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Dantas Neto JC, Bezerra Dos Santos V, Bezerra de Oliveira SC, Suarez WT, Lopes de Oliveira J. In situ voltammetric analysis of 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid in environmental water using a boron doped diamond electrode and an adapted unmanned air vehicle sampling platform. ANALYTICAL METHODS : ADVANCING METHODS AND APPLICATIONS 2022; 14:1311-1319. [PMID: 35275146 DOI: 10.1039/d2ay00050d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
In the present work a voltammetric method was developed for in situ detection of 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) in environmental water samples, using a compact and lightweight electrochemical cell using a fused deposition modeling (FDM) 3D printer with biodegradable polylactic acid filament, and a boron-doped diamond electrode (BDDE). The samples were collected by an adapted unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) with a micropump and a miniature solenoid valve powered by an open source microcontroller. After optimizing the supporting electrolyte, pH and parameters of the square wave voltammetry (SWV) a linear analytical curve for 2,4-D in 0.5 mol L-1 Na2SO4 (pH = 2.0 regulated using 0.5 mol L-1 H2SO4 solution) in a concentration range from 100 nmol L-1 to 911 nmol L-1 with 34 nmol L-1 as the limit of detection was obtained. The same samples in situ analyzed by SWV were sent to the laboratory for gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) analysis; and there was no statistical difference from the concentration of 2,4-D in any of the samples at a 95% confidence level. Therefore, the method developed for quantification of 2,4-D in water provides an important environmental monitoring tool since it enables access to difficult areas in a fast, practical and safe way. This is the first time that an adapted UAV with these features has been used to collect environmental water for in situ electrochemical analysis as a screening tool to alert the presence of environmental hazard compounds, such as 2,4-D. Thus, this method can be used by environmental and sanitary control agencies to monitor or to supervise environmental water quality with response in real time.
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Affiliation(s)
- José Claudiano Dantas Neto
- Fundamental Chemistry Department, Federal University of Pernambuco, Cidade Universitária, Av. Jornalista Anibal Fernandes, s/no, Recife, PE, 50740-560, Brazil.
| | - Vagner Bezerra Dos Santos
- Fundamental Chemistry Department, Federal University of Pernambuco, Cidade Universitária, Av. Jornalista Anibal Fernandes, s/no, Recife, PE, 50740-560, Brazil.
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Freisthler MS, Robbins CR, Benbrook CM, Young HA, Haas DM, Winchester PD, Perry MJ. Association between increasing agricultural use of 2,4-D and population biomarkers of exposure: findings from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 2001-2014. Environ Health 2022; 21:23. [PMID: 35139875 PMCID: PMC8830015 DOI: 10.1186/s12940-021-00815-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2021] [Accepted: 12/08/2021] [Indexed: 05/15/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND 2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) is one of the most extensively used herbicides in the United States. In 2012, 2,4-D was the most widely used herbicide in non-agricultural settings and the fifth most heavily applied pesticide in the US agricultural sector. The objective of this study was to examine trends in 2,4-D urinary biomarker concentrations to determine whether increases in 2,4-D application in agriculture are associated with increases in biomonitoring levels of urine 2,4-D. METHODS Data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) with available urine 2,4-D biomarker measurements from survey cycles between 2001 and 2014 were utilized. Urine 2,4-D values were dichotomized using the highest limit of detection (LOD) across all cycles (0.40 μg/L or 0.4 ppb). Agricultural use of 2,4-D was estimated by compiling publicly available federal and private pesticide application data. Logistic regression models adjusted for confounders were fitted to evaluate the association between agricultural use of 2,4-D and urine 2,4-D level above the dichotomization threshold. RESULTS Of the 14,395 participants included in the study, 4681 (32.5%) had urine 2,4-D levels above the dichotomization threshold. The frequency of participants with high 2,4-D levels increased significantly (p < .0001), from a low of 17.1% in 2001-2002 to a high of 39.6% in 2011-2012. The adjusted odds of high urinary 2,4-D concentrations associated with 2,4-D agricultural use (per ten million pounds applied) was 2.268 (95% CI: 1.709, 3.009). Children ages 6-11 years (n = 2288) had 2.1 times higher odds of having high 2,4-D urinary concentrations compared to participants aged 20-59 years. Women of childbearing age (age 20-44 years) (n = 2172) had 1.85 times higher odds than men of the same age. CONCLUSIONS Agricultural use of 2,4-D has increased substantially from a low point in 2002 and it is predicted to increase further in the coming decade. Because increasing use is likely to increase population level exposures, the associations seen here between 2,4-D crop application and biomonitoring levels require focused biomonitoring and epidemiological evaluation to determine the extent to which rising use and exposures cause adverse health outcomes among vulnerable populations (particularly children and women of childbearing age) and highly exposed individuals (farmers, other herbicide applicators, and their families).
