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Tauro A, Macri J, Gaudette C, Mariani CL, Brenseke B. Obstructive Hydrocephalus and Cardiomyopathy Secondary to Disseminated Protothecosis in a Boxer Dog. Case Rep Vet Med 2024; 2024:1402828. [PMID: 39161575 PMCID: PMC11333125 DOI: 10.1155/2024/1402828] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2024] [Accepted: 07/18/2024] [Indexed: 08/21/2024] Open
Abstract
Canine protothecosis is a rare disease caused by saprophytic unicellular achlorophyllous aerobic algae that are ubiquitous in the environment. We report a novel case of neurological and cardiological manifestations associated with disseminated protothecosis. An adult spayed female Boxer dog was presented with a 1-week history of anorexia, progressive central vestibular signs, and a Grade III/VI systolic heart murmur. Magnetic resonance (MR) imaging revealed obstructive hydrocephalus at the level of the mesencephalic aqueduct, while echocardiography and elevated troponin levels suggested an infiltrative cardiomyopathy. No obvious cause was identified. Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) collection was not performed due to associated procedural risks. Despite receiving symptomatic treatment and maintaining stability for 3 weeks, the dog eventually suffered cardiorespiratory arrest. Postmortem examination revealed disseminated protothecosis, predominantly affecting the heart and brain. We recommend that in cases where the cause of obstructive hydrocephalus is unclear, especially when CSF collection is not feasible, a comprehensive diagnostic method should be implemented. This includes meticulous investigations to identify infected tissues, followed by sampling and performing cytology/histology and culture tests to confirm the presence of the algal organism. Early diagnosis may allow early treatment, although long-term prognosis remains largely unfavorable due to the absence of effective treatments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Tauro
- College of Veterinary MedicineNorth Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, USA
| | - John Macri
- College of Veterinary MedicineNorth Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, USA
| | - Chris Gaudette
- College of Veterinary MedicineNorth Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, USA
| | - Christopher L. Mariani
- College of Veterinary MedicineNorth Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, USA
| | - Bonnie Brenseke
- Pathology DepartmentCampbell University, Buies Creek, North Carolina, USA
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NOJO H, ISHIJIMA SA, MORIKAWA M, ITO T, KANO R. In vitro susceptibility testing of phytochemicals from essential oils against Prototheca species. J Vet Med Sci 2024; 86:847-849. [PMID: 38925982 PMCID: PMC11300124 DOI: 10.1292/jvms.24-0032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2024] [Accepted: 06/17/2024] [Indexed: 06/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Phytochemicals isolated from essential oils are effective alternatives for inhibiting microbial pathogens. Bovine protothecal mastitis is the cause of a reduction in milk production and the secretion of thin, watery milk with white flakes. In the present study, we performed in vitro susceptibility testing of the phytochemicals carvacrol, citral, and thymol in Prototheca strains isolated from cases of protothecosis in small animals and cow feces. The susceptibility of the algae to carvacrol, citral, and thymol was assessed using the modified CLSI M27-A3 broth microdilution method. The ranges of the minimum inhibitory concentrations (MIC%) of the phytochemicals in all isolates were 0.03% to 0.125% for carvacrol, 0.03% to 0.25% for citral, and 0.06% to 0.25% for thymol. Based on these results, carvacrol, citral, and thymol appear effective against Prototheca species at the tested concentrations, and may thus be useful for environmental disinfection in barns.
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Affiliation(s)
- Honoka NOJO
- Teikyo University Institute of Medical Mycology (TIMM),
Tokyo, Japan
| | - Sanae A ISHIJIMA
- Teikyo University Institute of Medical Mycology (TIMM),
Tokyo, Japan
| | - Mako MORIKAWA
- Veterinary Hospital Aichi P.F.A.M.A.A., Aichi, Japan
| | - Takaaki ITO
- Veterinary Hospital Aichi P.F.A.M.A.A., Aichi, Japan
| | - Rui KANO
- Teikyo University Institute of Medical Mycology (TIMM),
Tokyo, Japan
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3
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Jabłońska W, Gołębiewski M, Kot M, Mardan H, Pawliński B, Kalińska A. Perspectives and Possibilities for New Antimicrobial Agents in the Treatment and Control of Mastitis Induced by Algae of the Genus Prototheca spp.: A Review. Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:8219. [PMID: 39125795 PMCID: PMC11311760 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25158219] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2024] [Revised: 07/24/2024] [Accepted: 07/25/2024] [Indexed: 08/12/2024] Open
Abstract
Innovative approaches in nanotechnology provide a potentially promising alternative to untreatable cases of mastitis caused by genus Prototheca spp. algae infections. Drying of the teats of the affected animals or culling are typically the outcomes of mastitis in dairy cattle caused by these pathogens. A major issue in both veterinary medicine and animal breeding is the Prototheca species' widespread resistance to the current methods of managing infections and the available drugs, including antibiotics. Commercial antifungal preparations are also ineffective. Nanotechnology, an emerging discipline, has the potential to create an effective alternative treatment for protothecal mastitis. The aim of the paper is to combine the literature data on the use of nanotechnology in the control of mastitis, taking into account data on combating mastitis caused by Prototheca spp. infections. The databases employed were PubMed, Google Scholar, and Scopus, focusing on literature from the last 20 years to ensure relevance and currency. Studies conducted in vitro have demonstrated that nanomaterials have significant biocidal activity against mastitis infections of different etiologies. Analyzed research papers show that (NPs), such as AgNPs, CuNPs, AuNPs, etc., may not negatively impact various cell lines and may be effective agents in reducing the pathogens' viability. However, it is also critical to assess the risks involved in using nanomaterials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Weronika Jabłońska
- Department of Animal Breeding, Institute of Animal Sciences, Warsaw University of Life Sciences, 02-787 Warsaw, Poland
| | - Marcin Gołębiewski
- Department of Animal Breeding, Institute of Animal Sciences, Warsaw University of Life Sciences, 02-787 Warsaw, Poland
| | - Magdalena Kot
- Department of Animal Breeding, Institute of Animal Sciences, Warsaw University of Life Sciences, 02-787 Warsaw, Poland
| | - Henadzi Mardan
- Department of Animal Breeding, Institute of Animal Sciences, Warsaw University of Life Sciences, 02-787 Warsaw, Poland
| | - Bartosz Pawliński
- Department of Large Animal Diseases and Clinic, Institute of Veterinary Medicine, Warsaw University of Life Sciences, 02-787 Warsaw, Poland
| | - Aleksandra Kalińska
- Department of Animal Breeding, Institute of Animal Sciences, Warsaw University of Life Sciences, 02-787 Warsaw, Poland
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Tumas AV, Slatvinskaya VA, Kumeiko VV, Sokolnikova YN. Study of the Impact of the Parasitic Microalgae Coccomyxa parasitica on the Health of Bivalve Modiolus kurilensis. Microorganisms 2024; 12:997. [PMID: 38792826 PMCID: PMC11123908 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms12050997] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2024] [Revised: 05/05/2024] [Accepted: 05/14/2024] [Indexed: 05/26/2024] Open
Abstract
The invasion of bivalves by parasitic microalgae Coccomyxa is widespread and causes pathologies and dysfunctions of the organs, especially in the most valuable products: the mantle and the muscle. The pathogenesis of the disease remains completely unknown. In this study, based on a macroscopic examination of Modiolus kurilensis and microalgae count in each infected individual, four stages of disease development with characteristic pathognomonic symptoms were described. During the progression of the disease, the concentration of alkaline phosphatase, glucose, calcium, hemolytic and agglutinating activities, number of basophils, eosinophils, phagocytes, and cells with reactive oxygen species increased in the hemolymph, while number of agranulocytes, cells with lysosomes, dead hemocytes, total protein concentration, as well as the weight of mollusks decreased. In the nephridia and digestive gland, necrosis, invasion of Nematopsis sp., hemocyte infiltration, and fibrosis increased. The ratio of changed tubules and occurrence of granulocytomas increased in the digestive gland, while the base membrane, nephrocytes and concretions changed in the nephridia. This study helps establish the variability of these parameters under normal conditions and their alteration during the disease. Moreover, these findings can be used for veterinary monitoring of the state of bivalves in natural and aquaculture populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ayna V. Tumas
- A.V. Zhirmunsky National Scientific Center of Marine Biology, Far Eastern Branch of Russian Academy of Sciences, 690041 Vladivostok, Russia
| | - Veronika A. Slatvinskaya
- A.V. Zhirmunsky National Scientific Center of Marine Biology, Far Eastern Branch of Russian Academy of Sciences, 690041 Vladivostok, Russia
| | - Vadim V. Kumeiko
- A.V. Zhirmunsky National Scientific Center of Marine Biology, Far Eastern Branch of Russian Academy of Sciences, 690041 Vladivostok, Russia
- School of Medicine and Life Sciences, Far Eastern Federal University, 690922 Vladivostok, Russia
| | - Yulia N. Sokolnikova
- A.V. Zhirmunsky National Scientific Center of Marine Biology, Far Eastern Branch of Russian Academy of Sciences, 690041 Vladivostok, Russia
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Chen Y, Gao A, Ke Y, Zhou X, Lin L, Lu S, Liu Y. Successful Treatment of Cutaneous Protothecosis Due to Prototheca wickerhamii with Terbinafine. Clin Cosmet Investig Dermatol 2024; 17:913-919. [PMID: 38689756 PMCID: PMC11059624 DOI: 10.2147/ccid.s453620] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2023] [Accepted: 01/31/2024] [Indexed: 05/02/2024]
Abstract
Protothecosis, an infrequent human infection, is caused by achlorophyllic algae belonging to the genus Prototheca, particularly Prototheca wickerhamii. The skin stands as the most commonly affected organ. This report documents a case involving an 82-year-old male with Protothecosis. Histopathological analysis revealed granulomatous inflammation in the dermis, exhibiting necrotic features and hosting numerous non-budding spherical organisms. These organisms were positively stained using methenamine silver and periodic acid-Schiff stains, confirming identification as P. wickerhamii after validation through tissue culture and sequencing procedures. Initially, the patient received oral itraconazole at a dosage of 200 mg daily, accompanied by topical 1% naftifine-0.25% ketoconazole cream for a duration of 4 weeks, resulting in significant improvement. Subsequently, due to gastrointestinal discomfort presumably linked to itraconazole, terbinafine was administered. Over a span of 3 months, the patient received oral terbinafine at a dosage of 250 mg/day alongside the application of topical 1% naftifine-0.25% ketoconazole cream, leading to complete healing of the skin lesion, leaving behind a fibrotic scar.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yue Chen
- Department of Dermatology, Guangzhou Dermatology Hospital, Guangzhou, 510095, People’s Republic of China
| | - Aili Gao
- Department of Dermatology, Guangzhou Dermatology Hospital, Guangzhou, 510095, People’s Republic of China
| | - Yanan Ke
- Department of Dermatology, Guangzhou Dermatology Hospital, Guangzhou, 510095, People’s Republic of China
| | - Xin Zhou
- Department of Dermatology, Guangzhou Dermatology Hospital, Guangzhou, 510095, People’s Republic of China
| | - Li Lin
- Department of Dermatology, Sun Yat-sen Memorial Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, 510120, People’s Republic of China
| | - Sha Lu
- Department of Dermatology, Sun Yat-sen Memorial Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, 510120, People’s Republic of China
| | - Yumei Liu
- Department of Dermatology, Guangzhou Dermatology Hospital, Guangzhou, 510095, People’s Republic of China
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Chen J, Hu X, Li G, Wan P, Shao Z, Jin E, Liu X, Yang Q, Long A, Qian Y. Investigation of Prototheca bovis Infection and Its Correlation with Dairy Herd Improvement Data from a Dairy Farm in Central China. Vet Sci 2024; 11:37. [PMID: 38250943 PMCID: PMC10820511 DOI: 10.3390/vetsci11010037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2023] [Revised: 12/25/2023] [Accepted: 01/11/2024] [Indexed: 01/23/2024] Open
Abstract
Prototheca bovis (P. bovis), an alga that has attracted considerable attention over the years as a causative microorganism of mastitis in dairy cows, exhibits limited susceptibility to specific aminoglycosides and antifungal agents, and no effective clinical treatment is currently available, thereby posing challenges for both prevention and treatment. To investigate the infection of P. bovis mastitis and its impact on raw milk production, a total of 348 raw milk samples were collected from August to December 2022 from a dairy farm in central China. P. bovis and other bacteria were detected, and the average infection rate of P. bovis in raw milk was 60.34% (210/348). The total number of colonies and the somatic cell count (SCC) of P. bovis positive samples were significantly higher than those of P. bovis negative samples (p < 0.01). The daily milk yield, 305-day milk yield, peak milk yield, and days to peak milk yield of the P. bovis positive samples were significantly lower than those of P. bovis negative samples (p < 0.01). A correlation analysis showed that P. bovis infection was negatively correlated with daily milk yield, 305-day milk yield, peak milk yield, and days to peak milk yield (p < 0.0001), while being positively correlated with the total number of colonies, SCC, milk loss, and protein percentage (p < 0.0001). These findings may help practitioners in comprehending the occurrence of Prototheca mastitis and developing more effective strategies for the prevention of P. bovis infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jie Chen
- Institute of Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Science, Wuhan Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Wuhan 430208, China; (J.C.); (X.H.); (P.W.); (Z.S.); (E.J.); (X.L.); (Q.Y.); (A.L.)
| | - Xiuxiu Hu
- Institute of Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Science, Wuhan Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Wuhan 430208, China; (J.C.); (X.H.); (P.W.); (Z.S.); (E.J.); (X.L.); (Q.Y.); (A.L.)
