Oral delivery of therapeutic peptides and proteins: Technology landscape of lipid-based nanocarriers

DNA Origami Enhanced Cytokine Immunotherapy for Alleviating Renal Ischemia-Reperfusion Injury

Renal ischemia-reperfusion injury (IRI) is a major contributing factor to the development of acute kidney injury (AKI) and has resulted in considerable morbidity and mortality. Persistent inflammatory responses and excessive reactive oxygen species (ROS) in the kidney following IRI can severely delay tissue repair, making it challenging to effectively promote IRI regeneration. Herein, we report an approach to enhance immunotherapy using interleukin-10 (IL-10) to promote IRI regeneration by loading IL-10 onto rectangular DNA origami nanostructures (rDON). rDON can significantly enhance the renal accumulation and retention time of IL-10, enabling it to effectively polarize type 1 macrophages into type 2 macrophages, thereby significantly reducing proinflammatory factors and increasing anti-inflammatory factors. In addition, DNA origami helps mitigate the harmful effects of ROS during renal IRI. The administration of IL-10-loaded DNA origami effectively improves kidney function, resulting in a notable reduction in blood urea nitrogen, serum uric acid, and serum creatinine levels. Our study demonstrates that the integration of anti-inflammatory cytokines within DNA origami holds promise as a strategic approach for cytokine immunotherapy in patients with AKI and other renal disorders.

Liposomes like advanced drug carriers: from fundamentals to pharmaceutical applications

AIMS

There are around 24 distinct lipid vesicles described in the literature that are similar to vesicular systems such as liposomes. Liposome-like structures are formed by combining certain amphiphilic lipids with a suitable stabiliser. Since their discovery and classification, self-assembled liposome-like structures as active drug delivery vehicles captured researchers' curiosity.

METHODOLOGY

This comprehensive study included an in-depth literature search using electronic databases such as PubMed, ScienceDirect and Google Scholar, focusing on studies on liposome and liposomes like structure, discussed in literature till 2024, their sizes, benefits, drawback, method of preparation, characterisation and pharmaceutical applications.

RESULTS

Pharmacosomes, cubosomes, ethosomes, transethosomes, and genosomes, all liposome-like structures, have the most potential due to their smaller size with high loading capacity, ease of absorption, and ability to treat inflammatory illnesses. Genosomes are futuristic because of its affinity for DNA/gene transport, which is an area of focus in today's treatments.

CONCLUSION

This review will critically analyse the composition, preparation procedures, drug encapsulating technologies, drug loading, release mechanism, and related applications of all liposome-like structures, highlighting their potential benefits with enhanced efficacy over each other and over traditional carriers by paving the way for exploring novel drug delivery systems in the Pharma industry.

Amifostine loaded lipid-calcium carbonate nanoparticles as an oral drug delivery system for radiation protection

Amifostine (AMF) as the first-line radiation protection drug, usually suffered from low compliance and short half-life upon clinical applications. The development of oral drug delivery system (DDS) for AMF is a promising solution. However, the inherent shortages of AMF present significant challenges in the design of suitable oral DDS. Here in this study, we utilized the ability of calcium ions to bind with AMF and prepared AMF loaded calcium carbonate (CC) core, CC/AMF, using phase transferred coprecipitation method. We further modified the CC/AMF using phospholipids to prepare AMF loaded lipid-calcium carbonate (LCC) hybrid nanoparticles (LCC/AMF) via a thin-film dispersion method. LCC/AMF combines the oral advantages of lipid nanoparticles with the drug-loading capabilities of CC, which was shown as uniform nano-sized formulation with decent stability in aqueous solution. With favorable intestinal transport and absorption effects, it effectively enhances the in vivo radiation protection efficacy of AMF through oral administration. More importantly, we further investigated the cellular accumulation profile and intracellular transport mechanism of LCC/AMF using MDCK and Caco-2 cell lines as models. This research not only alters the current administration method of AMF to enhance its convenience and compliance, but also provides insights and guidance for the development of more suitable oral DDS for AMF in the future.

Progress of proteolysis-targeting chimeras (PROTACs) delivery system in tumor treatment

Proteolysis targeting chimeras (PROTACs) can use the intrinsic protein degradation system in cells to degrade pathogenic target proteins, and are currently a revolutionary frontier of development strategy for tumor treatment with small molecules. However, the poor water solubility, low cellular permeability, and off-target side effects of most PROTACs have prevented them from passing the preclinical research stage of drug development. This requires the use of appropriate delivery systems to overcome these challenging hurdles and ensure precise delivery of PROTACs towards the tumor site. Therefore, the combination of PROTACs and multifunctional delivery systems will open up new research directions for targeted degradation of tumor proteins. In this review, we systematically reviewed the design principles and the most recent advances of various PROTACs delivery systems. Moreover, the constructive strategies for developing multifunctional PROTACs delivery systems were proposed comprehensively. This review aims to deepen the understanding of PROTACs drugs and promote the further development of PROTACs delivery system.

Glutamine-derived peptides: Current progress and future directions

Glutamine, the most abundant amino acid in the body, plays a critical role in preserving immune function, nitrogen balance, intestinal integrity, and resistance to infection. However, its limited solubility and instability present challenges for its use a functional nutrient. Consequently, there is a preference for utilizing glutamine-derived peptides as an alternative to achieve enhanced functionality. This article aims to review the applications of glutamine monomers in clinical, sports, and enteral nutrition. It compares the functional effectiveness of monomers and glutamine-derived peptides and provides a comprehensive assessment of glutamine-derived peptides in terms of their classification, preparation, mechanism of absorption, and biological activity. Furthermore, this study explores the potential integration of artificial intelligence (AI)-based peptidomics and synthetic biology in the de novo design and large-scale production of these peptides. The findings reveal that glutamine-derived peptides possess significant structure-related bioactivities, with the smaller molecular weight fraction serving as the primary active ingredient. These peptides possess the ability to promote intestinal homeostasis, exert hypotensive and hypoglycemic effects, and display antioxidant properties. However, our understanding of the structure-function relationships of glutamine-derived peptides remains largely exploratory at current stage. The combination of AI based peptidomics and synthetic biology presents an opportunity to explore the untapped resources of glutamine-derived peptides as functional food ingredients. Additionally, the utilization and bioavailability of these peptides can be enhanced through the use of delivery systems in vivo. This review serves as a valuable reference for future investigations of and developments in the discovery, functional validation, and biomanufacturing of glutamine-derived peptides in food science.

Comparative Analysis of PEG-Free and PEG-Based Self-Emulsifying Drug Delivery Systems for Enhanced Oral Bioavailability of Therapeutic (Poly) Peptides

This study aims to compare the potential of Polyethylene glycol (PEG-free and PEG-based self-emulsifying drug delivery systems (SEDDS) for the oral administration of insulin glargine (IG). Hydrophobic ion pairs (HIPs) of IG are formed using various counterions. HIPs are assessed for log P octanol/water and dissociation behavior. They are incorporated into SEDDS based on polyglycerol (PG) and zwitterionic surfactant (ZW) using response surface methodology and compared to conventional PEG-SEDDS in size, stability, and log D SEDDS/release medium. Oral IG bioavailability in PG/ZW-SEDDS and PEG-SEDDS is evaluated in rats. Among the various counterions studied, IG-BIS (bis(isotridecyl)sulfosuccinate) HIPs demonstrated the highest log P and an improved dissociation profile. PG/ZW-SEDDS and PEG-SEDDS have similar ≈40 nm sizes and are stable over 24 h. Both formulations have log D > 4 in water and >2 in 50 mM phosphate buffer pH 6.8. PG/ZW-SEDDS yielded an oral bioavailability of 2.13 ± 0.66% for IG, while the employment of PEG-SEDDS resulted in an oral bioavailability of 1.15 ± 0.35%. This study highlights the prospective utilization of PEG-free SEDDS involving the concurrent application of PG and ZW surfactants, an alternative to conventional PEG surfactants, for improved oral therapeutic (poly) peptide delivery.