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Affiliation(s)
- Marlaina S Freisthler
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, Milken Institute School of Public Health, The George Washington University, 950 New Hampshire Ave NW Suite 400, Washington, DC, 20052, USA
| | - C Rebecca Robbins
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, Milken Institute School of Public Health, The George Washington University, 950 New Hampshire Ave NW Suite 400, Washington, DC, 20052, USA
| | | | - Heather A Young
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, Milken Institute School of Public Health, The George Washington University, 950 New Hampshire Ave NW Suite 400, Washington, DC, 20052, USA
| | - David M Haas
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, Indiana, USA
| | - Paul D Winchester
- Neonatology, Indiana University School of Medicine/Riley Hospital, Indianapolis, Indiana, USA
| | - Melissa J Perry
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, Milken Institute School of Public Health, The George Washington University, 950 New Hampshire Ave NW Suite 400, Washington, DC, 20052, USA.
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Pan X, Xu X, Song S, Xu L, Kuang H, Wu X, Liu L, Xu C. An ic-ELISA and immunochromatographic strip assay for the detection of 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid in bean sprouts and cabbage. J Pharm Biomed Anal 2021; 209:114524. [PMID: 34906920 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpba.2021.114524] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2021] [Revised: 12/01/2021] [Accepted: 12/04/2021] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
The compound 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) is a synthetic plant growth regulator, which is widely used in agricultural production. Consequently, it is necessary to establish a rapid and sensitive detection method to monitor its use and prevent the environmental and human health problems caused by overuse. In this study, a monoclonal antibody (mAb) 2D5 against 2,4-D was prepared, and based on it, an ic-ELISA and an immunochromatographic strip assay (ICA) were developed for rapid detection. The 50% inhibitory concentration (IC 50) of the mAb against 2,4-D was 1.7 ng mL-1 and the mAb showed no cross-reactivity with other plant growth regulators with similar structures to 2,4-D. Under optimum conditions, the ICA showed a visual detection limit (vLOD) of 20 ng mL-1 and a cut-off value of 200 ng mL-1 in bean sprouts, and cabbage samples gave the same results. The quantitative detection showed the linear detection ranges for bean sprouts and cabbage samples were 6.3-73.0 and 5.4-132.6 ng mL-1, respectively. The ICA was successfully applied to detect 2,4-D in bean sprouts and cabbage samples and achieved good recoveries ranging from 94.7% to 104.3% with a coefficient of variation (CV) less than 8.3%. Hence, the ICA provides a sensitive, efficient and reliable detection method, which has broad application prospects in the detection of a large number of samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaomin Pan
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, People's Republic of China; International Joint Research Laboratory for Biointerface and Biodetection, and School of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, People's Republic of China
| | - Xinxin Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, People's Republic of China; International Joint Research Laboratory for Biointerface and Biodetection, and School of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, People's Republic of China
| | - Shanshan Song
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, People's Republic of China; International Joint Research Laboratory for Biointerface and Biodetection, and School of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, People's Republic of China
| | - Liguang Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, People's Republic of China; International Joint Research Laboratory for Biointerface and Biodetection, and School of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, People's Republic of China
| | - Hua Kuang
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, People's Republic of China; International Joint Research Laboratory for Biointerface and Biodetection, and School of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, People's Republic of China
| | - Xiaoling Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, People's Republic of China; International Joint Research Laboratory for Biointerface and Biodetection, and School of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, People's Republic of China
| | - Liqiang Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, People's Republic of China; International Joint Research Laboratory for Biointerface and Biodetection, and School of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, People's Republic of China.
| | - Chuanlai Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, People's Republic of China; International Joint Research Laboratory for Biointerface and Biodetection, and School of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, People's Republic of China.