- College of Animal Science, Yangtze University, Jingzhou 434025, China
| | - Guohong Li
- Wuhan Keqian Biology Co., Ltd., Wuhan 430206, China;
| | - Pingmin Wan
- Institute of Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Science, Wuhan Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Wuhan 430208, China; (J.C.); (X.H.); (P.W.); (Z.S.); (E.J.); (X.L.); (Q.Y.); (A.L.)
| | - Zhiyong Shao
- Institute of Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Science, Wuhan Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Wuhan 430208, China; (J.C.); (X.H.); (P.W.); (Z.S.); (E.J.); (X.L.); (Q.Y.); (A.L.)
| | - Erguang Jin
- Institute of Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Science, Wuhan Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Wuhan 430208, China; (J.C.); (X.H.); (P.W.); (Z.S.); (E.J.); (X.L.); (Q.Y.); (A.L.)
| | - Xiaohua Liu
- Institute of Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Science, Wuhan Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Wuhan 430208, China; (J.C.); (X.H.); (P.W.); (Z.S.); (E.J.); (X.L.); (Q.Y.); (A.L.)
| | - Qian Yang
- Institute of Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Science, Wuhan Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Wuhan 430208, China; (J.C.); (X.H.); (P.W.); (Z.S.); (E.J.); (X.L.); (Q.Y.); (A.L.)
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Anying Long
- Institute of Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Science, Wuhan Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Wuhan 430208, China; (J.C.); (X.H.); (P.W.); (Z.S.); (E.J.); (X.L.); (Q.Y.); (A.L.)
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Yunguo Qian
- Institute of Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Science, Wuhan Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Wuhan 430208, China; (J.C.); (X.H.); (P.W.); (Z.S.); (E.J.); (X.L.); (Q.Y.); (A.L.)
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7
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Rivelli Zea SM, Itoh M, Toyotome T. Development of Loop-Mediated Isothermal Amplification for the Detection of Prototheca bovis Directly from Milk Samples of Dairy Cattle. Mycopathologia 2024; 189:1. [PMID: 38217777 DOI: 10.1007/s11046-023-00806-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2023] [Accepted: 10/12/2023] [Indexed: 01/15/2024]
Abstract
Prototheca bovis is an algal emerging pathogen in dairy farms causing refractory protothecal mastitis with increasing incidence worldwide and significant economic impact. P. bovis infects cows throughout the lactation cycle, including dry periods, and can persist in the udder and the environment for a long time. Since P. bovis does not respond to treatments with antibiotics, the suggested sanitary measure to restrict the spread is culling infected animals. A point-of-care test for early detection of the causative agent is critically needed to guide farm management and the appropriate treatment of mastitis. Loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) is a highly specific molecular method, time-saving, cost-effective and easy to perform in limited settings. This study aimed to develop a LAMP assay for P. bovis detection directly from milk samples; it was employed in conjunction with a commercial DNA extraction kit which was previously used to extract DNA from milk specimens containing microbes. The LAMP assay detected P. bovis DNA within 1 h in milk samples spiked with P. bovis at a concentration of 50 cells/μL, enabling on-farm disease monitoring and decision-making based on a reliable diagnosis. The LAMP method will contribute to the accurate and rapid identification of P. bovis in asymptomatic or recurrent mastitis cases and consequently aid the implementation of targeted control measures and the reduction of losses in milk production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sofia M Rivelli Zea
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido, Japan
| | - Megumi Itoh
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido, Japan
| | - Takahito Toyotome
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido, Japan.
- Diagnostic Center for Animal Health and Food Safety, Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido, Japan.
- Medical Mycology Research Center, Chiba University, Chiba, Japan.
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Carbonero-Pacheco J, Rey MD, Moreno-García J, Moreno J, García-Martínez T, Mauricio JC. Microbial diversity in sherry wine biofilms and surrounding mites. Food Microbiol 2023; 116:104366. [PMID: 37689427 DOI: 10.1016/j.fm.2023.104366] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2023] [Revised: 08/15/2023] [Accepted: 08/17/2023] [Indexed: 09/11/2023]
Abstract
Sherry wines are film wines produced in the Jerez-Xérès-Sherry and Montilla-Moriles regions in southern Spain which require an aging process under flor biofilms, known as "biological aging". The presence of mites in Sherry wine wineries has been reported and associated with improved wine volatile properties. This work analyzes the microbial diversity in flor biofilms and mites in Sherry wine wineries using Matrix-Assisted Laser Desorption/Ionization Time of Flight (MALDI-TOF) and ITS/gene amplification. Two mite species, Carpoglyphus lactis and Tyrophagus putrescentiae, were spotted in the sampled winery and 32 microorganism species were identified in their exoskeleton or surrounding biofilms. To our knowledge, 26 of these species were never described before in sherry wine environments. We hypothesized that mites feed on the flor biofilms as well as another type of biofilm located in barrel cracks, known by winemakers as "natas" (cream in English). These non-studied biofilms showed the highest microbiome diversity among all samples (followed by C. lactis spotted nearby) thus, representing a niche of microorganisms with potential biotechnological interest. Besides mites, Drosophila flies were spotted in the sampling areas. The role of flies and mites as vectors that transport microorganisms among different niches (i.e., flor biofilms and natas) is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan Carbonero-Pacheco
- Department of Agricultural Chemistry, Edaphology and Microbiology, Agrifood Campus of International Excellence CeiA3, University of Cordoba, 14014, Cordoba, Spain
| | - María-Dolores Rey
- Agroforestry and Plant Biochemistry, Proteomics and Systems Biology, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Agrifood Campus of International Excellence CeiA3, University of Cordoba, 14014, Cordoba, Spain
| | - Jaime Moreno-García
- Department of Agricultural Chemistry, Edaphology and Microbiology, Agrifood Campus of International Excellence CeiA3, University of Cordoba, 14014, Cordoba, Spain.
| | - Juan Moreno
- Department of Agricultural Chemistry, Edaphology and Microbiology, Agrifood Campus of International Excellence CeiA3, University of Cordoba, 14014, Cordoba, Spain
| | - Teresa García-Martínez
- Department of Agricultural Chemistry, Edaphology and Microbiology, Agrifood Campus of International Excellence CeiA3, University of Cordoba, 14014, Cordoba, Spain
| | - Juan Carlos Mauricio
- Department of Agricultural Chemistry, Edaphology and Microbiology, Agrifood Campus of International Excellence CeiA3, University of Cordoba, 14014, Cordoba, Spain
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Price P, Klobukowska HJ, Castillo-Alcala F, Foxwell JA, Orbell G, Brown S, Irving AC. Protothecosis in four dogs in New Zealand. N Z Vet J 2023; 71:321-328. [PMID: 37584100 DOI: 10.1080/00480169.2023.2248066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2023] [Accepted: 08/06/2023] [Indexed: 08/17/2023]
Abstract
CASE HISTORIES Medical records of four dogs diagnosed with protothecosis in New Zealand were reviewed. The dogs were aged between 4 and 9 years and three of the four dogs were female. Breeds were one Labrador, one Miniature Schnauzer and two crossbreeds. The reasons for initial veterinary evaluation were a cough and opaque appearance of the right eye (Case 1), diarrhoea (Cases 2 and 3), and cutaneous disease (Case 4). CLINICAL FINDINGS The ocular signs were characterised by panuveitis, retinal detachment and secondary glaucoma. Gastrointestinal signs included chronic haemorrhagic diarrhoea due to colitis. Three cases had disseminated infection and developed both bilateral, blinding, ocular disease and chronic gastrointestinal disease. Cutaneous signs consisted of draining fistulae over the olecranon, multifocal cutaneous nodules, and ulceration and tracts of the foot pads. Disseminated protothecosis was confirmed by histopathology of biopsied ocular tissues in Cases 1 and 2 and by gastrointestinal biopsies in Case 3. Prototheca spp. were also identified in cytological specimens from Cases 1 and 4 and recovered by culture in Cases 2 and 4. Cutaneous protothecosis was diagnosed in Case 4 initially by cytology and histopathology of skin lesions, and Prototheca zopfii was confirmed by PCR of cultured organisms. TREATMENT AND OUTCOME Prior to diagnosis of protothecosis, a variety of treatments were prescribed to treat the gastrointestinal and ocular signs. After diagnosis, only Cases 2 and 4 received medication aimed at treating the protothecal infection, which was itraconazole in both cases. Following the progression of clinical signs and concerns about quality of life, all four dogs were euthanised. DIAGNOSIS Disseminated protothecosis in three dogs, cutaneous protothecosis in one dog. CLINICAL RELEVANCE Canine protothecosis is rarely reported, despite the ubiquity of the causal algae, and the disease usually carries an extremely grave prognosis when infection is generalised. In New Zealand, protothecosis should be considered as a differential diagnosis in dogs with panuveitis, chorioretinitis or retinal detachment, colitis, or nodular, ulcerative or fistulating cutaneous lesions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Psa Price
- Eyevet Services Ltd., Feilding, New Zealand
| | - H J Klobukowska
- New Zealand Veterinary Pathology, Palmerston North, New Zealand
| | - F Castillo-Alcala
- Tāwharau Ora - School of Veterinary Science, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
| | - J A Foxwell
- Animal Health Laboratory, Ministry for Primary Industries, Upper Hutt, New Zealand
| | - Gmb Orbell
- New Zealand Veterinary Pathology, Palmerston North, New Zealand
| | - S Brown
- Tāwharau Ora - School of Veterinary Science, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
| | - A C Irving
- Eyevet Services Ltd., Feilding, New Zealand
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Arabe Filho MF, Jagielski T, Proskurnicka A, dos Santos MV, Fidelis CE, Guimarães FF, Guerra ST, Joaquim SF, Mioni MDSR, Pantoja JCDF, Langoni H, Sanchez LFG, Ribeiro MG. In Vitro Activity of Quaternary Ammonium in Prototheca Isolated from Clinical Bovine Mastitis Identified by Mass Spectrometry and PCR Sequencing of the cytb Gene Marker. Animals (Basel) 2023; 13:3286. [PMID: 37894008 PMCID: PMC10603881 DOI: 10.3390/ani13203286] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2023] [Revised: 07/25/2023] [Accepted: 08/01/2023] [Indexed: 10/29/2023] Open
Abstract
The in vitro algaecide activity of quaternary ammonium (QA) against Prototheca isolated from bovine clinical mastitis was investigated, in which the clinical severity was scored, milk samples were subjected to microbiological culture, and algal species were identified by molecular typing. A total of 4275 milk clinical samples of different cows from ten large dairy farms were used. Forty-four (1%) samples of cows from three dairy farms yielded growth of Prototheca, of which 88.6% (39/44) were identified as Prototheca bovis and 11.3% (5/44) as Prototheca sp. by MALDI-TOF MS, whereas 100% of the isolates were identified as P. bovis using PCR sequencing of the cytb gene. Among cows for which clinical severity scoring was available, 78.8% (26/33) and 21.2% (7/33) had mild and moderate infections, respectively, whereas no animal showed severe clinical signs. The algaecide activity of QA in Prototheca was observed in low concentrations among all isolates, in 20.4% (9/44) at 35 ppm, 36.4% (16/44) at 17 ppm, and 43.2% (19/44) at an 8 ppm, in addition to activity on three reference Prototheca strains. Overall, the study highlights the predominance of P. bovis as the causative agent of algal mastitis in bovines. Prototheca induced abnormalities preponderantly in the milk and mammary gland tissue of cows, and to our knowledge, our study is the first to apply clinical severity scoring in protothecal mastitis. In addition, the study underlines the activity of QA in low concentrations against Prototheca, indicating its potential use as an antiseptic/disinfectant in milking facilities and dairy environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcelo Fagali Arabe Filho
- Department of Animal Production and Preventive Veterinary Medicine, School of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science, Sao Paulo State University—UNESP, Botucatu 19806-900, SP, Brazil; (M.F.A.F.); (F.F.G.); (S.T.G.); (S.F.J.); (J.C.d.F.P.); (H.L.); (L.F.G.S.)
| | - Tomasz Jagielski
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Institute of Microbiology, Faculty of Biology, University of Warsaw, 00-927 Warsaw, Poland; (T.J.); (A.P.)
| | - Angelika Proskurnicka
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Institute of Microbiology, Faculty of Biology, University of Warsaw, 00-927 Warsaw, Poland; (T.J.); (A.P.)
| | - Marcos Veiga dos Santos
- Department of Animal Nutrition and Production, School of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science, University of Sao Paulo—USP, Pirassununga 05508-220, SP, Brazil; (M.V.d.S.); (C.E.F.)
