preparation, evaluation and application of nanomedicines as a carrier system for delivering the cancer vaccines is highly important. The present review article provides an in-depth understanding on the challenges associated with cancer vaccine delivery and current opportunities with diverse nanomedicinal carriers being available for treatment of cancers.

Rebalancing Immune Homeostasis to Treat Autoimmune Diseases

During homeostasis, interactions between tolerogenic dendritic cells (DCs), self-reactive T cells, and T regulatory cells (Tregs) contribute to maintaining mammalian immune tolerance. In response to infection, immunogenic DCs promote the generation of proinflammatory effector T cell subsets. When complex homeostatic mechanisms maintaining the balance between regulatory and effector functions become impaired, autoimmune diseases can develop. We discuss some of the newest advances on the mechanisms of physiopathologic homeostasis that can be employed to develop strategies to restore a dysregulated immune equilibrium. Some of these designs are based on selectively activating regulators of immunity and inflammation instead of broadly suppressing these processes. Promising approaches include the use of nanoparticles (NPs) to restore Treg control over self-reactive cells, aiming to achieve long-term disease remission, and potentially to prevent autoimmunity in susceptible individuals.

Nanotechnology based therapeutics for lung disease

Nanomedicine is a multidisciplinary research field with an integration of traditional sciences such as chemistry, physics, biology and materials science. The application of nanomedicine for lung diseases as a relatively new area of interdisciplinary science has grown rapidly over the last 10 years. Promising research outcomes suggest that nanomedicine will revolutionise the practice of medicine, through the development of new approaches in therapeutic agent delivery, vaccine development and nanotechnology-based medical detections. Nano-based approaches in the diagnosis and treatment of lung diseases will, in the not too distant future, change the way we practise medicine. This review will focus on the current trends and developments in the clinical translation of nanomedicine for lung diseases, such as in the areas of lung cancer, cystic fibrosis, asthma, bacterial infections and COPD.

Tri-mannose grafting of chitosan nanocarriers remodels the macrophage response to bacterial infection

Background

Infectious diseases are still a leading cause of death and, with the emergence of drug resistance, pose a great threat to human health. New drugs and strategies are thus urgently needed to improve treatment efficacy and limit drug-associated side effects. Nanotechnology-based drug delivery systems are promising approaches, offering hope in the fight against drug resistant bacteria. However, how nanocarriers influence the response of innate immune cells to bacterial infection is mostly unknown.

Results

Here, we used Mycobacterium tuberculosis as a model of bacterial infection to examine the impact of mannose functionalization of chitosan nanocarriers (CS-NCs) on the human macrophage response. Both ungrafted and grafted CS-NCs were similarly internalized by macrophages, via an actin cytoskeleton-dependent process. Although tri-mannose ligands did not modify the capacity of CS-NCs to escape lysosomal degradation, they profoundly remodeled the response of M. tuberculosis-infected macrophages. mRNA sequencing showed nearly 900 genes to be differentially expressed due to tri-mannose grafting. Unexpectedly, the set of modulated genes was enriched for pathways involved in cell metabolism, particularly oxidative phosphorylation and sugar metabolism.

Conclusions

The ability to modulate cell metabolism by grafting ligands at the surface of nanoparticles may thus be a promising strategy to reprogram immune cells and improve the efficacy of encapsulated drugs.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s12951-018-0439-x) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Cytotoxic Potential and Molecular Pathway Analysis of Silver Nanoparticles in Human Colon Cancer Cells HCT116

Silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) have gained attention for use in cancer therapy. In this study, AgNPs were biosynthesized using naringenin. We investigated the anti-colon cancer activities of biogenic AgNPs through transcriptome analysis using RNA sequencing, and the mechanisms of AgNPs in regulating colon cancer cell growth. The synthesized AgNPs were characterized using UV⁻visible spectroscopy (UV⁻vis), X-ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), dynamic light scattering (DLS), and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). The AgNPs were spherical with sizes of 2⁻10 nm. Cytotoxicity assays indicated that the AgNPs in HCT116 colorectal cancer cells were very effective at low concentrations. The viability and proliferation of colon cancer cells treated with 5 µg/mL biogenic AgNPs were reduced by 50%. Increased lactate dehydrogenase leakage (LDH), reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation, malondialdehyde (MDA), and decreased dead-cell protease activity and ATP generation were observed. This impaired mitochondrial function and DNA damage led to cell death. The AgNPs upregulated and downregulated the most highly ranked biological processes of oxidation⁻reduction and cell-cycle regulation, respectively. Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) analysis showed that AgNPs upregulated GADD45G in the p53 pathway. Thus, the AgNP tumor suppressive effects were mediated by cell apoptosis following DNA damage, as well as by mitochondrial dysfunction and cell-cycle arrest following aberrant regulation of p53 effector proteins. It is of interest to mention that, to the best of our knowledge, this study is the first report demonstrating cellular responses and molecular pathways analysis of AgNPs in HCT116 colorectal cancer cells.