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Burns CJ, LaKind JS. Using the Matrix to bridge the epidemiology/risk assessment gap: a case study of 2,4-D. Crit Rev Toxicol 2021; 51:591-599. [PMID: 34796780 DOI: 10.1080/10408444.2021.1997911] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The Matrix is designed to facilitate discussions between practitioners of risk assessment and epidemiology and, in so doing, to enhance the utility of epidemiology research for public health decision-making. The Matrix is comprised of nine fundamental "asks" of epidemiology studies, focusing on the types of information valuable to the risk assessment process. OBJECTIVE A 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) case study highlights the extent to which existing epidemiology literature includes information generally needed for risk assessments and proffers suggestions that would assist in bridging the epidemiology/risk assessment gap. METHODS Thirty-one publications identified in the US Environmental Protection Agency 2,4-D epidemiology review were assessed. These studies focused on associations between 2,4-D exposure and non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL), respiratory effects, and birth outcomes. RESULTS Many of the papers met one or more specific elements of the Matrix. However, from this case study, it is clear that some aspects of risk assessment, such as evaluating source-to-intake pathways, are generally not considered in epidemiology research. Others are incorporated, but infrequently (e.g. dose-response information, harmonization of exposure categories). We indicated where additional analyses or modifications to future study design could serve to improve the translation. DISCUSSION Interaction with risk assessors during the study design phase and using the Matrix "asks" to guide the conversations could shape research and provide the basis for requests for funds to support these additional activities. The use of the Matrix as a foundation for communication and education across disciplines could produce more impactful and consequential epidemiology research for robust risk assessments and decision-making.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carol J Burns
- Burns Epidemiology Consulting, LLC, Sanford, MI, USA
| | - Judy S LaKind
- LaKind Associates, LLC, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Catonsville, MD, USA
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Mesnage R, Brandsma I, Moelijker N, Zhang G, Antoniou MN. Genotoxicity evaluation of 2,4-D, dicamba and glyphosate alone or in combination with cell reporter assays for DNA damage, oxidative stress and unfolded protein response. Food Chem Toxicol 2021; 157:112601. [PMID: 34626751 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2021.112601] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2021] [Revised: 09/03/2021] [Accepted: 10/04/2021] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
The current generation of carcinogenicity tests is often insufficient to predict cancer outcomes from pesticide exposures. In order to facilitate health risk assessment, The International Agency for Research on Cancer identified 10 key characteristics which are commonly exhibited by human carcinogens. The ToxTracker panel of six validated GFP-based mouse embryonic stem reporter cell lines is designed to measure a number of these carcinogenic properties namely DNA damage, oxidative stress and the unfolded protein response. Here we present an evaluation of the carcinogenic potential of the herbicides glyphosate, 2,4-D and dicamba either alone or in combination, using the ToxTracker assay system. The pesticide 2,4-D was found to be a strong inducer of oxidative stress and an unfolded protein response. Dicamba induced a mild oxidative stress response, whilst glyphosate did not elicit a positive outcome in any of the assays. The results from a mixture of the three herbicides was primarily an oxidative stress response, which was most likely due to 2,4-D with dicamba or glyphosate only playing a minor role. These findings provide initial information regarding the risk assessment of carcinogenic effects arising from exposure to a mixture of these herbicides.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robin Mesnage
- Gene Expression and Therapy Group, King's College London, Faculty of Life Sciences & Medicine, Department of Medical and Molecular Genetics, Guy's Hospital, London, SE1 9RT, UK
| | - Inger Brandsma
- Toxys, De Limes 7, 2342, DH, Oegstgeest, the Netherlands
| | | | - Gaonan Zhang
- Toxys, De Limes 7, 2342, DH, Oegstgeest, the Netherlands
| | - Michael N Antoniou
- Gene Expression and Therapy Group, King's College London, Faculty of Life Sciences & Medicine, Department of Medical and Molecular Genetics, Guy's Hospital, London, SE1 9RT, UK.