Precise antibiotic delivery to the lung infection microenvironment boosts the treatment of pneumonia with decreased gut dysbiosis

Bacterial pneumonia is a common disease with significant health risks. However, the overuse antibiotics in clinics face challenges such as inadequate targeting and limited drug utilization, leading to drug resistance and gut dysbiosis. Herein, a dual-responsive lung inflammatory tissue targeted nanoparticle (LITTN), designed for targeting lung tissue and bacteria, is screened from a series of prepared nanoparticles consisting of permanent cationic lipids, acid-responsive lipids, and reactive oxygen species-responsive and phenylboronic acid-modified lipids with different surface properties. Such nanoparticle is further verified to enhance the adsorption of vitronectin in serum. Additionally, the optimized nanoparticle exhibits more positive charge and coordination of boric acid with cis-diol in the infected microenvironment, facilitating electrostatic interactions with bacteria and biofilm penetration. Importantly, the antibacterial efficiency of dual-responsive rifampicin-loaded LITTN (Rif@LITTN) against methicillin-resistant staphylococcus aureus is 10 times higher than that of free rifampicin. In a mouse model of bacterial pneumonia, the intravenous administration of Rif@LITTN could precisely target the lungs, localize in the lung infection microenvironment, and trigger the responsive release of rifampicin, thereby effectively alleviating lung inflammation and reducing damage. Notably, the targeted delivery of rifampicin helps protect against antibiotic-induced changes in the gut microbiota. This study establishes a new strategy for precise delivery to the lung-infected microenvironment, promoting treatment efficacy while minimizing the impact on gut microbiota. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: Intravenous antibiotics play a critical role in clinical care, particularly for severe bacterial pneumonia. However, the inability of antibiotics to reach target tissues causes serious side effects, including liver and kidney damage and intestinal dysbiosis. Therefore, achieving precise delivery of antibiotics is of great significance. In this study, we developed a novel lung inflammatory tissue-targeted nanoparticle that could target lung tissue after intravenous administration and then target the inflammatory microenvironment to trigger dual-responsive antibiotics release to synergistically treat pneumonia while maintaining the balance of gut microbiota and reducing the adverse effects of antibiotics. This study provides new ideas for targeted drug delivery and reference for clinical treatment of pneumonia.

Development, Optimization, and Clinical Relevance of Lactoferrin Delivery Systems: A Focus on Ocular Delivery

Lactoferrin (Lf), a multifunctional protein found abundantly in secretions, including tears, plays a crucial role in ocular health through its antimicrobial, immunoregulatory, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant activities. Advanced delivery systems are desirable to fully leverage its therapeutic potential in treating ocular diseases. The process of Lf quantification for diagnostic purposes underscores the importance of developing reliable, cost-effective detection methods, ranging from conventional techniques to advanced nano-based sensors. Despite the ease and non-invasiveness of topical administration for ocular surface diseases, challenges such as rapid drug elimination necessitate innovations, such as Lf-loaded contact lenses and biodegradable polymeric nanocapsules, to enhance drug stability and bioavailability. Furthermore, overcoming ocular barriers for the treatment of posterior segment disease calls for nano-formulations. The scope of this review is to underline the advancements in nanotechnology-based Lf delivery methods, emphasizing the pivotal role of multidisciplinary approaches and cross-field strategies in improving ocular drug delivery and achieving better therapeutic outcomes for a wide spectrum of eye conditions.

Interactions between nanoparticles and lymphatic systems: Mechanisms and applications in drug delivery

The lymphatic system has garnered significant attention in drug delivery research due to the advantages it offers, such as enhancing systemic exposure and enabling lymph node targeting for nanomedicines via the lymphatic delivery route. The journey of drug carriers involves transport from the administration site to the lymphatic vessels, traversing the lymph before entering the bloodstream or targeting specific lymph nodes. However, the anatomical and physiological barriers of the lymphatic system play a pivotal role in influencing the behavior and efficiency of carriers. To expedite research and subsequent clinical translation, this review begins by introducing the composition and classification of the lymphatic system. Subsequently, we explore the routes and mechanisms through which nanoparticles enter lymphatic vessels and lymph nodes. The review further delves into the interactions between nanomedicine and body fluids at the administration site or within lymphatic vessels. Finally, we provide a comprehensive overview of recent advancements in lymphatic delivery systems, addressing the challenges and opportunities inherent in current systems for delivering macromolecules and vaccines.

Archaeosomes for Oral Drug Delivery: From Continuous Microfluidics Production to Powdered Formulations

Archaeosomes were manufactured from natural archaeal lipids by a microfluidics-assisted single-step production method utilizing a mixture of di- and tetraether lipids extracted from Sulfolobus acidocaldarius. The primary aim of this study was to investigate the exceptional stability of archaeosomes as potential carriers for oral drug delivery, with a focus on powdered formulations. The archaeosomes were negatively charged with a size of approximately 100 nm and a low polydispersity index. To assess their suitability for oral delivery, the archaeosomes were loaded with two model drugs: calcein, a fluorescent compound, and insulin, a peptide hormone. The archaeosomes demonstrated high stability in simulated intestinal fluids, with only 5% of the encapsulated compounds being released after 24 h, regardless of the presence of degrading enzymes or extremely acidic pH values such as those found in the stomach. In a co-culture cell model system mimicking the intestinal barrier, the archaeosomes showed strong adhesion to the cell membranes, facilitating a slow release of contents. The archaeosomes were loaded with insulin in a single-step procedure achieving an encapsulation efficiency of approximately 35%. These particles have been exposed to extreme manufacturing temperatures during freeze-drying and spray-drying processes, demonstrating remarkable resilience under these harsh conditions. The fabrication of stable dry powder formulations of archaeosomes represents a promising advancement toward the development of solid dosage forms for oral delivery of biological drugs.

Small-angle X-ray scattering unveils the internal structure of lipid nanoparticles

Lipid nanoparticles own a remarkable potential in nanomedicine, only partially disclosed. While the clinical use of liposomes and cationic lipid-nucleic acid complexes is well-established, liquid lipid nanoparticles (nanoemulsions), solid lipid nanoparticles, and nanostructured lipid carriers have even greater possibilities. However, they face obstacles in being used in clinics due to a lack of understanding about the molecular mechanisms controlling their drug loading and release, interactions with the biological environment (such as the protein corona), and shelf-life stability. To create effective drug delivery carriers and successfully translate bench research to clinical settings, it is crucial to have a thorough understanding of the internal structure of lipid nanoparticles. Through synchrotron small-angle X-ray scattering experiments, we determined the spatial distribution and internal structure of the nanoparticles' lipid, surfactant, and the bound water in them. The nanoparticles themselves have a barrel-like shape that consists of coplanar lipid platelets (specifically cetyl palmitate) that are covered by loosely spaced polysorbate 80 surfactant molecules, whose polar heads retain a large amount of bound water. To reduce the interface cost of bound water with unbound water without stacking, the platelets collapse onto each other. This internal structure challenges the classical core-shell model typically used to describe solid lipid nanoparticles and could play a significant role in drug loading and release, biological fluid interaction, and nanoparticle stability, making our findings valuable for the rational design of lipid-based nanoparticles.

Tableting behavior of freeze and spray-dried excipients in pharmaceutical formulations

Most of biopharmaceuticals, in their liquid form, are prone to instabilities during storage. In order to improve their stability, lyophilization is the most commonly used drying technique in the pharmaceutical industry. In addition, certain applications of biopharmaceutical products can be considered by oral administration and tablets are the most frequent solid pharmaceutical dosage form used for oral route. Thus, the tableting properties of freeze-dried products used as cryo and lyoprotectant could be a key element for future pharmaceutical developments and applications. In this study, we investigated the properties that might play a particular role in the specific compaction behavior of freeze-dried excipients. The tableting properties of freeze-dried trehalose, lactose and mannitol were investigated and compared to other forms of these excipients (spray-dried, commercial crystalline and commercial crystalline milled powders). The obtained results showed a specific behavior in terms of compressibility, tabletability and brittleness for the amorphous powders obtained after freeze-drying. The comparison with the other powders showed that this specific tableting behavior is linked to both the specific texture and the physical state (amorphization) of these freeze-dried powders.