Antigen conjugated nanoparticles reprogrammed the tumor-conditioned macrophages toward pro-immunogenic type through regulation of NADPH oxidase and p38MAPK

Tumor associated macrophages (TAMs) are pertinent to cancer cell growth in the tumor microenvironment. Indeed, TAMs differentiate from monocytes (MΦ) due to specific growth factors present in the tumor microenvironment. TAMs show mostly an M2-like phenotype is due to the absence of pro-inflammatory signals and supply fuel to tumor growth. Several attempts have been taken to switch TAMs into a pro-immunogenic type. To address context, we used a tumor microenvironment by in vitro coculturing human blood MΦ with cancer cell conditioned media (TC-MΦ). We showed that the antigen cobalt oxide nanoparticles (Ag-NPs) can reprogram TC-MΦ to pro-immunogenic type to build up an antitumor immune response. Our results demonstrate that NPs-Ag induced a marked activation of NADPH oxidase in TC-MΦ, likely through stimulation of ROS linked to activation of p38 MAPK. These activated p38 MAPK up-regulated the IFN-γ, TNF-α and initial IL-12 production, in turn, the activation of IFN-γ prolonged IL-12 production.

Veterinary vaccine nanotechnology: pulmonary and nasal delivery in livestock animals

Veterinary vaccine development has several similarities with human vaccine development to improve the overall health and well-being of species. However, veterinary goals lean more toward feasible large-scale administration methods and low cost to high benefit immunization. Since the respiratory mucosa is easily accessible and most infectious agents begin their infection cycle at the mucosa, immunization through the respiratory route has been a highly attractive vaccine delivery strategy against infectious diseases. Additionally, vaccines administered via the respiratory mucosa could lower costs by removing the need of trained medical personnel, and lowering doses yet achieving similar or increased immune stimulation. The respiratory route often brings challenges in antigen delivery efficiency with enough potency to induce immunity. Nanoparticle (NP) technology has been shown to enhance immune activation by producing higher antibody titers and protection. Although specific mechanisms between NPs and biological membranes are still under investigation, physical parameters such as particle size and shape, as well as biological tissue distribution including mucociliary clearance influence the protection and delivery of antigens to the site of action and uptake by target cells. For respiratory delivery, various biomaterials such as mucoadhesive polymers, lipids, and polysaccharides have shown enhanced antibody production or protection in comparison to antigen alone. This review presents promising NPs administered via the nasal or pulmonary routes for veterinary applications specifically focusing on livestock animals including poultry.

Evidence of size-dependent effect of silica micro- and nano-particles on basal and specialized monocyte functions

Aim: To analyze the effect of silica particles on monocyte/macrophage functions. Materials & methods: Silica micro- and nanoparticles were obtained by the Stöber method. Their effect on monocyte/macrophage proliferation, activation, membrane integrity and metabolic activity were determined. Results: Silica particles inhibit cell proliferation while 10 nm nanoparticles (NPs) did not affect it. Similarly, silica particles induced strong cell activation. However, 10 nm NPs do not alter IL-12 or nitrite levels. Furthermore, bigger NPs and microparticles increase cell membrane damage and reduce the number of living cells but smallest NPs (10 and 240 nm) did not. Conclusion: Cell activation properties of silica particles could be useful tools for immune stimulation therapy, while 10 nm NPs would be suitable for molecule transportation.

Enhancement of oral bioavailability of anti-HIV drug rilpivirine HCl through nanosponge formulation. Drug Dev Ind Pharm 2017;43:2076-2084. [PMID: 28845699 DOI: 10.1080/03639045.2017.1371732]

OBJECTIVE

To synthesize β cyclodextrin nanosponges using a novel and efficient microwave mediated method for enhancing bioavailability of Rilpivirine HCl (RLP).

SIGNIFICANCE

Belonging to BCS class II RLP has pH dependent solubility and poor oral bioavailability. However, a fatty meal enhances its absorption hence the therapy indicates that the dosage form be consumed with a meal. But then it becomes tedious and inconvenient to continue the therapy for years with having to face the associated gastric side effects such as nausea.

METHOD

Microwave synthesizer was used to mediate the poly-condensation reaction between β-cyclodextrin and cross-linker diphenylcarbonate. Critical parameters selected were polymer to cross-linker ratio, Watt power, reaction time and solvent volume. Characterization studies were performed using FTIR, DSC, SEM, ¹H-NMR and PXRD. Molecular modeling was applied to confirm the possibility of drug entrapment. In vitro drug dissolution followed by oral bioavailability studies was performed in Sprawley rats. Samples were analyzed using HPLC.