| | - Carlos Eduardo Fidelis
- Department of Animal Nutrition and Production, School of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science, University of Sao Paulo—USP, Pirassununga 05508-220, SP, Brazil; (M.V.d.S.); (C.E.F.)
| | - Felipe Freitas Guimarães
- Department of Animal Production and Preventive Veterinary Medicine, School of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science, Sao Paulo State University—UNESP, Botucatu 19806-900, SP, Brazil; (M.F.A.F.); (F.F.G.); (S.T.G.); (S.F.J.); (J.C.d.F.P.); (H.L.); (L.F.G.S.)
| | - Simony Trevizan Guerra
- Department of Animal Production and Preventive Veterinary Medicine, School of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science, Sao Paulo State University—UNESP, Botucatu 19806-900, SP, Brazil; (M.F.A.F.); (F.F.G.); (S.T.G.); (S.F.J.); (J.C.d.F.P.); (H.L.); (L.F.G.S.)
| | - Sâmea Fernandes Joaquim
- Department of Animal Production and Preventive Veterinary Medicine, School of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science, Sao Paulo State University—UNESP, Botucatu 19806-900, SP, Brazil; (M.F.A.F.); (F.F.G.); (S.T.G.); (S.F.J.); (J.C.d.F.P.); (H.L.); (L.F.G.S.)
| | - Mateus de Souza Ribeiro Mioni
- Department of Pathology, Reproduction and One Health, Sao Paulo State University—UNESP, Jaboticabal 14884-900, SP, Brazil;
| | - José Carlos de Figueiredo Pantoja
- Department of Animal Production and Preventive Veterinary Medicine, School of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science, Sao Paulo State University—UNESP, Botucatu 19806-900, SP, Brazil; (M.F.A.F.); (F.F.G.); (S.T.G.); (S.F.J.); (J.C.d.F.P.); (H.L.); (L.F.G.S.)
| | - Helio Langoni
- Department of Animal Production and Preventive Veterinary Medicine, School of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science, Sao Paulo State University—UNESP, Botucatu 19806-900, SP, Brazil; (M.F.A.F.); (F.F.G.); (S.T.G.); (S.F.J.); (J.C.d.F.P.); (H.L.); (L.F.G.S.)
| | - Luísa Fernanda García Sanchez
- Department of Animal Production and Preventive Veterinary Medicine, School of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science, Sao Paulo State University—UNESP, Botucatu 19806-900, SP, Brazil; (M.F.A.F.); (F.F.G.); (S.T.G.); (S.F.J.); (J.C.d.F.P.); (H.L.); (L.F.G.S.)
| | - Marcio Garcia Ribeiro
- Department of Animal Production and Preventive Veterinary Medicine, School of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science, Sao Paulo State University—UNESP, Botucatu 19806-900, SP, Brazil; (M.F.A.F.); (F.F.G.); (S.T.G.); (S.F.J.); (J.C.d.F.P.); (H.L.); (L.F.G.S.)
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11
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Haider MJA, Shave CD, Onyishi CU, Jagielski T, Lara-Reyna S, Frickel EM, May RC. Species- and strain-specific differences in the phagocytosis of Prototheca: insights from live-cell imaging. Infect Immun 2023; 91:e0006623. [PMID: 37594276 PMCID: PMC10501220 DOI: 10.1128/iai.00066-23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2023] [Accepted: 07/07/2023] [Indexed: 08/19/2023] Open
Abstract
The genus Prototheca is an extremely unusual group of achlorophyllic, obligately heterotrophic algae. Six species have been identified as pathogens of vertebrates, including cattle and humans. In cattle, P. bovis is the main infectious pathogen and is associated with bovine mastitis. In contrast, human infections typically involve P. wickerhamii and are associated with a spectrum of varying clinical presentations. Prototheca spp. enter the host from the environment and are therefore likely to be initially recognized by cells of the innate immune system. However, little is known about the nature of the interaction between Prototheca spp. and host phagocytes. In the present study, we adopt a live-cell imaging approach to investigate these interactions over time. Using environmental and clinical strains, we show that P. bovis cells are readily internalized and processed by macrophages, whereas these immune cells struggle to internalize P. wickerhamii. Serum opsonization of P. wickerhamii only marginally improves phagocytosis, suggesting that this species (but not P. bovis) may have evolved mechanisms to evade phagocytosis. Furthermore, we show that inhibition of the kinases Syk or PI3K, which are both critical for innate immune signaling, drastically reduces the uptake of P. bovis. Finally, we show that genetic ablation of MyD88, a signaling adaptor critical for Toll-like receptor signaling, has little impact on uptake but significantly prolongs phagosome maturation once P. bovis is internalized. Together, our data suggest that these two pathogenic Prototheca spp. have very different host-pathogen interactions which have potential therapeutic implications for the treatment of human and animal disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohammed J. A. Haider
- Institute of Microbiology and Infection, School of Biosciences, College of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, United Kingdom
| | - Christopher D. Shave
- Institute of Microbiology and Infection, School of Biosciences, College of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, United Kingdom
| | - Chinaemerem U. Onyishi
- Institute of Microbiology and Infection, School of Biosciences, College of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, United Kingdom
| | - Tomasz Jagielski
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Institute of Microbiology, Faculty of Biology, University of Warsaw, I. Miecznikowa, Warszawa, Poland
| | - Samuel Lara-Reyna
- Institute of Microbiology and Infection, School of Biosciences, College of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, United Kingdom
| | - Eva-Maria Frickel
- Institute of Microbiology and Infection, School of Biosciences, College of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, United Kingdom
| | - Robin C. May
- Institute of Microbiology and Infection, School of Biosciences, College of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, United Kingdom
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12
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Proskurnicka A, Żupnik K, Bakuła Z, Iskra M, Rösler U, Jagielski T. Drug Susceptibility Profiling of Prototheca Species Isolated from Cases of Human Protothecosis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2023; 67:e0162722. [PMID: 36943065 PMCID: PMC10112244 DOI: 10.1128/aac.01627-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Prototheca are unicellular, achlorophyllous, yeast-like microalgae that occur in a wide range of natural habitats. At least five species have been implicated as the causative agents of opportunistic infections of men. Human protothecosis typically manifests as cutaneous, articular, or systemic disease. Treatment is largely empirical with poorly predictable and often unsuccessful outcomes. This is largely due to the frequently observed resistance of Prototheca species to conventional antimicrobial agents. This work is the first to perform drug susceptibility profiling exclusively on isolates from human cases of protothecosis. A total of 23 such isolates were tested against amphotericin B and 9 azoles, including efinaconazole and luliconazole, whose activities against Prototheca have never been studied before. Efinaconazole was the most active, with median minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum algicidal concentration (MAC) values of 0.031 mg/L and 0.063 mg/L, respectively. Fluconazole and luliconazole had the lowest activity, with median MIC and MAC values of 128 mg/L. To conclude, amphotericin B and most of the azoles showed in vitro activity, with an algicidal rather than algistatic effect, against Prototheca. Still, the activity of individual drugs differed significantly between the species and even between strains of the same species. These differences can be attributed to a species-specific potential for acquiring drug resistance, which, in turn, might be linked to the treatment history of the patient from whom the strain was recovered. The results of this study underscore the potential clinical utility of efinaconazole as a promising therapeutic agent for the treatment of human protothecosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Angelika Proskurnicka
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Institute of Microbiology, Faculty of Biology, University of Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Kinga Żupnik
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Institute of Microbiology, Faculty of Biology, University of Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Zofia Bakuła
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Institute of Microbiology, Faculty of Biology, University of Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Mateusz Iskra
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Institute of Microbiology, Faculty of Biology, University of Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Uwe Rösler
- Institute for Animal Hygiene and Environmental Health, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Tomasz Jagielski
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Institute of Microbiology, Faculty of Biology, University of Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland
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13
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Gmyterco VC, Jagielski T, Baldasso G, Bacher LH, Ribeiro MG, de Farias MR. Cutaneous protothecosis in a dog successfully treated with oral itraconazole in pulse dosing. Acta Vet Scand 2023; 65:7. [PMID: 36810141 PMCID: PMC9945405 DOI: 10.1186/s13028-022-00662-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2022] [Accepted: 12/12/2022] [Indexed: 02/24/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Protothecosis is a rare infectious disease caused by unicellular, achlorophyllous, microalgae of the genus Prototheca, ubiquitously distributed in nature. The algae are emerging pathogens, whose incidence is increasing in both human and animal populations and serious systemic infections related to this pathogen have been increasingly described in humans in recent years. After mastitis in dairy cows, canine protothecosis is the second most prevalent form of the protothecal disease in animals. Here, we report the first case of chronic cutaneous protothecosis due to P. wickerhamii in a dog in Brazil, successfully treated with a long-term therapy with itraconazole in pulse. CASE PRESENTATION Upon clinical examination, exudative nasolabial plaque, ulcered, and painful lesions in central and digital pads and lymphadenitis were observed in a 2-year-old mixed-breed dog, with a 4-month history of cutaneous lesions and contact with sewage water. Histopathological examination revealed intense inflammatory reaction, with numerous spherical to oval, encapsulated structures stained with Periodic Acid Schiff, compatible with Prototheca morphology. Tissue culture on Sabouraud agar revealed yeast-like, greyish-white colonies after 48 h of incubation. The isolate was subjected to mass spectrometry profiling and PCR-sequencing of the mitochondrial cytochrome b (CYTB) gene marker, leading to identification of the pathogen as P. wickerhamii. The dog was initially treated with oral itraconazole at a dosage of 10 mg/kg once daily. After six months, the lesions resolved completely, yet recurred shortly after cessation of therapy. The dog was then treated with terbinafine at a dose of 30 mg/kg, once daily for 3 months, with no success. The resolution of clinical signs, with no recurrence over a 36-months follow-up period, was achieved after 3 months of treatment with itraconazole (20 mg/kg) in pulse intermittently on two consecutive days a week. CONCLUSIONS This report highlights the refractoriness of skin infections by Prototheca wickerhamii with therapies proposed in the literature and suggests a new treatment option with oral itraconazole in pulse dosing for long-term disease control successfully performed in a dog with skin lesions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vanessa Cunningham Gmyterco
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, School of Life and Sciences, Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Paraná, 1155 Imaculada Conceição Street, Curitiba, PR, 80215-901, Brazil.
| | - Tomasz Jagielski
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Institute of Microbiology, Faculty of Biology, University of Warsaw, I. Miecznikowa 1, 00-927, Warsaw, Poland.