Engineering peptide drug therapeutics through chemical conjugation and implication in clinics

The development of peptide drugs has made tremendous progress in the past few decades because of the advancements in modification chemistry and analytical technologies. The novel-designed peptide drugs have been modified through various biochemical methods with improved diagnostic, therapeutic, and drug-delivery strategies. Researchers found it a helping hand to overcome the inherent limitations of peptides and bring continued advancements in their applications. Furthermore, the emergence of peptide-drug conjugates (PDCs)-utilizes target-oriented peptide moieties as a vehicle for cytotoxic payloads via conjugation with cleavable chemical agents, resulting in the key foundation of the new era of targeted peptide drugs. This review summarizes the various classifications of peptide drugs, suitable chemical modification strategies to improve the ADME (adsorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion) features of peptide drugs, and recent (2015-early 2024) progress/achievements in peptide-based drug delivery systems as well as their fruitful implication in preclinical and clinical studies. Furthermore, we also summarized the brief description of other types of PDCs, including peptide-MOF conjugates and peptide-UCNP conjugates. The principal aim is to provide scattered and diversified knowledge in one place and to help researchers understand the pinching knots in the science of PDC development and progress toward a bright future of novel peptide drugs.

Mucus-penetrating and permeation enhancer albumin-based nanoparticles for oral delivery of macromolecules: Application to bevacizumab

The oral administration of therapeutic proteins copes with important challenges (mainly degradation and poor absorption) making their potential therapeutic application extremely difficult. The aim of this study was to design and evaluate the potential of the combination between mucus-permeating nanoparticles and permeation enhancers as a carrier for the oral delivery of the monoclonal antibody bevacizumab, used as a model of therapeutic protein. For this purpose, bevacizumab was encapsulated in PEG-coated albumin nanoparticles as a hydrophobic ion-pairing complex with either sodium deoxycholate (DS) or sodium docusate (DOCU). In both cases, complex formation efficiencies close to 90% were found. The incorporation of either DS or DOCU in PEG-coated nanoparticles significantly increased their mean size, particularly when DOCU was used. Moreover, the diffusion in mucus of DOCU-loaded nanoparticles was significantly reduced, compared with DS ones. In a C. elegans model, DS or DOCU (free or nanoencapsulated) disrupted the intestinal epithelial integrity, but the overall survival of the worms was not affected. In rats, the relative oral bioavailability of bevacizumab incorporated in PEG-coated nanoparticles as a complex with DS (B-DS-NP-P) was 3.7%, a 1000-fold increase compared to free bevacizumab encapsulated in nanoparticles (B-NP-P). This important effect of DS may be explained not only by its capability to transiently disrupt tight junctions but also to their ability to increase the fluidity of membranes and to inhibit cytosolic and brush border enzymes. In summary, the current strategy may be useful to allow the therapeutic use of orally administered proteins, including monoclonal antibodies.

Intranasal delivery of herbal medicine for disease treatment: A systematic review

BACKGROUND

Intranasal administration has been adopted in traditional medicine to facilitate access to the bloodstream and central nervous system (CNS). In modern medicine, nasal drug delivery systems are valuable for disease treatment because of their noninvasiveness, good absorption, and fast-acting effects.

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to systematically organize preclinical and clinical studies on intranasal herbal medicines to highlight their potential in drug development.

METHODS

A comprehensive search for literature until February 2023 was conducted on PubMed and the Web of Science. From the selected publications, we extracted key information, including the types of herbal materials, target diseases, intranasal conditions, methods of toxicity evaluation, main outcomes, and mechanisms of action, and performed quality assessments for each study.

RESULTS

Of the 45 studies, 13 were clinical and 32 were preclinical; 28 studies used herbal extracts, 9 used prescriptions, and 8 used natural compounds. The target diseases were rhinosinusitis, influenza, fever, stroke, migraine, insomnia, depression, memory disorders, and lung cancer. The common intranasal volumes were 8-50 µl in mice, 20-100 µl in rats, and 100-500 µl in rabbits. Peppermint oil, Ribes nigrum folium, Melia azedarach L., Elaeocarpus sylvestris, Radix Bupleuri, Da Chuan Xiong Fang, Xingnaojing microemulsion, and Ginsenoside Rb1 emerged as potential candidates for rapid intranasal therapy. The in vivo toxicity assessments were based on mortality, body weight, behavioral changes, mucociliary activity, histopathology, and blood tests. Most intranasal treatments were safe, except for Cyclamen europaeum, Jasminum sambac, Punica granatum L., and violet oil, which caused mild adverse effects. At lower doses, intranasal herbal treatments often show greater effects than oral administration. The actions of intranasal herbal medicine mainly involve regulating inflammation and neurotransmission, with the olfactory bulb and anterior cingulate cortex to be relevant brain regions.

CONCLUSION

Intranasal delivery of herbal materials holds promise for enhancing drug delivery efficacy and reducing treatment duration, offering a potential future perspective for developing intranasal therapies for various diseases.

Oral peptide therapeutics for diabetes treatment: State-of-the-art and future perspectives

Diabetes, characterized by hyperglycemia, is a major cause of death and disability worldwide. Peptides, such as insulin and glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) analogs, have shown promise as treatments for diabetes due to their ability to mimic or enhance insulin's actions in the body. Compared to subcutaneous injection, oral administration of anti-diabetic peptides is a preferred approach. However, biological barriers significantly reduce the efficacy of oral peptide therapeutics. Recent advancements in drug delivery systems and formulation techniques have greatly improved the oral delivery of peptide therapeutics and their efficacy in treating diabetes. This review will highlight (1) the benefits of oral anti-diabetic peptide therapeutics; (2) the biological barriers for oral peptide delivery, including pH and enzyme degradation, intestinal mucosa barrier, and biodistribution barrier; (3) the delivery platforms to overcome these biological barriers. Additionally, the review will discuss the prospects in this field. The information provided in this review will serve as a valuable guide for future developments in oral anti-diabetic peptide therapeutics.

Design and applications of polymer-like peptides in biomedical nanogels

INTRODUCTION

Polymer nanogels are among the most promising nanoplatforms for use in biomedical applications. The substantial interest for these drug carriers is to enhance the transportation of bioactive substances, reduce the side effects, and achieve optimal action on the curative sites by targeting delivery and triggering the release of the drugs in a controlled and continuous mode.

AREA COVERED

The review discusses the opportunities, applications, and challenges of synthetic polypeptide nanogels in biomedicine, with an emphasis on the recent progress in cancer therapy. It is evidenced by the development of polypeptide nanogels for better controlled drug delivery and release, in complex in vivo microenvironments in biomedical applications.

EXPERT OPINION

Polypeptide nanogels can be developed by choosing the amino acids from the peptide structure that are suitable for the type of application. Using a stimulus - sensitive peptide nanogel, it is possible to obtain the appropriate transport and release of the drug, as well as to achieve desirable therapeutic effects, including safety, specificity, and efficiency. The final system represents an innovative way for local and sustained drug delivery at a specific site of the body.

Template-Free Self-Assembly of Hollow Microtubular Covalent Organic Frameworks for Oral Delivery of Insulin

Covalent organic frameworks (COFs) have demonstrated versatile application potential since their discovery. Although the structure of COFs is orderly arranged, the synthesis of controllable macrostructures still faces challenges. Herein, we report, to our knowledge, the first template-free self-assembled COF-18 Å hollow microtubule (MT-COF-18 Å) structure and its use for insulin delivery that exhibits high loading capacity, gastroresistance, and glucose-responsive properties. The hollow MT-COF-18 Å was achieved by a template-free method benefiting from the mixed solvents of mesitylene and dioxane. The formation mechanism and morphology changes with insulin loading and release were observed. In Caco-2 cells, the transferrin-coated system demonstrated enhanced insulin cellular uptake and transcellular transport, which indicated great potential for oral applications. Additionally, the composites presented sustained glycemic control and effective insulin blood concentrations without noticeable toxicity in diabetic rats. This work shows that hollow microtubular COFs hold great promise in loading and delivery of biomolecules.