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Girón-Navarro R, Linares-Hernández I, Teutli-Sequeira EA, Martínez-Miranda V, Santoyo-Tepole F. Evaluation and comparison of advanced oxidation processes for the degradation of 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D): a review. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2021; 28:26325-26358. [PMID: 33825107 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-021-13730-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2020] [Accepted: 03/26/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Organochlorine pesticides have generated public concern worldwide because of their toxicity to human health and the environment, even at low concentrations, and their persistence, being mostly nonbiodegradable. The use of 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) has increased in recent decades, causing severe water contamination. Several treatments have been developed to degrade 2,4-D. This manuscript presents an overview of the physicochemical characteristics, uses, regulations, environmental and human health impacts of 2,4-D, and different advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) to degrade this organic compound, evaluating and comparing operation conditions, efficiencies, and intermediaries. Based on this review, 2,4-D degradation is highly efficient in ozonation (system O3/plasma, 99.8% in 30 min). Photocatalytic, photo-Fenton, and electrochemical processes have the optimal efficiencies of degradation and mineralization: 97%/79.67% (blue TiO2 nanotube arrays//UV), 100%/98% (Fe2+/H2O2/UV), and 100%/84.3% (MI-meso SnO2), respectively. The ozonation and electrochemical processes show high degradation efficiencies, but energy costs are also high, and photocatalysis is more expensive with a separation treatment used to recover the catalyst in the solution. The Fenton process is a viable economic-environmental option, but degradation efficiencies are often low (50-70%); however, they are increased when solar UV radiation is used (90-100%). AOPs are promising technologies for the degradation of organic pollutants in real wastewater, so evaluating their strengths and weaknesses is expected to help select viable operational conditions and obtain optimal efficiencies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rocío Girón-Navarro
- Instituto Interamericano de Tecnología y Ciencias de Agua (IITCA), Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México, Km.14.5, carretera Toluca-Atlacomulco, C, .P 50200, Toluca, Estado de México, México
| | - Ivonne Linares-Hernández
- Instituto Interamericano de Tecnología y Ciencias de Agua (IITCA), Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México, Km.14.5, carretera Toluca-Atlacomulco, C, .P 50200, Toluca, Estado de México, México.
| | - Elia Alejandra Teutli-Sequeira
- Instituto Interamericano de Tecnología y Ciencias de Agua (IITCA), Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México, Km.14.5, carretera Toluca-Atlacomulco, C, .P 50200, Toluca, Estado de México, México
- Cátedras del Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología, Av. Insurgentes Sur 1582, Col. Crédito Constructor. Alcaldía Benito Juárez, C.P 03940, Ciudad de México, México
| | - Verónica Martínez-Miranda
- Instituto Interamericano de Tecnología y Ciencias de Agua (IITCA), Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México, Km.14.5, carretera Toluca-Atlacomulco, C, .P 50200, Toluca, Estado de México, México.
| | - Fortunata Santoyo-Tepole
- Escuela Nacional de Ciencias Biológicas, Unidad Profesional Lázaro Cárdenas, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Carpio y Plan de Ayala, Ciudad de México, México
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Burns CJ, Juberg DR. Cancer and occupational exposure to pesticides: an umbrella review. Int Arch Occup Environ Health 2021; 94:945-957. [PMID: 33495906 PMCID: PMC8238729 DOI: 10.1007/s00420-020-01638-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2020] [Accepted: 12/17/2020] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Purpose The aim was to identify the scope of the epidemiology literature reviewed regarding the risk of cancer as related to occupational exposure to pesticides and to compare regulatory toxicity results where feasible. Methods Review studies of breast, lung, prostate, non-Hodgkin lymphoma, and colorectal cancer were identified from the published literature from 2010 to 2020 using a priori inclusion and exclusion criteria. Epidemiology observations were first assessed and then compared against carcinogenicity profiles derived from regulatory toxicology studies. Results Several active ingredients were associated with specific cancer but overall, there was neither strong nor consistent epidemiologic data supportive of a positive association between pesticide exposure in occupational settings and cancer. Authors noted common themes related to the heterogeneity of exposure, study design, control for confounders, and the challenge to collect these data reliably and validly with an adequate sample size. Toxicology studies in laboratory animals that assessed carcinogenic potential did not reveal cancer outcomes that were concordant with reported epidemiologic findings. Conclusions Farming and pesticides represent diverse exposures that are difficult to quantify in epidemiologic studies. Going forward, investigators will need creative and novel approaches for exposure assessment. Integration of epidemiologic and toxicological studies with attention to biological plausibility, mode of toxicological action and relevance to humans will increase the ability to better assess associations between pesticides and cancer. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s00420-020-01638-y.