| | - Gustavo Baldasso
- grid.412522.20000 0000 8601 0541Department of Veterinary Medicine, School of Life and Sciences, Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Paraná, 1155 Imaculada Conceição Street, Curitiba, PR 80215-901 Brazil
| | - Louise Helene Bacher
- grid.412522.20000 0000 8601 0541Department of Veterinary Medicine, School of Life and Sciences, Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Paraná, 1155 Imaculada Conceição Street, Curitiba, PR 80215-901 Brazil
| | - Márcio Garcia Ribeiro
- grid.410543.70000 0001 2188 478XDepartment of Animal Production and Preventive Veterinary Medicine, School of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Sciences, Sao Paulo State University-UNESP, Botucatu, SP 18618-681 Brazil
| | - Marconi Rodrigues de Farias
- grid.412522.20000 0000 8601 0541Department of Veterinary Medicine, School of Life and Sciences, Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Paraná, 1155 Imaculada Conceição Street, Curitiba, PR 80215-901 Brazil
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14
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Ely VL, Felipetto Cargnelutti J, Segabinazzi Ries A, Gressler LT, Costa S, Braz PH, Pötter L, Matiuzzi da Costa M, Gomes da Silva Júnior F, Pequeno de Oliveira H, Sangioni LA, Brayer Pereira DI, de Avila Botton S. Prototheca bovis in goats: Experimental mastitis and treatment with polypyrrole. Microb Pathog 2023; 174:105950. [PMID: 36528325 DOI: 10.1016/j.micpath.2022.105950] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2022] [Revised: 12/13/2022] [Accepted: 12/14/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Prototheca bovis has been associated with several cases of mastitis in cattle but no record of intramammary infections has been reported in goats. This infection does not respond to available treatments and the disposal recommendation of affected animals cause great damage to the dairy industry. Alternatives for dealing with infections caused by Prototheca spp. are required worldwide. In vitro results suggest polypyrrole as promising molecule for combating this alga, because an algaecide effect was observed on tested Prototheca spp. isolates. Thus, this study evaluated goats as an experimental model for intramammary infection by P. bovis and a protocol for treating these animals with an intramammary polypyrrole solution. The possibility of P. bovis promoting an intramammary infection in goats was experimentally proven, demonstrating this species as an important model for studies involving algae mastitis. Furthermore, polypyrrole reduced the counts of Prototheca sp. in the analyzed samples, showing potential to fight this microorganism also in vivo. The results obtained in this study demonstrate the ability of P. bovis to colonize breast tissue in lactating goats and the highly soluble molecule of polypyrrole has potential use for the treatment of protothecosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Valessa Lunkes Ely
- Programa de Pós-graduação em Medicina Veterinária, Departamento de Medicina Veterinária Preventiva, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria, Av. Roraima, 1000, Prédio 44 (CCRII), Sala 5132, Bairro Camobi, Santa Maria, RS, 97105-900, Brazil
| | - Juliana Felipetto Cargnelutti
- Programa de Pós-graduação em Medicina Veterinária, Departamento de Medicina Veterinária Preventiva, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria, Av. Roraima, 1000, Prédio 44 (CCRII), Sala 5132, Bairro Camobi, Santa Maria, RS, 97105-900, Brazil
| | - Ananda Segabinazzi Ries
- Programa de Pós-graduação em Medicina Veterinária, Departamento de Medicina Veterinária Preventiva, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria, Av. Roraima, 1000, Prédio 44 (CCRII), Sala 5132, Bairro Camobi, Santa Maria, RS, 97105-900, Brazil
| | - Letícia Trevisan Gressler
- Instituto Federal Farroupilha, Campus Frederico Westphalen, Linha 7 de Setembro, BR 386 - KM 40 s/n, Frederico Westphalen, RS, 98400-000, Brazil
| | - Samay Costa
- Instituto Federal Farroupilha, Campus Frederico Westphalen, Linha 7 de Setembro, BR 386 - KM 40 s/n, Frederico Westphalen, RS, 98400-000, Brazil
| | - Paulo Henrique Braz
- Instituto Federal Farroupilha, Campus Frederico Westphalen, Linha 7 de Setembro, BR 386 - KM 40 s/n, Frederico Westphalen, RS, 98400-000, Brazil
| | - Luciana Pötter
- Programa de Pós-graduação em Zootecnia, Departamento de Zootecnia, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria, Av. Roraima, 1000, Prédio 44 (CCRII), Sala 5132, Bairro Camobi, Santa Maria, RS, 97105-900, Brazil
| | - Mateus Matiuzzi da Costa
- Universidade Federal do Vale do São Francisco, Rodovia BR 407 - Km 12, Lote 543, Projeto Irrigação Senador Nilo Coelho s/nº, Petrolina, CEP 56300-990, Brazil
| | - Fernando Gomes da Silva Júnior
- Universidade Federal do Vale do São Francisco, Rodovia BR 407 - Km 12, Lote 543, Projeto Irrigação Senador Nilo Coelho s/nº, Petrolina, CEP 56300-990, Brazil
| | - Helinando Pequeno de Oliveira
- Universidade Federal do Vale do São Francisco, Rodovia BR 407 - Km 12, Lote 543, Projeto Irrigação Senador Nilo Coelho s/nº, Petrolina, CEP 56300-990, Brazil
| | - Luis Antonio Sangioni
- Programa de Pós-graduação em Medicina Veterinária, Departamento de Medicina Veterinária Preventiva, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria, Av. Roraima, 1000, Prédio 44 (CCRII), Sala 5132, Bairro Camobi, Santa Maria, RS, 97105-900, Brazil
| | - Daniela Isabel Brayer Pereira
- Universidade Federal de Pelotas (UFPel), Instituto de Biologia, Campus Capão do Leão s/n, Capão do Leão, RS, 96160-000, Brazil
| | - Sônia de Avila Botton
- Programa de Pós-graduação em Medicina Veterinária, Departamento de Medicina Veterinária Preventiva, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria, Av. Roraima, 1000, Prédio 44 (CCRII), Sala 5132, Bairro Camobi, Santa Maria, RS, 97105-900, Brazil.
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15
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Tashakkori N, Rahmani HK, Khoramian B. Genotypic and phenotypic diversity of Prototheca spp. recovered from bovine mastitis in terms of antimicrobial resistance and biofilm formation ability. BMC Vet Res 2022; 18:452. [PMID: 36572871 PMCID: PMC9791747 DOI: 10.1186/s12917-022-03546-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2022] [Accepted: 12/07/2022] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The Prototheca algae have recently emerged as an important cause of bovine mastitis globally. Isolates from bovine mastitis in several countries were nearly all identified as P. bovis, suggesting that it was the main causative agent of bovine protothecal mastitis. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the presence and isolation of Prototheca spp. in dairy farms, detect the genetic diversity among strains, determine the capacity of producing biofilm and their resistance to antifungal and antimicrobial drugs. RESULTS A total of 48 Prototheca isolates from four different farms were randomly selected to be investigated. Multiplex PCR showed all isolated colonies were Prototheca bovis. Performing RAPD-PCR by using OPA-4 primer, it was revealed that there was a clear amplification pattern. Different levels of biofilm production were observed among strains. Among 48 isolates, only 4 of them (8.33%) showed strong biofilm production. By using E-test strips, amphotericin B was able to inhibit the growth of all the strains tested. Disc diffusion method used for antimicrobial sensitivity test showed that the highest activity was demonstrated by gentamicin and colistin with 95.83% (46/48) and 89.58% (43/48) of sensitive strains, respectively. CONCLUSIONS The present study showed that RAPD-PCR was a rapid tool for discriminating P. bovis strains. Also, gentamicin and colistin can be considered as potential antimicrobial drugs which can prevent the growth of the mentioned strains in vitro, although there is no effective clinical treatment yet. Further studies are needed in order to detect an effective clinical therapy considering biofilm production by Prototheca spp. and their probable role in Prototheca pathogenicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Niloufar Tashakkori
- grid.411301.60000 0001 0666 1211Department of Clinical Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Azadi Sq., P.O. Box: 9177948974, Mashhad, Khorasan Razavi Iran
| | - Hamideh Kalateh Rahmani
- grid.411301.60000 0001 0666 1211Department of Pathobiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Mashhad, Iran
| | - Babak Khoramian
- grid.411301.60000 0001 0666 1211Department of Clinical Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Azadi Sq., P.O. Box: 9177948974, Mashhad, Khorasan Razavi Iran
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16
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Huilca-Ibarra MP, Vasco-Julio D, Ledesma Y, Guerrero-Freire S, Zurita J, Castillejo P, Barceló Blasco F, Yanez L, Changoluisa D, Echeverría G, Bastidas-Caldes C, de Waard JH. High Prevalence of Prototheca bovis Infection in Dairy Cattle with Chronic Mastitis in Ecuador. Vet Sci 2022; 9:vetsci9120659. [PMID: 36548820 PMCID: PMC9784310 DOI: 10.3390/vetsci9120659] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2022] [Revised: 11/11/2022] [Accepted: 11/16/2022] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
The genus Prototheca, a unicellular, non-photosynthetic, yeast-like microalgae, is a pathogen of concern for the dairy industry. It causes bovine mastitis that currently cannot be cured, and hence generates significant economic losses in milk production. In this study, for the first time in Ecuador, we identify Prototheca bovis as the etiologic agent of chronic mastitis in dairy cattle. Milk samples (n = 458) of cows with chronic mastitis were cultured on Sabouraud Dextrose Agar (SDA). Microscopy and cytB gene sequencing were used to identify Prototheca, whereby Prototheca bovis was isolated from 15.1% (n = 69) of the milk samples, one of the highest infection rates that can be found in the literature in a "non-outbreak" situation. No other Prototheca species were found. We were unable to isolate the alga from environmental samples. We showed that P. bovis was relatively resistant to disinfectants used to sterilize milking equipment on the cattle farms where it was isolated. We discuss how to avoid future infection and also hypothesize that the real prevalence of Prototheca infection in bovine mastitis is probably much higher than what was detected. We recommend a protocol to increase the diagnostic yield in the bacteriology laboratory.
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Affiliation(s)
- María P. Huilca-Ibarra
- Facultad de Ingenierías y Ciencias Aplicadas, Ingeniería en Biotecnología, Universidad de Las Américas, Quito 170124, Ecuador
| | - David Vasco-Julio
- Facultad de Ingenierías y Ciencias Aplicadas, Ingeniería en Biotecnología, Universidad de Las Américas, Quito 170124, Ecuador
| | - Yanua Ledesma
- Facultad de Ingenierías y Ciencias Aplicadas, Ingeniería en Biotecnología, Universidad de Las Américas, Quito 170124, Ecuador
| | - Salome Guerrero-Freire
- Facultad de Ingenierías y Ciencias Aplicadas, Ingeniería en Biotecnología, Universidad de Las Américas, Quito 170124, Ecuador
| | - Jeannete Zurita
- Unidad de Investigación en Biomedicina, Zurita & Zurita Laboratorios, Quito 170104, Ecuador
| | - Pablo Castillejo
- Grupo de Investigación en Biodiversidad, Medio Ambiente y Salud (BIOMAS), Universidad de las Américas, Quito 170124, Ecuador
| | - Francisco Barceló Blasco
- Instituto de Investigación en Salud Pública y Zoonosis-CIZ, Universidad Central del Ecuador, Quito 170521, Ecuador
| | - Lisseth Yanez
- Instituto de Investigación en Salud Pública y Zoonosis-CIZ, Universidad Central del Ecuador, Quito 170521, Ecuador
| | - Darwin Changoluisa
- Instituto de Investigación en Salud Pública y Zoonosis-CIZ, Universidad Central del Ecuador, Quito 170521, Ecuador
| | - Gustavo Echeverría
- Instituto de Investigación en Salud Pública y Zoonosis-CIZ, Universidad Central del Ecuador, Quito 170521, Ecuador
| | - Carlos Bastidas-Caldes
- Facultad de Ingenierías y Ciencias Aplicadas, Ingeniería en Biotecnología, Universidad de Las Américas, Quito 170124, Ecuador
- Programa de Doctorado en Salud Pública y Animal, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Extremadura, 10003 Cáceres, Spain
- One Health Research Group, Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad de Las Américas, Quito 170124, Ecuador
| | - Jacobus H. de Waard
- One Health Research Group, Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad de Las Américas, Quito 170124, Ecuador
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +593-4168052488
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17
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Occurrence of
Prototheca
Microalgae in Aquatic Ecosystems with a Description of Three New Species, Prototheca fontanea, Prototheca lentecrescens, and Prototheca vistulensis. Appl Environ Microbiol 2022; 88:e0109222. [DOI: 10.1128/aem.01092-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The study investigates the occurrence of very rare and poorly studied microalgae of the genus
Prototheca
, potentially pathogenic to humans and animals, in different water environments. Given the potential hazard to human and animal health from exposure to water-inhabiting protothecae, the prevalence of the algae in aquatic habitats deserves an insightful examination.
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18
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Toyotome T, Matsui S. Analysis of Prototheca and yeast species isolated from bulk tank milk collected in Tokachi District, Japan. J Dairy Sci 2022; 105:8364-8370. [PMID: 35965121 DOI: 10.3168/jds.2022-21781] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2022] [Accepted: 05/17/2022] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Bovine mastitis, a major infectious disease affecting milking cows, leads to reduced milk yield and quality, reduced animal welfare, and an increased need for culling. Although its major causative agents are bacteria, yeast species and achlorophyllous algae of the Prototheca genus are well known as causative agents of bovine refractory mastitis. Nevertheless, few studies have analyzed specific yeasts and Prototheca in this context. Herein, we present survey data of yeast species and Prototheca species isolated from bulk tank milk in the Tokachi district of Japan from April 2020 through March 2021. The species of 276 isolates were determined. Yeast species accounted for 184 isolates, of which Pichia kudriavzevii was the most prevalent species. Regarding Prototheca species, only Prototheca bovis was isolated (92 isolates). Prototheca bovis and Pichia kudriavzevii were detected throughout the year and were detected repeatedly on the same farm. Kluyveromyces marxianus was the second most frequently isolated yeast species after Pichia kudriavzevii. Candida parapsilosis, the fourth most frequently isolated yeast species, was found discontinuously. Analysis of monthly data indicated that Kluyveromyces marxianus and Candida parapsilosis were mainly found during the winter and summer months, respectively. Candida akabanensis and Pichia cactophila were the third and fifth most frequently isolated yeast species, respectively. They were detected repeatedly in bulk tank milk samples from the same farms. Results obtained from bulk tank milk underscore the prevalence of these species. These study results are expected to contribute to the elucidation of problematic yeast and Prototheca species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takahito Toyotome
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido 080-8555, Japan; Diagnostic Center for Animal Health and Food Safety, Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido 080-8555, Japan; Medical Mycology Research Center, Chiba University, Chiba 260-8673, Japan.
| | - Shihori Matsui
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido 080-8555, Japan
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Libisch B, Picot C, Ceballos-Garzon A, Moravkova M, Klimesová M, Telkes G, Chuang ST, Le Pape P. Prototheca Infections and Ecology from a One Health Perspective. Microorganisms 2022; 10:microorganisms10050938. [PMID: 35630382 PMCID: PMC9144699 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms10050938] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2022] [Revised: 04/26/2022] [Accepted: 04/28/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Prototheca microalgae were only recognized as pathogens of both humans and animals in the 1960s; however, since then, these microbes have been drawing increasing interest in both human and veterinary medicine. The first human outbreak of protothecosis in a tertiary care chemotherapy ward in 2018 further highlighted the need to understand in more depth and detail their ecology, etiology, pathogenesis and routes of transmission between different hosts, environments and habitats from a One Health perspective. Protothecal infections have been reported in a growing number of cattle herds around the world in recent decades, and Prototheca has become an important bovine mastitis pathogen in certain countries and regions. The survival of Prototheca in the environment and its ability to spread in the herd pose a serious challenge to the management of infected dairy farms. Prevention of the disease is particularly important, as there is no effective and reliable treatment for it and the chances of self-healing are minimal. Therefore, the development of more effective drugs is needed for the treatment of human and animal protothecosis. The prudent use of antibiotics and their replacement by alternative or preventive measures, when possible, may further contribute to the control of protothecal infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Balázs Libisch
- Institute of Genetics and Biotechnology, Hungarian University of Agriculture and Life Sciences, 2100 Gödöllő, Hungary
- Correspondence: (B.L.); (P.L.P.)
| | - Carine Picot
- EA 1155 IICiMed—Cibles et Médicaments des Infections et du Cancer, Université de Nantes, F-44000 Nantes, France; (C.P.); (A.C.-G.)
| | - Andrés Ceballos-Garzon
- EA 1155 IICiMed—Cibles et Médicaments des Infections et du Cancer, Université de Nantes, F-44000 Nantes, France; (C.P.); (A.C.-G.)
| | | | | | - Gábor Telkes
- Department of Surgery, Transplantation and Gastroenterology, Semmelweis University, 1082 Budapest, Hungary;
| | - Shih-Te Chuang
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, National Chung Hsing University, Taichung City 402, Taiwan;
| | - Patrice Le Pape
- EA 1155 IICiMed—Cibles et Médicaments des Infections et du Cancer, Université de Nantes, F-44000 Nantes, France; (C.P.); (A.C.-G.)