Transmucosal Delivery of Peptides and Proteins Through Nanofibers: Current Status and Emerging Developments

Advancements in recombinant DNA technology have made proteins and peptides available for diagnostic and therapeutic applications, but their effectiveness when taken orally leads to poor patient compliance, requiring clinical administration. Among the alternative routes, transmucosal delivery has the advantage of being noninvasive and bypassing hepato-gastrointestinal clearance. Various mucosal routes-buccal, nasal, pulmonary, rectal, and vaginal-have been explored for delivering these macromolecules. Nanofibers, due to their unique properties like high surface-area-to-volume ratio, mechanical strength, and improved encapsulation efficiency, serve as promising carriers for proteins and peptides. These nanofibers can be tailored for quick dissolution, controlled release, enhanced encapsulation, targeted delivery, and improved bioavailability, offering superior pharmaceutical and pharmacokinetic performance compared to conventional methods. This leads to reduced dosages, fewer side effects, and enhanced patient compliance. Hence, nanofibers hold tremendous potential for protein/peptide delivery, especially through mucosal routes. This review focuses on the therapeutic application of proteins and peptides, challenges faced in their conventional delivery, techniques for fabricating different types of nanofibers and, various nanofiber-based dosage forms, and factors influencing nanofiber generation. Insights pertaining to the precise selection of materials used for fabricating nanofibers and regulatory aspects have been covered. Case studies wherein the use of specific protein/peptide-loaded nanofibers and delivered via oral/vaginal/nasal mucosa for diagnostic/therapeutic use and related preclinical and clinical studies conducted have been included in this review.

Multi-material 3D printed eutectogel microneedle patches integrated with fast customization and tunable drug delivery

Microneedle patches are emerging multifunctional platforms for transdermal diagnostics and drug delivery. However, it still remains challenging to develop smart microneedles integrated with customization, sensing, detection and drug delivery by 3D printing strategy. Here, we present an innovative but facile strategy to rationally design and fabricate multifunctional eutectogel microneedle (EMN) patches via multi-material 3D printing. Polymerizable deep eutectic solvents (PDES) were selected as printing inks for rapid one-step fabrication of 3D printing functional EMN patches due to fast photopolymerization rate and ultrahigh drug solubility. Moreover, stretchable EMN patches incorporating rigid needles and flexible backing layers were easily realized by changing PDES compositions of multi-material 3D printing. Meanwhile, we developed multifunctional smart multi-material EMN patches capable of performing wireless monitoring of body movements, painless colorimetric glucose detection, and controlled transdermal drug delivery. Thus, such multi-material EMN system could provide an effective platform for the painless diagnosis, detection, and therapy of a variety of diseases.

Protein Coronas Derived from Mucus Act as Both Spear and Shield to Regulate Transferrin Functionalized Nanoparticle Transcellular Transport in Enterocytes

The epithelial mucosa is a key biological barrier faced by gastrointestinal, intraoral, intranasal, ocular, and vaginal drug delivery. Ligand-modified nanoparticles demonstrate excellent ability on this process, but their efficacy is diminished by the formation of protein coronas (PCs) when they interact with biological matrices. PCs are broadly implicated in affecting the fate of NPs in vivo and in vitro, yet few studies have investigated PCs formed during interactions of NPs with the epithelial mucosa, especially mucus. In this study, we constructed transferrin modified NPs (Tf-NPs) as a model and explored the mechanisms and effects that epithelial mucosa had on PCs formation and the subsequent impact on the transcellular transport of Tf-NPs. In mucus-secreting cells, Tf-NPs adsorbed more proteins from the mucus layers, which masked, displaced, and dampened the active targeting effects of Tf-NPs, thereby weakening endocytosis and transcellular transport efficiencies. In mucus-free cells, Tf-NPs adsorbed more proteins during intracellular trafficking, which enhanced transcytosis related functions. Inspired by soft coronas and artificial biomimetic membranes, we used mucin as an "active PC" to precoat Tf-NPs (M@Tf-NPs), which limited the negative impacts of "passive PCs" formed during interface with the epithelial mucosa and improved favorable routes of endocytosis. M@Tf-NPs adsorbed more proteins associated with endoplasmic reticulum-Golgi functions, prompting enhanced intracellular transport and exocytosis. In summary, mucus shielded against the absorption of Tf-NPs, but also could be employed as a spear to break through the epithelial mucosa barrier. These findings offer a theoretical foundation and design platform to enhance the efficiency of oral-administered nanomedicines.

Microneedle-assisted percutaneous delivery of methotrexate-loaded nanoparticles enabling sustained anti-inflammatory effects in psoriasis therapy

Methotrexate (MTX) is one of the first-line drugs used for the treatment of moderate to severe psoriasis. However, low bioavailability and systemic side effects of traditional oral and injectable MTX greatly limit its clinical application. Delivering MTX using dissolving microneedles (MNs) into psoriasis-like skin lesion could improve the in situ therapeutic effects with higher bioavailability and less side effects. Here, we propose a novel therapeutic approach for psoriasis involving MN-assisted percutaneous delivery of chitosan-coated hollow mesoporous silica nanoparticles containing MTX (MTX@HMSN/CS). The MTX@HMSN/CS-loaded MNs were strong enough to successfully penetrate the psoriasiform thickened epidermis, allowing MTX@HMSN/CS to be accurately delivered to the site of skin lesion following the rapid dissolution of MNs. MTX was then released continuously from HMSN/CS for at least one week to maintain effective therapeutic drug concentration for skin lesion with long-term anti-proliferative and anti-inflammatory effects. Incubation with MTX@HMSN/CS not only inhibited the proliferation of human immortalized keratinocytes (HaCaT cells), but also significantly reduced the expression of proinflammatory cytokines and chemokines. In addition, MTX@HMSN/CS-loaded MNs showed better efficacy in alleviating psoriasis-like skin inflammation than MTX-loaded MNs at the same dose. Compared to psoriasiform mice treated with 15.8 μg MTX-loaded MNs every day, 47.4 μg MTX@HMSN/CS-loaded MNs reduce the frequency of treatment to once every 3 days and achieve comparable amelioration. Therefore, MTX@HMSN/CS loaded MNs are a promising treatment strategy for psoriasis due to their durability, efficacy, convenience, and safety in relieving psoriasis-like skin inflammation.

Potential of the nanoplatform and PROTAC interface to achieve targeted protein degradation through the Ubiquitin-Proteasome system

In eukaryotic cells, the ubiquitin-proteasome system (UPS) plays a crucial role in selectively breaking down specific proteins. The ability of the UPS to target proteins effectively and expedite their removal has significantly contributed to the evolution of UPS-based targeted protein degradation (TPD) strategies. In particular, proteolysis targeting chimeras (PROTACs) are an immensely promising tool due to their high efficiency, extensive target range, and negligible drug resistance. This breakthrough has overcome the limitations posed by traditionally "non-druggable" proteins. However, their high molecular weight and constrained solubility impede the delivery of PROTACs. Fortunately, the field of nanomedicine has experienced significant growth, enabling the delivery of PROTACs through nanoscale drug-delivery systems, which effectively improves the stability, solubility, drug distribution, tissue-specific accumulation, and stimulus-responsive release of PROTACs. This article reviews the mechanism of action attributed to PROTACs and their potential implications for clinical applications. Moreover, we present strategies involving nanoplatforms for the effective delivery of PROTACs and evaluate recent advances in targeting nanoplatforms to the UPS. Ultimately, an assessment is conducted to determine the feasibility of utilizing PROTACs and nanoplatforms for UPS-based TPD. The primary aim of this review is to provide innovative, reliable solutions to overcome the current challenges obstructing the effective use of PROTACs in the management of cancer, neurodegenerative diseases, and metabolic syndrome. Therefore, this is a promising technology for improving the treatment status of major diseases.

Potential of oligonucleotide- and protein/peptide-based therapeutics in the management of toxicant/stressor-induced diseases

Exposure to toxicants/stressors has been linked to the development of many human diseases. They could affect various cellular components, such as DNA, proteins, lipids, and non-coding RNAs (ncRNA), thereby triggering various cellular pathways, particularly oxidative stress, inflammatory responses, and apoptosis, which can contribute to pathophysiological states. Accordingly, modulation of these pathways has been the focus of numerous investigations for managing related diseases. The involvement of various ncRNAs, such as small interfering RNA (siRNA), microRNAs (miRNA), and long non-coding RNAs (lncRNA), as well as various proteins and peptides in mediating these pathways, provides many target sites for pharmaceutical intervention. In this regard, various oligonucleotide- and protein/peptide-based therapies have been developed to treat toxicity-induced diseases, which have shown promising results in vitro and in vivo. This comprehensive review provides information about various aspects of toxicity-related diseases including their causing factors, main underlying mechanisms and intermediates, and their roles in pathophysiological states. Particularly, it highlights the principles and mechanisms of oligonucleotide- and protein/peptide-based therapies in the treatment of toxicity-related diseases. Furthermore, various issues of oligonucleotides and proteins/peptides for clinical usage and potential solutions are discussed.