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Larsen K, Black P, Rydz E, Nicol AM, Peters CE. Using geographic information systems to estimate potential pesticide exposure at the population level in Canada. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2020; 191:110100. [PMID: 32853660 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2020.110100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2020] [Revised: 08/11/2020] [Accepted: 08/12/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Residents in close proximity to agricultural land are at risk of higher pesticide exposures. The purpose of this study was to generate national population-level exposure estimates for Canada for three commonly applied pesticides that are suspected carcinogens (2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D), glyphosate and chlorothalonil). Using geographic information systems, pesticide exposure was estimated for every - census subdivision (CSD) in Canada (n = 5054) by combining raster-based surfaces for the distribution of crops with average crop-specific pesticide application rates data. Analyses examined all identified crops in combination with different pesticide application rates to obtain a cumulative potential total exposure. Specifically, the number of acres of particular crops were calculated for each CSD and then multiplied by the average pesticide application rates data, summed across crops, and combined with population data by CSD to provide a potential pesticide exposure estimate for each CSD. Results demonstrate that the population exposure varies greatly depending on agricultural production by CSD region. For example, in Ontario, the 2,4-D application rate was an average of 361 kg/km2, while in Saskatchewan, which primarily grows field/cereal crops, 2,4-D application rates were much higher (3810 kg/km2). The highest potential exposures to all three pesticides were in the prairie provinces (Alberta, Saskatchewan, Manitoba) along with Prince Edward Island, Southern Quebec and British Columbia. This work can be used in conjunction with other exposure assessment approaches to better understand overall pesticide exposure among Canada's general population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristian Larsen
- CAREX Canada, Faculty of Health Sciences, Simon Fraser University, Vancouver, BC, Canada; Department of Geography and Planning, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada; Department of Geography and Environmental Studies, Ryerson University, Toronto, ON, Canada.
| | - Paleah Black
- CAREX Canada, Faculty of Health Sciences, Simon Fraser University, Vancouver, BC, Canada; Ecotox Consulting, Victoria, BC, Canada
| | - Ela Rydz
- CAREX Canada, Faculty of Health Sciences, Simon Fraser University, Vancouver, BC, Canada; Occupational Cancer Research Centre, Cancer Care Ontario, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Anne-Marie Nicol
- CAREX Canada, Faculty of Health Sciences, Simon Fraser University, Vancouver, BC, Canada; Faculty of Health Sciences, Simon Fraser University, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Cheryl E Peters
- CAREX Canada, Faculty of Health Sciences, Simon Fraser University, Vancouver, BC, Canada; Preventive Oncology & Community Health Sciences. University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada; Cancer Epidemiology and Prevention Research, Alberta Health Services, Calgary, AB, Canada
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Zuanazzi NR, Ghisi NDC, Oliveira EC. Analysis of global trends and gaps for studies about 2,4-D herbicide toxicity: A scientometric review. CHEMOSPHERE 2020; 241:125016. [PMID: 31683446 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2019.125016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2019] [Revised: 09/27/2019] [Accepted: 09/29/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) is a herbicide that is used worldwide in agricultural and urban activities to control pests, reaching natural environments directly or indirectly. The research on 2,4-D toxicology and mutagenicity has advanced rapidly, and for this reason, this review summarizes the available data in Web of Science (WoS) to provide insights into the specific characteristics of 2,4-D toxicity and mutagenicity. Contrary to traditional reviews, this study uses a new method to quantitatively visualize and summarize information about the development of this field. Among all countries, the USA was the most active contributor with the largest publication and centrality, followed by Canada and China. The WoS categories 'Toxicology' and 'Biochemical and Molecular Biology' were the areas of greatest influence. 2,4-D research was strongly related to the keywords glyphosate, atrazine, water and gene expression. The studies trended to be focused on occupational risk, neurotoxicity, resistance or tolerance to herbicides, and to non-target species (especially aquatic ones) and molecular imprinting. In general, the authors have worked collaboratively, with concentrated efforts, allowing important advances in this field. Future research on 2,4-D toxicology and mutagenicity should probably focus on molecular biology, especially gene expression, assessment of exposure in human or other vertebrate bioindicators, and pesticide degradation studies. In summary, this scientometric analysis allowed us to make inferences about global trends in 2,4-D toxicology and mutagenicity, in order to identify tendencies and gaps and thus contribute to future research efforts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natana Raquel Zuanazzi
- Federal University of Technology - Paraná, Campus Dois Vizinhos (UTFPR-DV), Estrada para Boa Esperança, km 4, 85660-000, Dois Vizinhos, Brazil.