- Correspondence: (B.L.); (P.L.P.)
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20
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Guo J, Jian J, Wang L, Xiong L, Lin H, Zhou Z, Sonnenschein EC, Wu W. Genome Sequences of Two Strains of Prototheca wickerhamii Provide Insight Into the Protothecosis Evolution. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2022; 12:797017. [PMID: 35186789 PMCID: PMC8847788 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2022.797017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2021] [Accepted: 01/10/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The Prototheca alga is the only chlorophyte known to be involved in a series of clinically relevant opportunistic infections in humans and animals, namely, protothecosis. Most pathogenic cases in humans are caused by Prototheca wickerhamii. In order to investigate the evolution of Prototheca and the genetic basis for its pathogenicity, the genomes of two P. wickerhamii strains S1 and S931 were sequenced using Nanopore long-read and Illumina short-read technologies. The mitochondrial, plastid, and nuclear genomes were assembled and annotated including a transcriptomic data set. The assembled nuclear genome size was 17.57 Mb with 19 contigs and 17.45 Mb with 26 contigs for strains S1 and S931, respectively. The number of predicted protein-coding genes was approximately 5,700, and more than 96% of the genes could be annotated with a gene function. A total of 2,798 gene families were shared between the five currently available Prototheca genomes. According to the phylogenetic analysis, the genus of Prototheca was classified in the same clade with A. protothecoides and diverged from Chlorella ~500 million years ago (Mya). A total of 134 expanded genes were enriched in several pathways, mostly in metabolic pathways, followed by biosynthesis of secondary metabolites and RNA transport. Comparative analysis demonstrated more than 96% consistency between the two herein sequenced strains. At present, due to the lack of sufficient understanding of the Prototheca biology and pathogenicity, the diagnosis rate of protothecosis is much lower than the actual infection rate. This study provides an in-depth insight into the genome sequences of two strains of P. wickerhamii isolated from the clinic to contribute to the basic understanding of this alga and explore future prevention and treatment strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jian Guo
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Shanghai East Hospital, Tongji University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Jianbo Jian
- Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Lili Wang
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Shanghai East Hospital, Tongji University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Lijuan Xiong
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Guizhou University The Second Affiliated Hospital of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Guizhou, China
| | - Huiping Lin
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Shanghai East Hospital, Tongji University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Ziyi Zhou
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Shanghai East Hospital, Tongji University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Eva C. Sonnenschein
- Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, Lyngby, Denmark
- *Correspondence: Wenjuan Wu, ; Eva C. Sonnenschein,
| | - Wenjuan Wu
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Shanghai East Hospital, Tongji University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
- *Correspondence: Wenjuan Wu, ; Eva C. Sonnenschein,
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21
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Kano R, Kazuo Satoh, Yaguchi T, Masuda M, Makimura K, de Hoog GS. Phenotypic Characteristics of <i>Prototheca</i> Species Occurring in Humans and Animals. Med Mycol J 2022; 63:17-20. [DOI: 10.3314/mmj.21-00018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Rui Kano
- Department of Veterinary Dermatology, Nihon University College of Bioresource Sciences
| | - Kazuo Satoh
- General Medical Education and Research Center, Teikyo University
| | | | - Michiaki Masuda
- Department of Microbiology, Dokkyo Medical University School of Medicine
| | | | - G. Sybren de Hoog
- Center of Expertise in Mycology, Radboud University Medical Center/Canisius Wilhelmina Hospital
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22
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Tryptophan, Kynurenine and Kynurenic Acid Concentrations in Milk and Serum of Dairy Cows with Prototheca Mastitis. Animals (Basel) 2021; 11:ani11123608. [PMID: 34944383 PMCID: PMC8698139 DOI: 10.3390/ani11123608] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2021] [Revised: 12/09/2021] [Accepted: 12/14/2021] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The aim of this work was to investigate serum and milk levels of tryptophan (TRP), kynurenine (KYN), and kynurenic acid (KYNA), as well as the activity of indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase (IDO) in cows with mastitis due to Prototheca algae. The study was prompted by previous research showing a link between the KYN pathway of TRP metabolism and bovine mastitis of bacterial etiology. The study was carried out over a 2-year period (2018-2019) and included quarter milk and serum samples collected from six dairy herds in Poland. The samples were obtained from healthy cows and cows with Prototheca mastitis of either clinical and subclinical manifestation, as determined upon direct measurement of the somatic cell count or indirectly by performing a California Mastitis Test on suspected quarters. Both TRP and KYN concentrations were significantly lower in milk of mastitic cows compared to healthy animals (0.8 vs. 8.72 µM, p = 0.001; 0.07 vs. 0.32 µM, p = 0.001, respectively). The difference in TRP and KYN concentrations in the sera of the two animal groups was much less pronounced (25.55 vs. 27.57 µM, 3.03 vs. 3.56 nM, respectively). The concentration of KYNA was almost at the same level in milk (1.73 vs. 1.70 nM) and in serum (80.47 vs. 75.48 nM) of both mastitic and healthy cows. The data showed that the level of TRP and its metabolites in serum was conspicuously higher compared to milk in all cows under the study. The activity of IDO was significantly higher in milk of cows with Prototheca mastitis compared to healthy animals (71.4 vs. 40.86, p < 0.05), while in serum it was pretty much the same (135.94 vs. 124.98, p > 0.05). The IDO activity differed significantly between serum and milk both for mastitic (135.94 vs. 71.4, p < 0.05) and healthy cows (124.98 vs. 40.86, p < 0.001). In conclusion, low values of TRP and KYN concentrations or elevated IDO activity in milk samples might be used as markers of mastitis due to infectious causes, including Prototheca spp.
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23
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Zhao W, He F, Barkema HW, Xu S, Gao J, Liu G, Deng Z, Shahid M, Shi Y, Kastelic JP, Han B. Prototheca spp. induce an inflammatory response via mtROS-mediated activation of NF-κB and NLRP3 inflammasome pathways in bovine mammary epithelial cell cultures. Vet Res 2021; 52:144. [PMID: 34895324 PMCID: PMC8666081 DOI: 10.1186/s13567-021-01014-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2021] [Accepted: 11/09/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Emergence of bovine mastitis caused by Prototheca algae is the impetus to better understand these infections. Both P. bovis and P. ciferrii belong to Prototheca algae, but they differ in their pathogenicity to induce inflammatory responses. The objective was to characterize and compare pathogenesis of inflammatory responses in bMECs induced by P. bovis versus P. ciferrii. Mitochondrial ultrastructure, activity and mtROS in bMECs were assessed with transmission electron microscopy and laser scanning confocal microscopy. Cytokines, including TNF-α, IL-1β and IL-18, were measured by ELISA and real-time PCR, whereas expressions of various proteins in the NF-κB and NLRP3 inflammasome pathways were detected with immunofluorescence or Western blot. Infection with P. bovis or P. ciferrii damaged mitochondria, including dissolution and vacuolation of cristae, and decreased mitochondrial activity, with P. bovis being more pathogenic and causing greater destruction. There were increases in NADPH production and mtROS accumulation in infected bMECs, with P. bovis causing greater increases and also inducing higher cytokine concentrations. Expressions of NF-κB-p65, p-NF-κB-p65, IκBα and p-IκBα proteins in the NF-κB pathway, as well as NLRP3, Pro Caspase1, Caspase1 p20, ASC, Pro IL-1β, and IL-1β proteins in the NLRP3 inflammasome pathway, were significantly higher in P. bovis-infected bMECs. However, mito-TEMPO significantly inhibited production of cytokines and decreased expression of proteins in NF-κB and NLRP3 inflammasome pathways in bMECs infected with either P. bovis or P. ciferrii. In conclusion, P. bovis or P. ciferrii infections induced inflammatory responses in bMECs, with increased mtROS in damaged mitochondria and activated NF-κB and NLRP3 inflammasome pathways, with P. bovis causing a more severe reaction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenpeng Zhao
- Department of Clinical Veterinary Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing, 100193, China
| | - Fumeng He
- Department of Clinical Veterinary Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing, 100193, China
| | - Herman W Barkema
- Department of Production Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, T2N 4N1, Canada
| | - Siyu Xu
- Department of Clinical Veterinary Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing, 100193, China
| | - Jian Gao
- Department of Clinical Veterinary Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing, 100193, China
| | - Gang Liu
- Department of Clinical Veterinary Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing, 100193, China
| | - Zhaoju Deng
- Department of Clinical Veterinary Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing, 100193, China
| | - Muhammad Shahid
- Department of Clinical Veterinary Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing, 100193, China
| | - Yuxiang Shi
- College of Life Sciences and Food Engineering, Hebei University of Engineering, Handan, 056038, Hebei, China
| | - John P Kastelic
- Department of Production Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, T2N 4N1, Canada
| | - Bo Han
- Department of Clinical Veterinary Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing, 100193, China.
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24
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Plieger T, Wolf M. 18S and ITS2 rDNA sequence-structure phylogeny of Prototheca (Chlorophyta, Trebouxiophyceae). Biologia (Bratisl) 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/s11756-021-00971-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
AbstractProtothecosis is an infectious disease caused by organisms currently classified within the green algal genus Prototheca. The disease can manifest as cutaneous lesions, olecranon bursitis or disseminated or systemic infections in both immunocompetent and immunosuppressed patients. Concerning diagnostics, taxonomic validity is important. Prototheca, closely related to the Chlorella species complex, is known to be polyphyletic, branching with Auxenochlorella and Helicosporidium. The phylogeny of Prototheca was discussed and revisited several times in the last decade; new species have been described. Phylogenetic analyses were performed using ribosomal DNA (rDNA) and partial mitochondrial cytochrome b (cytb) sequence data. In this work we use Internal Transcribed Spacer 2 (ITS2) as well as 18S rDNA data. However, for the first time, we reconstruct phylogenetic relationships of Prototheca using primary sequence and RNA secondary structure information simultaneously, a concept shown to increase robustness and accuracy of phylogenetic tree estimation. Using encoded sequence-structure data, Neighbor-Joining, Maximum-Parsimony and Maximum-Likelihood methods yielded well-supported trees in agreement with other trees calculated on rDNA; but differ in several aspects from trees using cytb as a phylogenetic marker. ITS2 secondary structures of Prototheca sequences are in agreement with the well-known common core structure of eukaryotes but show unusual differences in their helix lengths. An elongation of the fourth helix of some species seems to have occurred independently in the course of evolution.