New insights into nanomedicines for oral delivery of glucagon-like peptide-1 analogs

Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) is a metabolic disorder that arises when the body cannot respond fully to insulin, leading to impaired glucose tolerance. Currently, the treatment embraces non-pharmacological actions (e.g., diet and exercise) co-associated with the administration of antidiabetic drugs. Metformin is the first-line treatment for T2DM; nevertheless, alternative therapeutic strategies involving glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) analogs have been explored for managing the disease. GLP-1 analogs trigger insulin secretion and suppress glucagon release in a glucose-dependent manner thereby, reducing the risk of hyperglycemia. Additionally, GLP-1 analogs have an extended plasma half-life compared to the endogenous peptide due to their high resistance to degradation by dipeptidyl peptidase-4. However, GLP-1 analogs are mainly administered via subcutaneous route, which can be inconvenient for the patients. Even considering an oral delivery approach, GLP-1 analogs are exposed to the harsh conditions of the gastrointestinal tract (GIT) and the intestinal barriers (mucus and epithelium). Hereupon, there is an unmet need to develop non-invasive oral transmucosal drug delivery strategies, such as the incorporation of GLP-1 analogs into nanoplatforms, to overcome the GIT barriers. Nanotechnology has the potential to shield antidiabetic peptides against the acidic pH and enzymatic activity of the stomach. In addition, the nanoparticles can be coated and/or surface-conjugated with mucodiffusive polymers and target intestinal ligands to improve their transport through the intestinal mucus and epithelium. This review focuses on the main hurdles associated with the oral administration of GLP-1 and GLP-1 analogs, and the nanosystems developed to improve the oral bioavailability of the antidiabetic peptides. This article is categorized under: Therapeutic Approaches and Drug Discovery > Nanomedicine for Infectious Disease Nanotechnology Approaches to Biology > Nanoscale Systems in Biology.

Enhancing solubility and bioavailability of octacosanol: Development of a green O/W nanoemulsion synthesis process

Octacosanol, a naturally occurring higher fatty alcohol, possessed numerous biological effects. However, octacosanol limited solubility in water due to its lipophilic nature and large structure, resulting in poor absorption and low bioavailability. To overcome this challenge, we developed a simple, environmentally friendly, and energy-efficient O/W nanoemulsion synthesis process. The nanoemulsion achieved an average droplet size of approximately 30 nm, exhibited excellent dispersibility and stability at room temperature for 60 days, and showcased robust storage properties insensitive to ambient temperature, pH, NaCl, and sucrose. Remarkably, the preparation process of the nanoemulsion maintained the biological activity of octacosanol while demonstrating significantly enhancing antioxidant activity compared to octacosanol suspension. Additionally, the nanoemulsion displayed negligible cytotoxic effects on Caco-2 cells. Significantly, the octacosanol nanoemulsion exhibited a 5.4-fold enhancement in transmembrane transport efficiency when compared to the suspension in Caco-2 cell monolayers. Additionally, in an in vivo experiment, there was a notable 2.9-fold increase in rat intestinal absorption. These findings could provide valuable insights into the development of octacosanol nanoemulsion, supporting its future applications and paving the way for the design of stable nanoemulsion systems for other lipophilic and sparingly soluble substances.

Peptide-Drug Conjugates: Design, Chemistry, and Drug Delivery System as a Novel Cancer Theranostic

The emergence of peptide-drug conjugates (PDCs) that utilize target-oriented peptide moieties as carriers of cytotoxic payloads, interconnected with various cleavable/noncleavable linkers, resulted in the key-foundation of the new era of targeted therapeutics. They are capable of retaining the integrity of conjugates in the blood circulatory system as well as releasing the drugs at the tumor microenvironment. Other valuable advantages are specificity and selectivity toward targeted-receptors, higher penetration ability, and drug-loading capacity, making them a suitable candidate to play their vital role as promising carrier agents. In this review, we summarized the types of cell-targeting (CTPs) and cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs) that have broad applications in the advancement of targeted drug-delivery systems (DDS). Moreover, the techniques to overcome the limitations of peptide-chemistry for their extensive implementation to construct the PDCs. Besides this, the diversified breakthrough of linker chemistry, and ample knowledge of various cytotoxic payloads used in PDCs in recent years, as well as the mechanism of action of PDCs was critically discussed. The principal aim is to provide scattered and diversified knowledge in one place and to help researchers understand the pinching knots in the science of PDC development, also their progression toward a bright future for PDCs as novel theranostics in clinical practice.

Recent advances in oral insulin delivery technologies

With the rise in diabetes mellitus cases worldwide, oral delivery of insulin is preferred over subcutaneous insulin administration due to its good patient compliance and non-invasiveness, simplicity, and versatility. However, oral insulin delivery is hampered by various gastrointestinal barriers that result in low drug bioavailability and insufficient therapeutic efficiency. Numerous strategies have been developed to overcome these barriers and increase the bioavailability of oral insulin. Yet, no commercial oral insulin product is available to address all clinical hurdles because of various substantial obstacles related to the structural organization and physiological function of the gastrointestinal tract. Herein, we discussed the significant physiological barriers (including chemical, enzymatic, and physical barriers) that hinder the transportation and absorption of orally delivered insulin. Then, we showcased recent significant and innovative advances in oral insulin delivery technologies. Finally, we concluded the review with remarks on future perspectives on oral insulin delivery technologies and potential challenges for forthcoming clinical translation of oral insulin delivery technologies.

Evaluation of curcumin nanoemulsion effect to prevent intestinal damage

Curcumin has gained great prominence for the prevention and treatment of inflammatory bowel disease. However, studies have reported the low bioavailability of orally administered curcumin. This work aimed to evaluate the characteristics, stability and effects of a curcumin-carrying nanoemulsion in preventing intestinal damage induced by indomethacin. Nanoemulsions containing curcumin were prepared by spontaneous emulsification method and it was characterized by dynamic light scattering (DLS), zeta potential and the morphology was evaluated by scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Its stability was tested under different conditions of pH, temperature at 0, 7, 14, 21 and 28 days. In animal experimentation, 36 male mice of the Mus musculus lineage (C57BL/6) were used. The intestinal inflammation was evaluated based on macroscopic, histopathological and metagenomic analysis. It was found a stable nanoemulsion with a size of 409.8 nm, polydispersion index (PDI) of 0.132 and zeta potential of -18.8 mV. However, these lost charge in pH2, showing instability in acidic media (p < 0.05). In animal experiments, the nanoemulsion did not significantly improve intestinal inflammation. However, the group treated with curcumin nanoemulsion showed a higher relative abundance of the genus Lactobacillus (p < 0.05). In conclusion, the curcumin nanoemulsion was relevant in the modulation of the intestinal microbiota.

Nano-in-nano enteric protein delivery system: coaxial Eudragit® L100-55 fibers containing poly(N-vinylcaprolactam) nanogels

Oral protein delivery holds significant promise as an effective therapeutic strategy for treating a wide range of diseases. However, effective absorption of proteins faces challenges due to biological barriers such as harsh conditions of the stomach and the low permeability of mucous membranes. To address these challenges, this article presents a novel nano-in-nano platform designed for enteric protein delivery. This platform, obtained by electrospinning, involves a coaxial arrangement comprising poly(N-vinylcaprolactam) nanogels (NGs) enclosed within nanofibers of Eudragit® L100-55 (EU), a pH-responsive polymer. The pH-selective solubility of EU ensures the protection of NGs during their passage through the stomach, where the fibers remain intact at low pH, and releases them in the intestine where EU dissolves. The switchable characteristic of this nano-in-nano platform is confirmed by using NGs loaded with a model protein (ovalbumin), which is selectively released when the intestinal pH is achieved. The versatility of this nano-in-nano delivery platform is demonstrated by the ability to modify the fibers dissolution profile simply by adjusting the concentration of EU used in the electrospinning process. Furthermore, by tuning the properties of NGs, the potential applications of this platform can be further extended, paving the way for diverse therapeutic possibilities.