RESULTS

Microwave synthesis yields para-crystalline, porous nanosponges (∼205 nm). Drug entrapment led to enhancement of solubility and a two-fold increase in drug dissolution (P < 0.001) following Higuchi release model. Enhanced oral bioavailability was observed in fasted Sprawley rats where C_max and AUC_0-∞ increases significantly (C_max of NS∼ 586 ± 5.91 ng/mL; plain RLP ∼310 ± 5. 74 ng/mL).

CONCLUSION

The approach offers a comfortable dosing zone for AIDs patients, negating the requirement of consuming the formulation in a fed state due to enhancement in drugs' oral bioavailability.

Immune-modulating Activity of Hydrogel Microparticles Contributes to the Host Defense in a Murine Model of Cutaneous Anthrax

We recently reported that the open-mesh (0.7 μ) polyacrylamide microparticles (MPs) with internally-coupled Cibacron affinity dye demonstrate protective effect in mice challenged into footpads with high doses (200 LD50) of anthrax (Sterne) spores. A single injection of MPs before spore challenge reduces inflammatory response, delays onset of mortality and promotes survival. In this study, we show that the effect of MPs was substantially increased at the lower spore dose (7 LD50). The inflammation of footpads was reduced to the background level, and 60% of animals survived for 16 days while all untreated infected animals died within 6 days with strong inflammation. The effects of MPs were promoted when the MPs were loaded with a combination of neutrophil-attracting chemokines IL-8 and MIP-1α which delayed the onset of mortality in comparison with untreated mice for additional 8 days. The MPs were not inherently cytotoxic against the bacteria or cultured murine Raw 264.7 cells, but stimulated these cells to release G-CSF, MCP-1, MIP-1α, and TNF-α. Consistent with this finding the injection of MPs induced neutrophil influx into footpads, stimulated production of TNF-α associated with migration of pERK1/2-positive cells with the Langerhans phenotype from epidermis to regional lymph nodes. Our data support the mechanism of protection in which the immune defense induced by MPs along with the exogenous chemokines counterbalances the suppressive effect caused by anthrax infection.

Precise manipulation of biophysical particle parameters enables control of proinflammatory cytokine production in presence of TLR 3 and 4 ligands

The biophysical parameters governing nanoparticle (NP)-cell interactions significantly affect biological responses, particularly in the application of NP-based immunotherapeutics. Modulation of the surface biophysical character of NPs can be achieved via introduction of amino acids, which offer the ability to fine tune a range of biophysical parameters of interest. We employed this approach using monodisperse silica NPs coated with numerous poly(amino acid)s (PAAs). The NPs were incubated with dendritic cells (DCs) in conjunction with TLR ligands and production of IL-1β from DCs and IFNγ from T cells primed by these DCs were measured. These key cytokines can prognosticate the efficacy of the NP platform as a potential vaccine or active cellular immunotherapy carrier. IL-1β production showed a correlation with both NP size and degree of hydrophobicity. High IFNγ secretion from T cells was shown to be correlated with both the hydrophobicity and charge of the NPs used to activate the DCs. Other cytokines were also screened in order to compare the immune responses. The results of this study highlight the importance of nanoparticle biophysical parameters and the selection of TLR ligands to the rational design of nanoparticle-based vaccines and immunotherapies.

STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE

The manuscript describes a systematic investigation into the effects of biophysical parameters of nanoparticles (NPs) on immune cells. Modulation of the biophysical character of the NP surface can be achieved by introduction of amino acids on monodisperse silica NPs, introducing a range of tunable biophysical parameters of interest, i.e. distinct sizes, different surface charges and varying degrees of surface hydrophobicity. We examine internalization of the NP in dendritic cells (DCs) and measure a myriad of cytokines, including IL-1β and IFNγ, which prognosticate the efficacy of the NPs as a potential vaccine (IL-1β metric) or active cellular immunotherapy carrier (IFNγ metric). Two different TLR ligands (a viral TLR3 ligand and a bacterial TLR4 ligand) were used along with the PAA NPs to compare their costimulatory immunogenicity. We strongly believe that this study will provide crucial information to many readers of Acta Biomaterialia and further drive the use of nanoparticle platforms in modulating immune responses.

Recent developments in nanocarrier-aided mucosal vaccination

To date, most of the licensed vaccines for mucosal delivery are based on live-attenuated viruses which carry the risk of regaining their pathogenicity. Therefore, the development of efficient nonviral vectors allowing the induction of potent humoral and cell-mediated immunity is regarded as an imperative scientific challenge as well as a commercial breakthrough for the pharma industries. For a successful translation to the clinic, such nanocarriers should protect the antigens from mucosal enzymes, facilitate antigen uptake by microfold cells and allow the copresentation of robust, safe for human use, mucosal adjuvants to antigen-presenting cells. Finally, the developed formulations should exhibit accuracy regarding the administered dose, a major drawback of mucosal vaccines in comparison with parenteral ones.