| | - Nédia de Castilhos Ghisi
- Federal University of Technology - Paraná - Paraná, Campus Dois Vizinhos (UTFPR-DV), Estrada para (Road to) Boa Esperança, km 4, 85660-000, Dois Vizinhos, Brazil.
| | - Elton Celton Oliveira
- Federal University of Technology - Paraná, Campus Dois Vizinhos (UTFPR-DV), Estrada para Boa Esperança, km 4, 85660-000, Dois Vizinhos, Brazil.
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Leon ME, Schinasi LH, Lebailly P, Beane Freeman LE, Nordby KC, Ferro G, Monnereau A, Brouwer M, Tual S, Baldi I, Kjaerheim K, Hofmann JN, Kristensen P, Koutros S, Straif K, Kromhout H, Schüz J. Pesticide use and risk of non-Hodgkin lymphoid malignancies in agricultural cohorts from France, Norway and the USA: a pooled analysis from the AGRICOH consortium. Int J Epidemiol 2019; 48:1519-1535. [PMID: 30880337 PMCID: PMC6857760 DOI: 10.1093/ije/dyz017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 02/04/2019] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Pesticides are commonly used in agriculture, and previous studies endorsed the need to further investigate the possible association between their use and risk of lymphoid malignancies in agricultural workers. METHODS We investigated the relationship of ever use of 14 selected pesticide chemical groups and 33 individual active chemical ingredients with non-Hodgkin lymphoid malignancies (NHL) overall or major subtypes, in a pooled analysis of three large agricultural worker cohorts. Pesticide use was derived from self-reported history of crops cultivated combined with crop-exposure matrices (France and Norway) or self-reported lifetime use of active ingredients (USA). Cox regression models were used to estimate cohort-specific hazard ratios (HRs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs), which were combined using random effects meta-analysis to calculate meta-HRs. RESULTS During follow-up, 2430 NHL cases were diagnosed in 316 270 farmers accruing 3 574 815 person-years under risk. Most meta-HRs suggested no association. Moderately elevated meta-HRs were seen for: NHL and ever use of terbufos (meta-HR = 1.18, 95% CI: 1.00-1.39); chronic lymphocytic leukaemia/small lymphocytic lymphoma and deltamethrin (1.48, 1.06-2.07); and diffuse large B-cell lymphoma and glyphosate (1.36, 1.00-1.85); as well as inverse associations of NHL with the broader groups of organochlorine insecticides (0.86, 0.74-0.99) and phenoxy herbicides (0.81, 0.67-0.98), but not with active ingredients within these groups, after adjusting for exposure to other pesticides. CONCLUSIONS Associations of pesticides with NHL appear to be subtype- and chemical-specific. Non-differential exposure misclassification was an important limitation, showing the need for refinement of exposure estimates and exposure-response analyses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria E Leon
- Section of Environment and Radiation, International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), Lyon, France
| | - Leah H Schinasi
- Section of Environment and Radiation, International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), Lyon, France
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, Drexel University, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Pierre Lebailly
- ANTICIPE, U1086 INSERM, Université de Caen Normandie, and Centre de Lutte Contre le Cancer François Baclesse, Caen, France
| | - Laura E Beane Freeman
- Occupational and Environmental Epidemiology Branch, Division of Cancer Epidemiology and Genetics, National Cancer Institute (NCI), Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Karl-Christian Nordby
- Department of Occupational Medicine and Epidemiology, National Institute of Occupational Health (STAMI), Oslo, Norway
| | - Gilles Ferro
- Section of Environment and Radiation, International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), Lyon, France
| | - Alain Monnereau
- Hematological Malignancies Registry of Gironde, Bergonie Institute, Comprehensive Cancer Centre, Bordeaux, France
- University of Bordeaux, INSERM U1219 Center - EPICENE Team, CHU de Bordeaux, Bordeaux, France
| | - Maartje Brouwer
- Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences (IRAS), Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Séverine Tual
- ANTICIPE, U1086 INSERM, Université de Caen Normandie, and Centre de Lutte Contre le Cancer François Baclesse, Caen, France
| | - Isabelle Baldi
- CHU de Bordeaux, Service de Médecine du Travail et Pathologie Professionnelle, Bordeaux, France
| | | | - Jonathan N Hofmann
- Occupational and Environmental Epidemiology Branch, Division of Cancer Epidemiology and Genetics, National Cancer Institute (NCI), Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Petter Kristensen