Fluorescent hydrophobic ion pairs: A powerful tool to investigate cellular uptake of hydrophobic drug complexes via lipid-based nanocarriers

HYPOTHESIS

Hydrophobic ion pairs (HIPs) between two fluorescent components and incorporation into nanoemulsions (NE) allows tracking in cellular uptake studies.

EXPERIMENTS

HIPs were formed between propidium iodide and 1,2-dioleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphoethanolamine-N-(7-nitro-2-1,3-benzoxadiazol-4-yl) (NBD-PE), azure A chloride and NBD-PE or coumarin 343 and 4-(4-dihexadecylaminostyryl)-N-methylpyridinium iodide) (DiA). Fluorescence spectra of the resulting complexes were recorded. HIPs were loaded into zwitterionic NE and their size, stability in different media, haemolytic properties and cytotoxicity were evaluated. Furthermore, cellular uptake at 37 °C and 4 °C was investigated via flow cytometry and confocal microscopy.

FINDINGS

HIP-formation increased lipophilicity of the hydrophilic model drugs. NE exhibited a size between 80 and 150 nm and were not toxic in concentrations up to 0.1 % but showed high haemolytic properties. Cellular uptake of propidium, azure A and coumarin 343 were 8-fold, 115-fold and 1.3-fold improved by the formation of HIPs and up to 59-fold, 120-fold and 50-fold by incorporating these HIPs in NE, respectively. Lower uptake was observed at 4 °C. In case of propidium/ NBD-PE and azure A/ NBD-PE HIPs, propidium and azure A were delivered into the cytosol, whereas NBD-PE was unable to enter cells. In case of coumarin 343/ DiA HIPs, both components accumulated in the cell membrane. Therefore, HIPs between two fluorescent compounds are a powerful tool to investigate cellular uptake of hydrophobic complexes via nanocarriers by visualization of their cellular distribution.

Predicting Long-Term Stability of an Oral Delivered Antibody Drug Product with Accelerated Stability Assessment Program Modeling

The oral delivery of protein therapeutics offers numerous advantages for patients but also presents significant challenges in terms of development. Currently, there is limited knowledge available regarding the stability and shelf life of orally delivered protein therapeutics. In this study, a comprehensive assessment of the stability of an orally delivered solid dosage variable domain of heavy-chain antibody (VHH antibody) drug product was conducted. Four stability related quality attributes that undergo change as a result of thermal and humidity stress were identified. Subsequently, these attributes were modeled using an accelerated stability approach facilitated by ASAPprime software. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first time that this approach has been reported for an antibody drug product. We observed overall good model quality and accurate predictions regarding the protein stability during storage. Notably, we discovered that protein aggregation, formed through a degradation pathway, requires additional adjustments to the modeling method. In summary, the ASAP approach demonstrated promising results in predicting the stability of this complex solid-state protein formulation. This study sheds light on the stability and shelf life of orally delivered protein therapeutics, addressing an important knowledge gap in the field.

Microfluidic encapsulation of enzymes and steroids within solid lipid nanoparticles

The production of solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) is challenging, especially when considering the incorporation of biologics. A novel in-house method of microfluidic production of biologic-encapsulated SLNs is proposed, using a variety of base materials for formulation to help overcome the barriers presented during manufacture and administration. Trypsin is used as a model drug for hydrophilic encapsulation whilst testosterone is employed as a positive non-biologic lipophilic control active pharmaceutical ingredient. Particle sizes obtained ranged from 160 to 320 nm, and a lead formulation has been identified from the combinations assayed, allowing for high encapsulation efficiencies (47-90%, respectively) of both the large hydrophilic and the small hydrophobic active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs). Drug release profiles were analysed in vitro to provide useful insight into sustained kinetics, providing data towards future in vivo studies, which displayed a slow prolonged release for testosterone and a quicker burst release for trypsin. The study represents a large leap forward in the field of SLN production, especially in the field of difficult-to-encapsulate molecules, and the technique also benefits from being more environmentally sustainable due to the use of microfluidics.

Food-derived peptides as novel therapeutic strategies for NLRP3 inflammasome-related diseases: a systematic review

NLRP3 (NOD-, LRR- and pyrin domain-containing protein 3), a member of the nucleotide-binding domain (NOD) and leucine-rich repeat sequence (LRR) protein (NLR) family, plays an essential role in the inflammation initiation and inflammatory mediator secretion, and thus is also associated with many disease progressions. Food-derived bioactive peptides (FDBP) exhibit excellent anti-inflammatory activity in both in vivo and in vitro models. They are encrypted in plant, meat, and milk proteins and can be released under enzymatic hydrolysis or fermentation conditions, thereby hindering the progression of hyperuricemia, inflammatory bowel disease, chronic liver disease, neurological disorders, lung injury and periodontitis by inactivating the NLRP3. However, there is a lack of systematic review around FDBP, NLRP3, and NLRP3-related diseases. Therefore, this review summarized FDBP that exert inhibiting effects on NLRP3 inflammasome from different protein sources and detailed their preparation and purification methods. Additionally, this paper also compiled the possible inhibitory mechanisms of FDBP on NLRP3 inflammasomes and its regulatory role in NLRP3 inflammasome-related diseases. Finally, the progress of cutting-edge technologies, including nanoparticle, computer-aided screening strategy and recombinant DNA technology, in the acquisition or encapsulation of NLRP3 inhibitory FDBP was discussed. This review provides a scientific basis for understanding the anti-inflammatory mechanism of FDBP through the regulation of the NLRP3 inflammasome and also provides guidance for the development of therapeutic adjuvants or functional foods enriched with these FDBP.

Food-Derived Peptides: Beneficial CNS Effects and Cross-BBB Transmission Strategies

Food-derived peptides, as dietary supplements, have significant effects on promoting brain health and relieving central nervous system (CNS) diseases. However, the blood-brain barrier (BBB) greatly limits their in-brain bioavailability. Thus, overcoming the BBB to target the CNS is a major challenge for bioactive peptides in the prevention and treatment of CNS diseases. This review discusses improvement in the neuroprotective function of food-derived active peptides in CNS diseases, as well as the source of BBB penetrating peptides (BBB-shuttles) and the mechanism of transmembrane transport. Notably, this review also discusses various peptide modification methods to overcome the low permeability and stability of the BBB. Lipification, glycosylation, introduction of disulfide bonds, and cyclization are effective strategies for improving the penetration efficiency of peptides through the BBB. This review provides a new prospective for improving their neuroprotective function and developing treatments to delay or even prevent CNS diseases.

Oral Administration of Cancer Vaccines: Challenges and Future Perspectives

Cancer vaccines, a burgeoning strategy in cancer treatment, are exploring innovative administration routes to enhance patient and medical staff experiences, as well as immunological outcomes. Among these, oral administration has surfaced as a particularly noteworthy approach, which is attributed to its capacity to ignite both humoral and cellular immune responses at systemic and mucosal tiers, thereby potentially bolstering vaccine efficacy comprehensively and durably. Notwithstanding this, the deployment of vaccines through the oral route in a clinical context is impeded by multifaceted challenges, predominantly stemming from the intricacy of orchestrating effective oral immunogenicity and necessitating strategic navigation through gastrointestinal barriers. Based on the immunogenicity of the gastrointestinal tract, this review critically analyses the challenges and recent advances and provides insights into the future development of oral cancer vaccines.

Liver-Specific Ionizable Lipid Nanoparticles Mediated Efficient RNA Interference to Clear "Bad Cholesterol"

Background

High-level low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) plays a vital role in the development of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease. Low-density lipoprotein receptors (LDLRs) are scavengers that bind to LDL-C in the liver. LDLR proteins are regulated by proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9 (PCSK9), which mediates the degradation of LDLR and adjusts the level of the plasma LDL-C. The low expression of PCSK9 leads to the up-regulation of liver LDLRs and the reduction of plasma LDL-C. Hepatocytes are attractive targets for small interfering RNA (siRNA) delivery to silence Pcsk9 gene, due to their significant role in LDL-C regulation.

Methods

Here, a type of liver-specific ionizable lipid nanoparticles is developed for efficient siRNA delivery. This type of nanoparticles shows high stability, enabling efficient cargo delivery specifically to hepatocytes, and a membrane-active polymer that reversibly masks activity until an acidic environment is reached.