Therapeutic use of monoclonal antibodies: general aspects and challenges for drug delivery

Monoclonal antibodies are routinely used in several fields but the great challenge has been their use as therapeutic agents for the treatment of diseases, such as breast cancer, leukemia, asthma, macular degeneration, arthritis, Crohn’s disease, and transplants, among others.

Monoclonal antibodies are protein molecules made in the laboratory from hybridoma cells by recombinant DNA technology.

Important advances have been made over the past decade to improve some critical points, such as safety and efficacy of the first generation of therapeutic antibodies.

This type of molecules presents a significant challenge from the pharmaceutical point of view due to their characteristics, such as molecular size, stability, and solubility. In this chapter we have attempted to identify the major issues associated with therapeutic approaches, formulating drawbacks and delivering antibody drugs, particularly focused on the challenges and opportunities that these present for the future.

Potential of mannan or dextrin nanogels as vaccine carrier/adjuvant systems

Polymeric nanogels have been sophisticatedly designed promising a new generation of vaccine delivery/adjuvant systems capable of boosting immune response, a strategic priority in vaccine design. Here, nanogels made of mannan or dextrin were evaluated for their potential as carriers/adjuvants in vaccine formulations. Since lymph nodes are preferential target organs for vaccine delivery systems, nanogels were biotin-labeled, injected in the footpad of rats, and their presence in draining lymph nodes was assessed by immunofluorescence. Nanogels were detected in the popliteal and inguinal lymph nodes by 24 h upon subcutaneous administration, indicating entrapment in lymphatic organs. Moreover, the model antigen ovalbumin was physically encapsulated within nanogels and physicochemically characterized concerning size, zeta potential, ovalbumin loading, and entrapment efficiency. The immunogenicity of these formulations was assessed in mice intradermally immunized with ovalbumin–mannan or ovalbumin–dextrin by determining ovalbumin-specific antibody serum titers. Intradermal vaccination using ovalbumin–mannan elicited a humoral immune response in which ovalbumin-specific IgG1 levels were significantly higher than those obtained with ovalbumin alone, indicating a TH2-type response. In contrast, dextrin nanogel did not show adjuvant potential. Altogether, these results indicate that mannan nanogel is a material that should be explored as a future antigen delivery system.

Nanomaterial-dependent immunoregulation of dendritic cells and its effects on biological activities of contraceptive nanovaccines

Nanovehicles are promising delivery systems for various vaccines. Nevertheless, different biophysicochemical properties of nanoparticles (NPs), dominating their in vitro and in vivo performances for vaccination, remain unclear. We attempted to elucidate the effects of NPs and their pH-sensitivity on in vitro and in vivo efficacy of resulting prophylactic nanovaccines containing a contraceptive peptide (FSHR). To this end, pH-responsive and non-responsive nanovaccines were produced using acetalated β-cyclodextrin (Ac-bCD) and poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA), respectively. Meanwhile, FSHR derived from an epitope of the follicle-stimulating hormone receptor was used as the model antigen. FSHR-containing Ac-bCD and PLGA NPs were successfully prepared by a nanoemulsion technique, leading to well-shaped nanovaccines with high loading efficiency. The pH-sensitivity of Ac-bCD and PLGA nanovaccines was examined by in vitro hydrolysis and antigen release studies. Nanovaccines could be effectively engulfed by dendritic cells (DCs) via endocytosis in both dose and time dependent manners, and their intracellular trafficking was closely related to the pH-sensitivity of the carrier materials. Furthermore, nanovaccines could induce the secretion of inflammatory cytokines by DCs and T cells co-cultured with the stimulated DCs. In vivo evaluations demonstrated that nanovaccines were more potent than that based on the complete Freund's adjuvant, with respect to inducing anti-FSHR antibody, reducing the sperm count, inhibiting the sperm motility, and increasing the teratosperm rate. Immunization of male mice with nanovaccines notably decreased the parturition incidence of the mated females. Consequently, both in vitro and in vivo activities of FSHR could be considerably augmented by NPs. More importantly, our studies indicated that the pH-responsive nanovaccine was not superior over the non-responsive counterpart for the examined peptide antigen.

Active bioparticle manipulation in microfluidic systems

The motion of bioparticles in a microfluidic environment can be actively controlled using several tuneable mechanisms, including hydrodynamic, electrophoresis, dielectrophoresis, magnetophoresis, acoustophoresis, thermophoresis and optical forces.

Zinc-stabilized colloidal polyelectrolyte complexes of chitosan/hyaluronan: a tool for the inhibition of HIV-1 infection

Zinc(ii) stabilized polyelectrolyte nano-complexes (PECs) of chitosan and hyaluronan (HYA) were designed as safe and efficient drug delivery systems.