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25
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Dziurzyński M, Decewicz P, Iskra M, Bakuła Z, Jagielski T. Prototheca-ID: a web-based application for molecular identification of Prototheca species. DATABASE-THE JOURNAL OF BIOLOGICAL DATABASES AND CURATION 2021; 2021:6427586. [PMID: 34791104 PMCID: PMC8607299 DOI: 10.1093/database/baab073] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2021] [Revised: 10/04/2021] [Accepted: 11/09/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
The genus Prototheca houses unicellular, achlorophyllous, yeast-like algae, widely distributed in the environment. Protothecae are the only known plants that have repeatedly been reported to infect vertebrates, including humans. Although rare, protothecosis can be clinically demanding, with an unpredictable and treatment-resistant behavior. Accurate identification of Prototheca species relies upon DNA sequence-based typing of the mitochondrially encoded CYTB gene. However, no bioinformatic tool for the processing and analyzing of protothecal sequence data exists. Moreover, currently available sequence databases suffer from a limited number of records and lack of or flawed sequence annotations, making Prototheca identification challenging and often inconclusive. This report introduces the Prototheca-ID, a user-friendly, web-based application providing fast and reliable speciation of Prototheca isolates. In addition, the application offers the users the possibility of depositing their sequences and associated metadata in a fully open Prototheca-ID database, developed to enhance research integrity and quality in the field of Protothecae and protothecosis. Database URL: The Prototheca-ID application is available at https://prototheca-id.org.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mikołaj Dziurzyński
- Department of Environmental Microbiology and Biotechnology, Institute of Microbiology, Faculty of Biology, University of Warsaw, I. Miecznikowa 1, Warsaw 02-096, Poland
| | - Przemyslaw Decewicz
- Department of Environmental Microbiology and Biotechnology, Institute of Microbiology, Faculty of Biology, University of Warsaw, I. Miecznikowa 1, Warsaw 02-096, Poland
| | - Mateusz Iskra
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Institute of Microbiology, Faculty of Biology, University of Warsaw, I. Miecznikowa 1, Warsaw 02-096, Poland
| | - Zofia Bakuła
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Institute of Microbiology, Faculty of Biology, University of Warsaw, I. Miecznikowa 1, Warsaw 02-096, Poland
| | - Tomasz Jagielski
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Institute of Microbiology, Faculty of Biology, University of Warsaw, I. Miecznikowa 1, Warsaw 02-096, Poland
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26
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Álvarez-Pérez S, Anega B, Díaz-de-Tuesta JA, González-Martín JV, Riesgo-Martínez M, García ME, Blanco JL. Susceptibility testing of Prototheca bovis isolates from cases of bovine mastitis using the CLSI reference broth microdilution method and the Sensititre YeastOne colorimetric panel. Med Mycol 2021; 59:1257-1261. [PMID: 34643716 DOI: 10.1093/mmy/myab063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2021] [Revised: 10/04/2021] [Accepted: 10/11/2021] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
A total of 62 Prototheca bovis isolates from cases of bovine mastitis were tested for susceptibility to different antifungal compounds by the Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI) reference microdilution method and a commercial colorimetric microdilution panel (Sensititre YeastOne). All isolates displayed low susceptibility to echinocandins (MICs > 8 μg/ml for anidulafungin, caspofungin, and micafungin), flucytosine (MIC > 64 μg/ml), and the azoles enilconazole and fluconazole (MICs > 4 and > 64 μg/ml, respectively). Moreover, 45.2%, 32.3%, and 1.6% of isolates had MICs > 4 μg/ml for ketoconazole, terbinafine, and voriconazole, respectively, when tested by the CLSI method. In contrast, all isolates were more susceptible to the polyene compounds amphotericin B and nystatin, and itraconazole, posaconazole, and ravuconazole (MICs ≤ 2 μg/ml, in all cases). Comparison of the results obtained in the CLSI and Sensititre methods showed excellent essential agreement (EA) for azoles (98.4% for itraconazole and posaconazole, and 100% for voriconazole) and moderate EA for amphotericin B (72.6%), when MICs were read after 24 h and 48 h of incubation, respectively. In contrast, much lower EA values were obtained in some cases when the MICs for both techniques were determined after 48 h of incubation (e.g., 9.7% for amphotericin B and 69.4% for posaconazole). Therefore, the CLSI broth microdilution method and the Sensititre YeastOne panel can be used indistinctly for susceptibility testing of P. bovis isolates against azoles but not against amphotericin B until further optimization of the test conditions. LAY SUMMARY The antifungal susceptibility of Prototheca bovis isolates was analyzed. All tested isolates displayed low susceptibility to echinocandins, flucytosine, and some azoles. Excellent agreement of the results of two different test methods was obtained for azoles, but not for the polyene amphotericin B.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sergio Álvarez-Pérez
- Department of Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Complutense University of Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - Blanca Anega
- Department of Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Complutense University of Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - Juan A Díaz-de-Tuesta
- Regional Laboratory for Animal Health, Community of Madrid, Colmenar Viejo, Madrid, Spain
| | - Juan V González-Martín
- Department of Animal Medicine and Surgery, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Complutense University of Madrid, Madrid, Spain.,VISAVET Health Surveillance Centre, Complutense University of Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | | | - Marta E García
- Department of Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Complutense University of Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - José L Blanco
- Department of Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Complutense University of Madrid, Madrid, Spain
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27
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Jinatham V, Cantoni DM, Brown IR, Vichaslip T, Suwannahitatorn P, Popluechai S, Tsaousis AD, Gentekaki E. Prototheca bovis, a unicellular achlorophyllous trebouxiophyte green alga in the healthy human intestine. J Med Microbiol 2021; 70. [PMID: 34486973 DOI: 10.1099/jmm.0.001415] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction. Prototheca species are non-photosynthetic trebouxiophyte algae ubiquitously distributed in nature and can be found in sewage and soil. This microbial eukaryote causes human protothecosis in immunocompromised individuals. Thus, Prototheca presence in the stool of individuals without gastrointestinal symptoms has been reported only rarely.Hypothesis/Gap statement. There is an absence of detailed characterization of human Prototheca isolates.Aim. The aim of this study was to perform morphological and molecular characterization of Prototheca isolates obtained from human stool.Methodology. Prototheca was isolated from faecal samples of four individuals living in a rural area in Thailand. A combination of bioimaging along with molecular and bioinformatics tools was used to characterize the four strains. The growth rate was tested using four media and three temperature conditions. Phylogenetic analysis using the small subunit ribosomal RNA (SSU rRNA) and cytochrome b (cytb) was also performed.Results. Static and live microscopy demonstrated the various life stages of Prototheca and its major defining cellular characteristics. An optimized DNA extraction methodology that improves DNA yield is provided. Partial fragments of the SSU rRNA and cytb genes were obtained. Phylogenetic analysis placed all four strains in the clade with Prototheca bovis. More broadly, Prototheca was not monophyletic but split into at least two distinct clades instead.Conclusion. The results represent the first molecular characterization of Prototheca in Thailand. The study provides insight into transmission dynamics of the organism and potential caveats in estimating the global prevalence of Prototheca. These will spearhead further investigations on Prototheca occurrence in rural areas of both industrialized and developing nations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vasana Jinatham
- School of Science, Mae Fah Luang University, Chiang Rai 57100, Thailand
| | - Diego M Cantoni
- Laboratory of Molecular and Evolutionary Parasitology, RAPID group, School of Biosciences, University of Kent, Canterbury, UK
| | - Ian R Brown
- Bioimaging Facility, School of Biosciences, University of Kent, Canterbury, UK
| | | | | | - Siam Popluechai
- School of Science, Mae Fah Luang University, Chiang Rai 57100, Thailand.,Gut Microbiome Research Group, Mae Fah Luang University, Chiang Rai 57100, Thailand
| | - Anastasios D Tsaousis
- Laboratory of Molecular and Evolutionary Parasitology, RAPID group, School of Biosciences, University of Kent, Canterbury, UK
| | - Eleni Gentekaki
- School of Science, Mae Fah Luang University, Chiang Rai 57100, Thailand.,Gut Microbiome Research Group, Mae Fah Luang University, Chiang Rai 57100, Thailand
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28
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Fidelis CE, Franke M, de Abreu LCR, Jagielski T, Ribeiro MG, Dos Santos MV, Gonçalves JL. MALDI-TOF MS identification of Prototheca algae associated with bovine mastitis. J Vet Diagn Invest 2021; 33:1168-1171. [PMID: 34353173 DOI: 10.1177/10406387211036459] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
We evaluated the use of MALDI-TOF MS for the identification of 3 major, dairy-associated Prototheca species, namely, Prototheca bovis (formerly P. zopfii genotype 2), P. blaschkeae, and P. ciferrii (formerly P. zopfii genotype 1). The MALDI-TOF MS spectra established for those species were introduced into the reference spectra library of the Bruker Biotyper MALDI-TOF MS analysis software. Next, 31 Prototheca isolates from Holstein cows with mastitis, from herds located in the midwestern area of São Paulo State, Brazil, were subjected to MALDI-TOF MS profiling. MALDI-TOF MS allowed identification of 22 of 27 P. bovis and 3 of 4 P. blaschkeae isolates with scores >2.0, with 5 of 27 P. bovis and 1 of 4 P. blaschkeae isolates identified only to the genus level. With our extended algae database, MALDI-TOF MS can contribute to quick and effective speciation of Prototheca from mastitis cases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlos E Fidelis
- Department of Animal Nutrition and Production, School of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science, University of São Paulo-USP, Pirassununga, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Manoela Franke
- Department of Animal Nutrition and Production, School of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science, University of São Paulo-USP, Pirassununga, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Letícia C R de Abreu
- Department of Animal Nutrition and Production, School of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science, University of São Paulo-USP, Pirassununga, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Tomasz Jagielski
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Institute of Microbiology, Faculty of Biology, University of Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Márcio G Ribeiro
- Department of Animal Production and Preventive Veterinary Medicine, School of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Sciences, São Paulo State University-UNESP, Botucatu, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Marcos V Dos Santos
- Department of Animal Nutrition and Production, School of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science, University of São Paulo-USP, Pirassununga, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Juliano L Gonçalves
- Department of Animal Nutrition and Production, School of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science, University of São Paulo-USP, Pirassununga, São Paulo, Brazil.,Department of Large Animal Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, USA
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29
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Maboni G, Elbert JA, Stilwell JM, Sanchez S. Genomic and Pathologic Findings for Prototheca cutis Infection in Cat. Emerg Infect Dis 2021; 27:979-982. [PMID: 33622485 PMCID: PMC7920651 DOI: 10.3201/eid2703.202941] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Severe nasal Prototheca cutis infection was diagnosed postmortem for an immunocompetent cat with respiratory signs. Pathologic examination and whole-genome sequencing identified this species of algae, and susceptibility testing determined antimicrobial resistance patterns. P. cutis infection should be a differential diagnosis for soft tissue infections of mammals.