Results

Significantly, the siPcsk9 (siRNA targeting to Pcsk9)-loaded nanoparticles (GLP) could silence 90% of the Pcsk9 mRNA in vitro. In vivo study showed that the improved accumulation of GLP in the liver increased LDLR level by 3.35-fold and decreased plasma LDL-C by 35%.

Conclusion

GLP has shown a powerful effect on reducing LDL-C, thus providing a potential therapy for atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease.

Impact of carrier hydrophilicity on solid self nano-emulsifying drug delivery system and self nano-emulsifying granule system

The purpose of this study was to investigate the impact of carrier hydrophilicity on solid self nano-emulsifying drug delivery system (SNEDDS) and self nano-emulsifying granule system (SEGS). The mesoporous calcium silicate (Ca-silicate) and hydroxypropyl-β-cyclodextrin (HP-β-CD) were utilised as hydrophobic carrier and hydrophilic carrier, respectively. The liquid SNEDDS formulation, composed of Tween80/Kollipohr EL/corn oil (35/50/15%) with 31% (w/w) dexibuprofen, was spray-dried and fluid-bed granulated together with Avicel using Ca-silicate or HP- β-CD as a solid carrier, producing four different solid SNEDDS and SEGS formulations. Unlike the Ca-silicate-based systems, spherical shape and aggregated particles were shown in HP-β-CD-based solid SNEDDS and SEGS, respectively. Molecular interaction was detected between Ca-silicate and the drug; though, none was shown between HP-β-CD and the drug. Each system prepared with either carrier gave no significant differences in micromeritic properties, crystallinity, droplet morphology, size, dissolution and oral bioavailability in rats. However, the HP-β-CD-based system more significantly improved the drug solubility than did the Ca-silicate-based system. Therefore, both carriers hardly affected the properties of both solid SNEDDS and SEGS; though, there were differences in the aspect of appearance, molecular interaction and solubility.

Tableting properties of freeze-dried trehalose: Physico-chemical and mechanical investigation

Freeze-drying of biopharmaceutical products is the method of choice in order to improve their stability and storage conditions. Such freeze-dried products are usually intended for parenteral route administration. However, many biopharmaceutical materials administered by parenteral route are used to treat local diseases particularly in the gastro-intestinal tract. Therefore, many studies concentrate nowadays their effort on developing alternative dosage forms to deliver biopharmaceutical molecules by the oral route. Tablets are the most popular solid pharmaceutical dosage form used for oral administration since they present many advantages, but poor informations are available on the possibility of tableting freeze-dried powders. In this study, we evaluate the compaction behavior of freeze-dried trehalose powder since trehalose is one of the most used cryo and lyoprotectant for the lyophilisation of biopharmaceutical entities. Results show that freeze-dried trehalose powder can be tableted while remaining amorphous and the obtained compacts present very specific properties in terms of compressibility, tabletability, brittleness and viscoelasticity compared to the crystalline trehalose and compared to classical pharmaceutical excipients.

Power-Up for Mucoadhesiveness: Two Generations of Thiolated Surfactants for Enhanced Sticky Nanoemulsions

Nanoemulsions can be tuned toward enhanced gastro-intestinal retention time by incorporating thiolated surfactants into their surface. Tailoring the chemical reactivity of the thiol headgroup has major influence on mucoadhesive features of the nanoemulsion. Two generations of thiolated surfactants were synthetically derived from PEG-40-stearate featuring either a free thiol group or an S-protected thiol group. The surfactants were characterized regarding critical micelle concentration (CMC), hemolytic activity, and cytotoxicity. Subsequently, they were incorporated into nanoemulsions and the resulting nanoemulsions were characterized regarding particle size, polydispersity index (PDI), zeta potential, and time-dependent stability. Afterward, mucosal interactions as well as mucoadhesion on porcine intestinal mucosa were investigated. Successful synthesis of Cysteine-PEG-40-stearate (CYS-PEG-40-stearate) and MNA-Cysteine-PEG-40-stearate (MNA-CYS-PEG-40-stearate) was confirmed by 1H NMR spectroscopy. Both chemical modifications led to slightly elevated CMC values while preserving low cytotoxicity and hemotoxicity. Incorporation into nanoemulsions had minor influence on overall physical particle characteristics, while interactions with mucus and mucoadhesiveness of the nanoemulsions were drastically improved resulting in the rank order PEG-40-stearate < CYS-PEG-40-stearate < MNA-CYS-PEG-40-stearate. Accordingly, thiolated surfactants, especially S-protected derivatives, are versatile tools to generate highly mucoadhesive nanoemulsions.

Potential Application of Self-Assembled Peptides and Proteins in Breast Cancer and Cervical Cancer

Ongoing research is gradually broadening the idea of cancer treatment, with attention being focused on nanoparticles to improve the stability, therapeutic efficacy, targeting, and other important metrics of conventional drugs and traditional drug delivery methods. Studies have demonstrated that drug delivery carriers based on biomaterials (e.g., protein nanoparticles and lipids) and inorganic materials (e.g., metal nanoparticles) have potential anticancer effects. Among these carriers, self-assembled proteins and peptides, which are highly biocompatible and easy to standardize and produce, are strong candidates for the preparation of anticancer drugs. Breast cancer (BC) and cervical cancer (CC) are two of the most common and deadly cancers in women. These cancers not only threaten lives globally but also put a heavy burden on the healthcare system. Despite advances in medical care, the incidence of these two cancers, particularly CC, which is almost entirely preventable, continues to rise, and the mortality rate remains steady. Therefore, there is still a need for in-depth research on these two cancers to develop more targeted, efficacious, and safe therapies. This paper reviews the types of self-assembling proteins and peptides (e.g., ferritin, albumin, and virus-like particles) and natural products (e.g., soy and paclitaxel) commonly used in the treatment of BC and CC and describes the types of drugs that can be delivered using self-assembling proteins and peptides as carriers (e.g., siRNAs, DNA, plasmids, and mRNAs). The mechanisms (including self-assembly) by which the natural products act on CC and BC are discussed. The mechanism of action of natural products on CC and BC and the mechanism of action of self-assembled proteins and peptides have many similarities (e.g., NF-KB and Wnt). Thus, natural products using self-assembled proteins and peptides as carriers show potential for the treatment of BC and CC.

Oral nanomedicine biointeractions in the gastrointestinal tract in health and disease

Oral administration is the preferred route of administration based on the convenience for and compliance of the patient. Oral nanomedicines have been developed to overcome the limitations of free drugs and overcome gastrointestinal (GI) barriers, which are heterogeneous across healthy and diseased populations. This review aims to provide a comprehensive overview and comparison of the oral nanomedicine biointeractions in the gastrointestinal tract (GIT) in health and disease (GI and extra-GI diseases) and highlight emerging strategies that exploit these differences for oral nanomedicine-based treatment. We introduce the key GI barriers related to oral delivery and summarize their pathological changes in various diseases. We discuss nanomedicine biointeractions in the GIT in health by describing the general biointeractions based on the type of oral nanomedicine and advanced biointeractions facilitated by advanced strategies applied in this field. We then discuss nanomedicine biointeractions in different diseases and explore how pathological characteristics have been harnessed to advance the development of oral nanomedicine.

Ultrasound-activatable and skin-associated minimally invasive microdevices for smart drug delivery and diagnosis

Ultrasound-activatable and skin-associated minimally invasive microdevices (USMIMs) have garnered significant attention in the domains of smart drug delivery and biomedical diagnosis for on-demand healthcare, owing to their outstanding wearability, flexibility, and comfort. In this review, we present a comprehensive overview of the noteworthy advancements in USMIMs, with a specific focus on device design, potential applications, challenges, and future prospects. The classification of such microdevices primarily encompasses biointerfacing microsystems, including skin-perforable US-assisted microneedles (MNs), skin-attachable sonophoresis and their combination with microbubbles, as well as non-biointerfacing microsystems for drug delivery. Additionally, US-mediated and skin-attached microtransducers utilized in biomedical diagnosis are classified into imaging-related microtransducers, diagramming detection devices, and their combinative systems with applications on diverse signal detection. Besides, the review also highlights the challenges associated with USMIMs, focusing on aspects such as safety, environmental tolerance, wearability/comfortability, and personalization. Furthermore, it offers insights into future perspectives that address these challenges and discuss potential advancements in the field. It is firmly believed that the proposed USMIMs possess immense potential to significantly improve human lives in the near future.

Peptide-containing nanoformulations: Skin barrier penetration and activity contribution

Transdermal drug delivery presents a less invasive pathway, circumventing the need to pass through the gastrointestinal tract and liver, thereby reducing drug breakdown, initial metabolism, and gastrointestinal discomfort. Nevertheless, the unique composition and dense structure of the stratum corneum present a significant barrier to transdermal delivery. This article presents an overview of the current developments in peptides and nanotechnology to address this challenge. Initially, we sum up peptide-containing nanoformulations for transdermal drug delivery, examining them through the lenses of both inorganic and organic materials. Particular emphasis is placed on the diverse roles that peptides play within these nanoformulations, including conferring functionality upon nanocarriers and enhancing the biological efficacy of drugs. Subsequently, we summarize innovative strategies for enhancing skin penetration, categorizing them into passive and active approaches. Lastly, we discuss the therapeutic potential of peptide-containing nanoformulations in addressing a range of diseases, drawing insights from the biological activities and functions of peptides. Furthermore, the challenges hindering clinical translation are also discussed, providing valuable insights for future advancements in transdermal drug delivery.

Design and advanced characterization of quercetin-loaded nano-liposomes prepared by high-pressure homogenization

Quercetin-loaded nano-liposomes were prepared by high-pressure homogenization (HPH) at different pressures (up to 150 MPa) and number of passes (up to 3) to define the best processing conditions allowing the lowest particle size and the highest encapsulation efficiency (EE). The process at 150 MPa for 1 pass was the best, producing quercetin-loaded liposomes with the lowest particle size and 42% EE. Advanced techniques (multi-detector asymmetrical-flow field flow fractionation and analytical ultracentrifugation combined with transmission electron microscopy) were further used for the characterization of the liposomes which were oblong in shape (ca. 30 nm). Results highlight the need for several techniques to study nano-sized, polydisperse samples. The potential of quercetin-loaded liposomes against colon cancer cells was demonstrated. Results prove that HPH is an efficient and sustainable method for liposome preparation and highlight the remarkable role of process optimisation as well as the powerfulness of advanced methodologies for the characterisation of nano-structures.

Efficacy of ceftiofur N-acyl homoserine lactonase niosome in the treatment of multi-resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae in broilers

In this study, the efficiency of the ceftiofur N-acyl homoserine lactonase niosome against multi-resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae in broilers was evaluated. Fifty-six K. pneumoniae isolates previously recovered from different poultry and environmental samples were screened for the ahlK gene. The lactonase enzyme was extracted from eight quorum-quenching isolates. The niosome was formulated, characterized, and tested for minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) and cytotoxicity. Fourteen-day-old chicks were assigned to six groups: groups Ӏ and П served as negative and positive controls, receiving saline and K. pneumoniae solutions, respectively. In groups Ш and IV, ceftiofur and niosome were administrated intramuscularly at a dose of 10 mg/kg body weight for five consecutive days, while groups V and VI received the injections following the K. pneumoniae challenge. Signs, mortality, and gross lesions were recorded. Tracheal swabs were collected from groups П, V, and VI for counting K. pneumoniae. Pharmacokinetic parameters were evaluated in four treated groups at nine-time points. The niosome was spherical and 56.5 ± 4.41 nm in size. The viability of Vero cells was unaffected up to 5 × MIC (2.4 gml-1). The niosome-treated challenged group showed mild signs and lesions with lower mortality and colony count than the positive control group. The maximum ceftiofur serum concentrations in treated groups were observed 2 h following administration. The elimination half-life in niosome-treated groups was longer than that reported in ceftiofur-treated groups. This is the first report of the administration of N-acyl homoserine lactonase for the control of multi-resistant K. pneumoniae infections in poultry.

Folic acid-modified reverse micelle-lipid nanocapsules overcome intestinal barriers and improve the oral delivery of peptides

The oral absorption of exenatide, a type 2 diabetes medication, can be increased by employing lipid nanocapsules (LNC). To increase mucus permeability and exenatide intestinal absorption, reverse micelle lipid nanocapsules (RM-LNC) were prepared and their surface was modified with DSPE-PEG-FA. The RM-LNC with surface modification of DSPE-PEG-FA (FA-RM-LNC) were able to target enterocytes and reduce mucus aggregation in the intestine. Furthermore, in vitro absorption at different intestinal sites and flip-flop intestinal loop experiments revealed that LNCs with surface modification significantly increased their absorption efficiency in the small intestine. FA-RM-LNC delivers more drugs into Caco-2 cells via caveolin-, macrophagocytosis-, and lipid raft-mediated endocytosis. Additionally, the enhanced transport capacity of FA-RM-LNC was observed in a study of monolayer transport in Caco-2 cells. The oral administration of exenatide FA-RM-LNC resulted in a prolonged duration of hypoglycemia in diabetic mice and a relative bioavailability (BR) of up to 7.5% in rats. In conclusion, FA-RM-LNC can target enterocytes and has promising potential as a nanocarrier for the oral delivery of peptides.

Self-Emulsifying Drug Delivery Systems (SEDDS) Containing Reverse Micelles: Advanced Oral Formulations for Therapeutic Peptides

Alternative methods to hydrophobic ion pairing for the formation of lipophilic complexes of peptide drugs to incorporate them in lipid-based nanocarriers such as self-emulsifying drug delivery systems (SEDDS) for oral administration are highly on demand. Such an alternative might be reverse micelles. Within this study, SEDDS containing dry reverse micelles (dRMsPMB ) formed with an anionic (sodium docusate; AOT), cationic (dimethyl-dioctadecyl-ammonium bromide; DODAB), amphoteric (soy lecithin; SL), or non-ionic (polysorbate 85; P85) surfactant loaded with the model peptide drug polymyxin B (PMB) are developed. They are characterized regarding size, payload, release kinetics, cellular uptake, and peptide activity. SEDDS exhibit sizes from 22.2 ± 1.7 (AOT-SEDDS-dRMsPMB ) to 61.7 ± 3.2 nm (P85-SEDDS-dRMsPMB ) with payloads up to 2% that are approximately sevenfold higher than those obtained via hydrophobic ion pairing. Within 6 h P85-SEDDS-dRMsPMB and AOT-SEDDS-dRMsPMB show no release of PMB in aqueous medium, whereas DODAB-SEDDS-dRMsPMB and SL-SEDDS-dRMsPMB show a sustained release. DODAB-SEDDS-dRMsPMB improves uptake by Caco-2 cells most efficiently reaching even ≈100% within 4 h followed by AOT-SEDDS-dRMsPMB with ≈20% and P85-/SL-SEDDS-dRMsPMB with ≈5%. The peptide drug maintains its antimicrobial activity in all SEDDS-dRMsPMB . According to these results, SEDDS containing dRMs might be a game changing strategy for oral peptide drug delivery.

Metal-organic gels: recent advances in their classification, characterization, and application in the pharmaceutical field

Metal-organic gels (MOGs) are a type of functional soft substance with a three-dimensional (3D) network structure and solid-like rheological behavior, which are constructed by metal ions and bridging ligands formed under the driving force of coordination interactions or other non-covalent interactions. As the homologous substances of metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) and gels, they exhibit the potential advantages of high porosity, flexible structure, and adjustable mechanical properties, causing them to attract extensive research interest in the pharmaceutical field. For instance, MOGs are often used as excellent vehicles for intelligent drug delivery and programmable drug release to improve the clinical curative effect with reduced side effects. Also, MOGs are often applied as advanced biomedical materials for the repair and treatment of pathological tissue and sensitive detection of drugs or other molecules. However, despite the vigorous research on MOGs in recent years, there is no systematic summary of their applications in the pharmaceutical field to date. The present review systematically summarize the recent research progress on MOGs in the pharmaceutical field, including drug delivery systems, drug detection, pharmaceutical materials, and disease therapies. In addition, the formation principles and classification of MOGs are complemented and refined, and the techniques for the characterization of the structures/properties of MOGs are overviewed in this review.