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30
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Ballesteros I, Terán P, Guamán-Burneo C, González N, Cruz A, Castillejo P. DNA barcoding approach to characterize microalgae isolated from freshwater systems in Ecuador. NEOTROPICAL BIODIVERSITY 2021. [DOI: 10.1080/23766808.2021.1920296] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Isabel Ballesteros
- AgroScience & Food Research Group, Universidad de las Américas, Quito, Ecuador
| | - Paulina Terán
- AgroScience & Food Research Group, Universidad de las Américas, Quito, Ecuador
| | | | - Nory González
- AgroScience & Food Research Group, Universidad de las Américas, Quito, Ecuador
| | - Alejandra Cruz
- Ingeniería en Biotecnología. Facultad de Ingenierías y Ciencias Aplicadas, Universidad de las Américas, Quito, Ecuador
| | - Pablo Castillejo
- Grupo de Investigación en Biodiversidad, Medio Ambiente y Salud (BIOMAS), Universidad de las Américas, Quito, Ecuador
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Watanabe T, Ishikawa T, Sato H, Hirose N, Nonaka L, Matsumura K, Masubuchi A, Nishimura K, Masuda M. Characterization of Prototheca CYP51/ERG11 as a possible target for therapeutic drugs. Med Mycol 2021; 59:855-863. [PMID: 33838030 DOI: 10.1093/mmy/myab012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2021] [Revised: 02/17/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Prototheca spp. are achlorophyllous algae, ubiquitous in nature. An increasing number of human and animal cases of Prototheca infection (protothecosis) are reported, and antifungal azoles, which inhibit sterol 14α-demethylase (CYP51/ERG11) involved in ergosterol biosynthesis, have empirically been used for the treatment of protothecosis. Although Prototheca, like fungi, has ergosterol in the cell membrane, efficacy of the antifungal azoles in the treatment of protothecosis is controversial. For investigating the interaction of azole drugs with Prototheca CYP51/ERG11, the CYP51/ERG11 genomic genes of four strains of P. wickerhamii and one strain each of P. cutis and P. miyajii were isolated and characterized in this study. Compared with the CYP51/ERG11 gene of chlorophyllous Auxenochlorella Protothecoides, it is possible that ProtothecaCYP51/ERG11 gene, whose exon-intron structure appeared to be species-specific, lost introns associated with the loss of photosynthetic activity. Analysis of the deduced amino acid sequences revealed that Prototheca CYP51/ERG11 and fungal CYP51/ERG11 are phylogenetically distant from each other although their overall structures are similar. Our basic in silico studies predicted that antifungal azoles could bind to the catalytic pocket of Prototheca CYP51/ERG11. It was also suggested that amino acid residues away from the catalytic pocket might affect the drug susceptibility. The results of this study may provide useful insights into the phylogenetic taxonomy of Prototheca spp. in relationship to the CYP51/ERG11 structure and development of novel therapeutic drugs for the treatment of protothecosis. LAY SUMMARY Cases of infection by microalgae of Prototheca species are increasing. However, effective treatment has not been established yet. In this study, gene and structure of Prototheca's CYP51/ERG11, an enzyme which might serve as a target for therapeutic drugs, were characterized for the first time.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takahisa Watanabe
- Department of Microbiology, Dokkyo Medical University School of Medicine, Tochigi 321-0293, Japan.,Hirara Clinic, Okinawa 906-0012, Japan
| | - Tomohiro Ishikawa
- Department of Microbiology, Dokkyo Medical University School of Medicine, Tochigi 321-0293, Japan
| | - Hirotaka Sato
- Department of Microbiology, Dokkyo Medical University School of Medicine, Tochigi 321-0293, Japan
| | - Noriyuki Hirose
- Department of Microbiology, Dokkyo Medical University School of Medicine, Tochigi 321-0293, Japan.,BD Japan, Co., Ltd., Tokyo 107-0052, Japan
| | - Lisa Nonaka
- Department of Microbiology, Dokkyo Medical University School of Medicine, Tochigi 321-0293, Japan.,Department of Nutritional Science, Faculty of Human Life Science, Shokei University, Kumamoto 862-8678, Japan
| | - Kaori Matsumura
- Department of Microbiology, Dokkyo Medical University School of Medicine, Tochigi 321-0293, Japan
| | - Akira Masubuchi
- Department of Microbiology, Dokkyo Medical University School of Medicine, Tochigi 321-0293, Japan
| | - Kazuko Nishimura
- Department of Microbiology, Dokkyo Medical University School of Medicine, Tochigi 321-0293, Japan.,First Laboratories, Co. Ltd., Kanagawa 211-0013, Japan
| | - Michiaki Masuda
- Department of Microbiology, Dokkyo Medical University School of Medicine, Tochigi 321-0293, Japan
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Bakuła Z, Siedlecki P, Gromadka R, Gawor J, Gromadka A, Pomorski JJ, Panagiotopoulou H, Jagielski T. A first insight into the genome of Prototheca wickerhamii, a major causative agent of human protothecosis. BMC Genomics 2021; 22:168. [PMID: 33750287 PMCID: PMC7941945 DOI: 10.1186/s12864-021-07491-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2020] [Accepted: 02/26/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Colourless microalgae of the Prototheca genus are the only known plants that have consistently been implicated in a range of clinically relevant opportunistic infections in both animals and humans. The Prototheca algae are emerging pathogens, whose incidence has increased importantly over the past two decades. Prototheca wickerhamii is a major human pathogen, responsible for at least 115 cases worldwide. Although the algae are receiving more attention nowadays, there is still a substantial knowledge gap regarding their biology, and pathogenicity in particular. Here we report, for the first time, the complete nuclear genome, organelle genomes, and transcriptome of the P. wickerhamii type strain ATCC 16529. RESULTS The assembled genome size was of 16.7 Mbp, making it the smallest and most compact genome sequenced so far among the protothecans. Key features of the genome included a high overall GC content (64.5%), a high number (6081) and proportion (45.9%) of protein-coding genes, and a low repetitive sequence content (2.2%). The vast majority (90.6%) of the predicted genes were confirmed with the corresponding transcripts upon RNA-sequencing analysis. Most (93.2%) of the genes had their putative function assigned when searched against the InterProScan database. A fourth (23.3%) of the genes were annotated with an enzymatic activity possibly associated with the adaptation to the human host environment. The P. wickerhamii genome encoded a wide array of possible virulence factors, including those already identified in two model opportunistic fungal pathogens, i.e. Candida albicans and Trichophyton rubrum, and thought to be involved in invasion of the host or elicitation of the adaptive stress response. Approximately 6% of the P. wickerhamii genes matched a Pathogen-Host Interaction Database entry and had a previously experimentally proven role in the disease development. Furthermore, genes coding for proteins (e.g. ATPase, malate dehydrogenase) hitherto considered as potential virulence factors of Prototheca spp. were demonstrated in the P. wickerhamii genome. CONCLUSIONS Overall, this study is the first to describe the genetic make-up of P. wickerhamii and discovers proteins possibly involved in the development of protothecosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zofia Bakuła
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Institute of Microbiology, Faculty of Biology, University of Warsaw, I. Miecznikowa 1, 02-096, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Paweł Siedlecki
- Department of Systems Biology, University of Warsaw, I. Miecznikowa 1, 02-096, Warsaw, Poland.,Department of Bioinformatics, Institute of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Polish Academy of Sciences, A. Pawińskiego 5a, 02-106, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Robert Gromadka
- DNA Sequencing and Synthesis Facility, Institute of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Polish Academy of Sciences, A. Pawińskiego 5a, 02-106, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Jan Gawor
- DNA Sequencing and Synthesis Facility, Institute of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Polish Academy of Sciences, A. Pawińskiego 5a, 02-106, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Agnieszka Gromadka
- Department of Bioinformatics, Institute of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Polish Academy of Sciences, A. Pawińskiego 5a, 02-106, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Jan J Pomorski
- Museum and Institute of Zoology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Wilcza 64, 00-679, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Hanna Panagiotopoulou
- Museum and Institute of Zoology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Wilcza 64, 00-679, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Tomasz Jagielski
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Institute of Microbiology, Faculty of Biology, University of Warsaw, I. Miecznikowa 1, 02-096, Warsaw, Poland.
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Bacova R, Kralik P, Kucharovicova I, Seydlova R, Moravkova M. A novel TaqMan qPCR assay for rapid detection and quantification of pro-inflammatory microalgae Prototheca spp. in milk samples. Med Mycol 2021; 59:784-792. [PMID: 33515018 DOI: 10.1093/mmy/myaa120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2020] [Revised: 12/04/2020] [Accepted: 01/04/2021] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Animal or human protothecosis belongs to rather rare, endemic, pro-inflammatory infections. It is caused by achlorophyllous algae of the genus Prototheca. Especially, P. bovis (formerly P. zopfii genotype 2) is often inflected as a non-bacterial causative agent of dairy cattle mastitis. In this study, we present a multiplex real-time PCR (qPCR) system for rapid and exact Prototheca spp. detection and quantification. Limit of detection, diagnostic sensitivity, and specificity were determined. For the first time, specific sequences of AccD (encoding acetyl CoA reductase) for P. bovis, cox1 (encoding cytochrome C oxidase subunit 1) for P. wickerhamii, cytB (encoding cytochrome B) for P. blashkeae and atp6 (encoding transporting ATPase F0 subunit 6) for P. ciferrii (formerly P. zopfii genotype 1) were used for species identification and quantification together with 28S rRNA sequence detecting genus Prototheca. The developed qPCR assay was applied to 55 individual cow milk samples from a herd suspected of protothecosis, 41 bulk milk samples from different Czech farms, 16 boxed milk samples purchased in supermarkets and 21 environmental samples originating from a farm suspected of protothecosis. Our work thus offers the possibility to diagnose protothecosis in the samples, where bacterial mastitis is the most commonly presumed and thereby assisting adequate corrective measures to be taken.
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Affiliation(s)
- Romana Bacova
- Laboratory of Food Microbiology, Department of Food and Feed Safety , Veterinary Research Institute, Hudcova 296/70, 621 00 Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Petr Kralik
- Laboratory of Food Microbiology, Department of Food and Feed Safety , Veterinary Research Institute, Hudcova 296/70, 621 00 Brno, Czech Republic.,Department of Animal Origin Food and Gastronomic Sciences, University of Veterinary and Pharmaceutical Sciences Brno, Czech Republic, Palackeho 1946/1, Brno, 612 42, Czech Republic
| | - Ivana Kucharovicova
- Department of Bacteriology, State Veterinary Institute Jihlava, Rantirovska 93/20, Jihlava - Horni Kosov, 586 01, Jihlava, Czech Republic
| | - Ruzena Seydlova
- Dairy Research Institute Prague, Ke Dvoru 12a, 160 00, Prague 6, Czech Republic
| | - Monika Moravkova
- Laboratory of Food Microbiology, Department of Food and Feed Safety , Veterinary Research Institute, Hudcova 296/70, 621 00 Brno, Czech Republic
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Sperotto VR, Denardi LB, Weiblen C, de Jesus FPK, Dorneles MR, Ianiski LB, Santurio JM. Short communication: Algicide activity of antimicrobial peptides compounds against Prototheca bovis. J Dairy Sci 2021; 104:3554-3558. [PMID: 33455795 DOI: 10.3168/jds.2020-18171] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2020] [Accepted: 10/16/2020] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
This study evaluated the in vitro activity of antimicrobial peptides pexiganan (MSI-78), h-Lf1-11, LL-37, cecropin B, magainin-2, and fengycin B against the veterinary mastitis agent Prototheca bovis. The results showed that pexiganan, h-Lf1-11, LL-37, and cecropin B were able to inhibit the growth and had effect on algicide P. bovis isolates (n = 32). The minimum inhibitory concentration ranged from 5 to 10 µg/mL for pexiganan, and algicide effect was detected from 5 to 20 µg/mL. The minimum inhibitory concentration ranged from 10 to 80 µg/mL for h-Lf1-11, 20 to 80 µg/mL for LL-37, and 40 to 160 µg/mL for cecropin B. These findings present a promising and novel alternative for P. bovis treatment and growth control.
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Affiliation(s)
- V R Sperotto
- Pharmacology Postgraduate Program, Federal University of Santa Maria, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, 97105-900; University of Cruz Alta, Cruz Alta, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, 98005-972.
| | - L B Denardi
- Pharmacology Postgraduate Program, Federal University of Santa Maria, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, 97105-900; Department of Microbiology and Parasitology, Federal University of Santa Maria (UFSM), Santa Maria, RS, Brazil, 97105-900
| | - C Weiblen
- Department of Microbiology and Parasitology, Federal University of Santa Maria (UFSM), Santa Maria, RS, Brazil, 97105-900
| | - F P K de Jesus
- Department of Microbiology and Parasitology, Federal University of Santa Maria (UFSM), Santa Maria, RS, Brazil, 97105-900
| | - M R Dorneles
- University of Cruz Alta, Cruz Alta, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, 98005-972
| | - L B Ianiski
- Department of Microbiology and Parasitology, Federal University of Santa Maria (UFSM), Santa Maria, RS, Brazil, 97105-900; Postgraduate Program in Pharmaceutical Sciences, Federal University of Santa Maria, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, 97105-900
| | - J M Santurio
- Pharmacology Postgraduate Program, Federal University of Santa Maria, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, 97105-900; Department of Microbiology and Parasitology, Federal University of Santa Maria (UFSM), Santa Maria, RS, Brazil, 97105-900
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Falcaro C, Furlanello T, Binanti D, Fondati A, Bonfanti U, Krockenberger M, Malik R, Danesi P. Molecular characterization of Prototheca in 11 symptomatic dogs. J Vet Diagn Invest 2020; 33:156-161. [PMID: 33272142 DOI: 10.1177/1040638720976423] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Protothecosis is an uncommon disease caused by algae of the genus Prototheca. In dogs, the infection is usually first localized to the colon but has the propensity to later disseminate hematogenously to many other organs, with marked tropism for the eyes and central nervous system. Diagnosis is established by culture and/or evidence of Prototheca organisms in cytologic or histologic preparations. Species characterization, however, requires molecular investigations. Our laboratory set up a real-time PCR targeting portion D1/D2 of the 28S rRNA for identification of Prototheca species from both positive cultures (of rectal swabs and urine) and formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded tissue. Prototheca bovis, P. ciferrii, and P. wickerhamii were characterized in 11 dogs with systemic or cutaneous protothecosis. Prototheca identifications were phylogenetically consistent with the new taxonomy proposed for this genus based on the mitochondrial cytochrome b gene. As a pilot study, we screened feces and rectal scrapes from 200 asymptomatic dogs, using 2 cohorts of stray and owned animals, to determine the prevalence of intestinal carriage of Prototheca spp. The Prototheca-negative results from both cohorts of healthy dogs suggest that predisposing factors related to the host probably contribute more to the acquisition of clinical disease than exposure to contaminated environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian Falcaro
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, Legnaro, Padua, Italy
| | | | - Diana Binanti
- Laboratorio Analisi Veterinarie AbLab, Sarzana, La Spezia, Italy
| | | | - Ugo Bonfanti
- Laboratorio di Analisi Veterinarie La Vallonea, Passirana di Rho, Milan, Italy
| | - Mark Krockenberger
- Veterinary Pathology Diagnostic Services, Sydney School of Veterinary Science, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Richard Malik
- Centre for Veterinary Education, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Patrizia Danesi
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, Legnaro, Padua, Italy
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Masuda M, Jagielski T, Danesi P, Falcaro C, Bertola M, Krockenberger M, Malik R, Kano R. Protothecosis in Dogs and Cats-New Research Directions. Mycopathologia 2020; 186:143-152. [PMID: 33206310 DOI: 10.1007/s11046-020-00508-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2020] [Accepted: 11/02/2020] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Protothecosis refers to disease of humans and animals caused by infection with fungus-like, colourless microalgae of the genus Prototheca. Although protothecosis remains an uncommon infection, increasing numbers of human and animal cases are being diagnosed worldwide. This review summarises major new findings in basic science (sequencing analyses of sterol 14α-demethylase (CYP51/ERG11) genes and organelle genomes of Prototheca wickerhamii) to elucidate taxonomic features of this pathogen. Furthermore, this review updates and summarises the clinical features, diagnosis and treatment of protothecosis in dogs and cats. This content of this review is based on information presented at the medical phycology symposium held in the 20th Congress of the International Society for Human and Animal Mycology ( https://www.isham.org/ ).
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Affiliation(s)
- Michiaki Masuda
- Department of Microbiology, Dokkyo Medical University School of Medicine, Tochigi, Japan
| | - Tomasz Jagielski
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Institute of Microbiology, University of Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Patrizia Danesi
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale Delle Venezie, Legnaro, PD, Italy
| | - Christian Falcaro
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale Delle Venezie, Legnaro, PD, Italy
| | - Michela Bertola
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale Delle Venezie, Legnaro, PD, Italy
| | - Mark Krockenberger
- Veterinary Pathology Diagnostic Services (VPDS), Sydney School of Veterinary Science, The University of Sydney, B14, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Richard Malik
- Centre for Veterinary Education, The University of Sydney, B22, Sydney, NSW, 2006, Australia
| | - Rui Kano
- Department of Veterinary Dermatology, Nihon University School of Veterinary Medicine, 1866, Kameino, Fujisawa, Kanagawa, 252-0880, Japan.
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Bakuła Z, Gromadka R, Gawor J, Siedlecki P, Pomorski JJ, Maciszewski K, Gromadka A, Karnkowska A, Jagielski T. Sequencing and Analysis of the Complete Organellar Genomes of Prototheca wickerhamii. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2020; 11:1296. [PMID: 32983192 PMCID: PMC7492744 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2020.01296] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2020] [Accepted: 08/07/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Of the Prototheca genus, Prototheca wickerhamii has the highest clinical significance in humans. However, neither nuclear nor organellar genomes of this species were sequenced until now. The hitherto determined and analyzed mitochondrial and plastid genomes of the alleged P. wickerhamii species belong in fact to another species, recently named Prototheca xanthoriae. This study provides a first insight into the organellar genomes of a true P. wickerhamii (type strain ATCC 16529). The P. wickerhamii mitochondrion had a 53.8-kb genome, which was considerably larger than that of Prototheca ciferrii (formerly Prototheca zopfii gen. 1) and Prototheca bovis (formerly Prototheca zopfii gen. 2), yet similarly functional, with the differences in size attributable to a higher number of introns and the presence of extra unique putative genes. The 48-kb plastid genome of P. wickerhamii, compared to autotrophic Trebouxiophyceae, was highly reduced due to the elimination of the photosynthesis-related genes. The gene content of the plastid genome of P. wickerhamii was, however, very similar to other colorless Prototheca species. Plastid genome-based phylogeny reinforced the polyphyly of the genus Prototheca, with Helicosporidium and Auxenochlorella branching within clades of Prototheca species. Phylogenetic reconstruction also confirmed the close relationship of P. wickerhamii and P. xanthoriae, which is reflected in the synteny of their organellar genomes. Interestingly, the entire set of atp genes was lost in P. wickerhamii plastid genome while being preserved in P. xanthoriae.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zofia Bakuła
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Faculty of Biology, Institute of Microbiology, University of Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Robert Gromadka
- DNA Sequencing and Oligonucleotides Synthesis Laboratory at the Institute of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Jan Gawor
- DNA Sequencing and Oligonucleotides Synthesis Laboratory at the Institute of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Paweł Siedlecki
- Department of Systems Biology, University of Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland
- Institute of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Polish Academy of Sciences (PAS), Warsaw, Poland
| | - Jan J. Pomorski
- Museum and Institute of Zoology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Kacper Maciszewski
- Institute of Evolutionary Biology, Faculty of Biology, Biological and Chemical Research Centre, University of Warsaw, Poland
| | - Agnieszka Gromadka
- Institute of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Polish Academy of Sciences (PAS), Warsaw, Poland
| | - Anna Karnkowska
- Institute of Evolutionary Biology, Faculty of Biology, Biological and Chemical Research Centre, University of Warsaw, Poland
| | - Tomasz Jagielski
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Faculty of Biology, Institute of Microbiology, University of Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland
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Zhao F, Chen M, Fu Y. Multiple cutaneous infections caused by Prototheca wickerhamii. J Clin Lab Anal 2020; 34:e23492. [PMID: 32692420 PMCID: PMC7676219 DOI: 10.1002/jcla.23492] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2020] [Revised: 06/27/2020] [Accepted: 06/28/2020] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Prototheca species are a group of organisms ubiquitously existing in nature but have become a pathogenic threat to public health, which has aroused wide attention. Species identification and antifungal susceptibility have essential and valuable meanings to clinical diagnosis and treatment. Methods A case of an 84‐year‐old patient who had suffered from multiple cutaneous infections was reported. Tissue samples of the damaged skin were collected from the patient and used for microscopic examination and tissue culture. Staining methods, the VITEK system with YSD card and the molecular identification method based on partial mitochondrion‐encoded cytochrome b (cytb) gene amplification and sequencing were used for species identification. Antifungal susceptibility testing was completed by using YeastOne plate. Results The patient had type II diabetes mellitus. Round, grape‐like, and scattered morula forms were observed under the microscope in bright blue with lactophenol cotton blue staining and in green fluorescence with fungus fluorescence staining. Yeast‐like colonies were grown on both the blood plates and the Sabouraud agar. P wichehamii was identified and presented resistance to three echinocandins, fluconazole, and 5‐fluorocytosine, while was susceptible to amphotericin B, posaconazole, itraconazole, and voriconazole. Conclusion Our result revealed that an old patient with diabetes mellitus might be a dangerous population of cutaneous protothecosis. It also highlighted the contribution to microbial methodology on the diagnosis and treatment of such rare fungus infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Feng Zhao
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, Sir Run Run Shaw Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Miaode Chen
- Department of Emergency Surgery, The First People's Hospital of Wenling, Wenling, China
| | - Ying Fu
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, Sir Run Run Shaw Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
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Yang J, Zhu J, Kudinha T, Kong F, Zhang QQ. Differences in in vitro interactions between macrophages with pathogenic and environmental strains of Prototheca. Future Microbiol 2020; 15:427-436. [PMID: 32250172 DOI: 10.2217/fmb-2019-0238] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Aim: We investigated the interactions between macrophage and different strains of Prototheca. Materials & method: J774A.1 macrophages were infected with clinical isolates of Prototheca ciferrii 18125 and P. ciferrii 50779 and environmental isolate of P. ciferrii N71. Phagocytosis activities were compared by colony-forming unit assays at 3, 6 and 9 h after infection. Cytokine levels were detected by RT-PCR and ELISA. iNOS protein expression was examined by western blotting. Results: All P. ciferrii strains were phagocytized by macrophages but induced different levels of cytokines in macrophages. Moreover, infected by P. ciferrii N71 upregulated much higher iNOS protein expression in J774A.1 than that infected by the clinical strains. Conclusion: Clinical and environmental P. ciferrii strains show differences in their interactions with macrophages, which may be attributed to their virulence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jin Yang
- Department of Dermatology, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai 200040, China
| | - Junhao Zhu
- Department of Dermatology, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai 200040, China
| | - Timothy Kudinha
- Charles Sturt University, Leeds Parade, Orange, New South Wales, Australia.,Centre for Infectious Diseases & Microbiology Laboratory Services, ICPMR-Pathology West, Westmead Hospital, University of Sydney, Darcy Road, Westmead, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Fanrong Kong
- Centre for Infectious Diseases & Microbiology Laboratory Services, ICPMR-Pathology West, Westmead Hospital, University of Sydney, Darcy Road, Westmead, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Qiang-Qiang Zhang
- Department of Dermatology, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai 200040, China
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Preliminary Results, Perspectives, and Proposal for a Screening Method of In Vitro Susceptibility of Prototheca Species to Antimicrotubular Agents. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2020; 64:AAC.01392-19. [PMID: 31871079 DOI: 10.1128/aac.01392-19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2019] [Accepted: 12/02/2019] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Microorganisms belonging to the genus Prototheca are achlorophyllous microalgae, occasionally behaving as environmental pathogens that cause severe mastitis in milk cows, as well as localized or systemic infections in humans and animals. Among the different species belonging to the genus, Prototheca zopfii genotype 2 (recently reclassified as P. bovis) and P. blaschkeae are most commonly associated with bovine mastitis. To date, no pharmacological treatment is available to cure protothecal mastitis, and infected animals must be quarantined to avoid spreading the infection. The few antibiotic and antifungal drugs effective in vitro against Prototheca give poor results in vivo This failure is likely due to the lack of specificity of such drugs. As microalgae are more closely related to plants than to bacteria or fungi, an alternative possibility is to test molecules with herbicidal properties, in particular, antimicrotubular herbicides, for which plant rather than animal tubulin is the selective target. Once a suitable test protocol was set up, a panel of 11 antimicrotubular agents belonging to different chemical classes and selective for plant tubulin were tested for the ability to inhibit growth of Prototheca cells in vitro Two dinitroanilines, dinitramine and chloralin, showed strong inhibitory effects on P. blaschkeae at low micromolar concentrations, with half-maximal inhibitory concentrations (IC50) of 4.5 and 3 μM, respectively, while both P. zopfii genotype 1 (now reclassified as P. ciferrii) and P. bovis showed susceptibility to dinitramine only, to different degrees. Suitable screening protocols for antimitotic agents are suggested.
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Shahid M, Cavalcante PA, Knight CG, Barkema HW, Han B, Gao J, Cobo ER. Murine and Human Cathelicidins Contribute Differently to Hallmarks of Mastitis Induced by Pathogenic Prototheca bovis Algae. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2020; 10:31. [PMID: 32117805 PMCID: PMC7025567 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2020.00031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2019] [Accepted: 01/17/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Prototheca bovis (formerly P. zopfii genotype-II) is an opportunistic, achlorophyllous alga that causes mastitis in cows and skin disease in cats and dogs, as well as cutaneous lesions in both immunocompetent and immunosuppressed humans. Antifungal medications are commonly ineffective. This study aimed to investigate innate immune responses contributed by cathelicidins to P. bovis in the mammary gland using a mastitis model in mice deficient in the sole murine cathelicidin (Camp). We determined P. bovis caused acute mastitis in mice and induced Camp gene transcription. Whereas, Camp-/- and Camp+/+ littermates had similar local algae burden, Camp+/+ mice produced more pro-inflammatory cytokines, TNF-α, and Cxcl-1. Likewise, Camp+/+ bone marrow-derived macrophages were more responsive to P. bovis, producing more TNF-α and Cxcl-1. Human cathelicidin (LL-37) exhibited a different effect against P. bovis; it had direct algicidal activity against P. bovis and lowered TNF-α, Cxcl-1, and IL-1β production in both cultured murine macrophages and mammary epithelial cells exposed to the pathogenic algae. In conclusion, cathelicidins were involved in protothecosis pathogenesis, with unique roles among the diverse peptide family. Whereas, endogenous cathelicidin (Camp) was key in mammary gland innate defense against P. bovis, human LL-37 had algicidal and immunomodulatory functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muhammad Shahid
- Department of Clinical Veterinary Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
| | - Paloma Araujo Cavalcante
- Department of Production Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
| | - Cameron G. Knight
- Department of Veterinary Clinical and Diagnostic Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
| | - Herman W. Barkema
- Department of Production Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
| | - Bo Han
- Department of Clinical Veterinary Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
| | - Jian Gao
- Department of Clinical Veterinary Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
| | - Eduardo R. Cobo
- Department of Production Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
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Prototheca zopfii genotype II induces mitochondrial apoptosis in models of bovine mastitis. Sci Rep 2020; 10:698. [PMID: 31959834 PMCID: PMC6971270 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-57645-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2019] [Accepted: 01/06/2020] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Prototheca zopfii is an alga increasingly isolated from bovine mastitis. Of the two genotypes of P. zopfii (genotype I and II (GT-I and -II)), P. zopfii GT-II is the genotype associated with acute mastitis and decreased milk production, although its pathogenesis is not well known. The objective was to determine inflammatory and apoptotic roles of P. zopfii GT-II in cultured mammary epithelial cells (from cattle and mice) and murine macrophages and using a murine model of mastitis. Prototheca zopfii GT-II (but not GT-I) invaded bovine and murine mammary epithelial cells (MECs) and induced apoptosis, as determined by the terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase mediated deoxyuridine triphosphate nick end labeling assay. This P. zopfii GT-II driven apoptosis corresponded to mitochondrial pathways; mitochondrial transmembrane resistance (ΔΨm) was altered and modulation of mitochondrion-mediated apoptosis regulating genes changed (increased transcriptional Bax, cytochrome-c and Apaf-1 and downregulated Bcl-2), whereas caspase-9 and -3 expression increased. Apoptotic effects by P. zopfii GT-II were more pronounced in macrophages compared to MECs. In a murine mammary infection model, P. zopfii GT-II replicated in the mammary gland and caused severe inflammation with infiltration of macrophages and neutrophils and upregulation of pro-inflammatory genes (TNF-α, IL-1β and Cxcl-1) and also apoptosis of epithelial cells. Thus, we concluded P. zopfii GT-II is a mastitis-causing pathogen that triggers severe inflammation and also mitochondrial apoptosis.
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