- Department of Occupational Medicine and Epidemiology, National Institute of Occupational Health (STAMI), Oslo, Norway
| | - Stella Koutros
- Occupational and Environmental Epidemiology Branch, Division of Cancer Epidemiology and Genetics, National Cancer Institute (NCI), Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Kurt Straif
- Section of Evidence Synthesis and Classification, International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), Lyon, France
| | - Hans Kromhout
- Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences (IRAS), Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Joachim Schüz
- Section of Environment and Radiation, International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), Lyon, France
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11
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Evaluation of non-invasive biomonitoring of 2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) in saliva. Toxicology 2018; 410:171-181. [PMID: 30118794 DOI: 10.1016/j.tox.2018.08.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2018] [Revised: 08/01/2018] [Accepted: 08/09/2018] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The objective of this study was to evaluate the potential for non-invasive biomonitoring of 2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) in saliva. Using an in vitro rat salivary gland epithelial cell (SGEC) system, a collection of experiments investigating chemical protein binding, temporal and directional transport, as well as competitive transport with para-aminohippuric acid (PAH), a substrate for renal organic anion transporters, was conducted to identify cellular transport parameters required to computationally model salivary transport of 2,4-D. Additionally, a physiological protein gradient was implemented to mimic physiologically relevant concentrations of protein in rat plasma and saliva, and under these conditions the transfer of 2,4-D was markedly slower, driven by increased protein binding (i.e. reduced free 2,4-D species available to cross salivary barrier). The rate of transfer was directly proportional to the amount of unbound 2,4-D and demonstrated no indication of active transport. An in vivo assessment of 2,4-D exposure in rats revealed non-linear protein binding in plasma, indicating saturated protein binding and increased levels of unbound 2,4-D species at higher doses. A strong correlation between 2,4-D concentrations in saliva and unbound 2,4-D in plasma was observed (Pearson correlation coefficient = 0.95). Saliva:plasma 2,4-D ratios measured in vivo (0.0079) were consistent within the linear protein binding range and expected 2,4-D levels from occupational exposures but were significantly different than ratios measured in vitro (physiological conditions) (0.034), possibly due to 2,4-D concentrations in saliva not being at equilibrium with 2,4-D concentrations in blood, as well as physiological features absent in in vitro settings (e.g. blood flow). We demonstrated that 2,4-D is consistently transported into saliva using both in vitro and in vivo models, making 2,4-D a potential candidate for human non-invasive salivary biomonitoring. Further work is needed to understand whether current sensor limits of detection are sufficient to measure occupationally relevant exposures.
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12
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Islam F, Wang J, Farooq MA, Khan MSS, Xu L, Zhu J, Zhao M, Muños S, Li QX, Zhou W. Potential impact of the herbicide 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid on human and ecosystems. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2018; 111:332-351. [PMID: 29203058 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2017.10.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 171] [Impact Index Per Article: 28.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2017] [Revised: 10/18/2017] [Accepted: 10/20/2017] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
The herbicide 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) is applied directly to aquatic and conventional farming systems to control weeds, and is among the most widely distributed pollutants in the environment. Non-target organisms are exposed to 2,4-D via several ways, which could produce toxic effects depending on the dose, frequency of exposure, and the host factors that influence susceptibility and sensitivity. An increasing number of experimental evidences have shown concerns about its presence/detection in the environment, because several investigations have pointed out its potential lethal effects on non-target organisms. In this review, we critically evaluated the environmental fate and behavior of 2,4-D along with its eco-toxicological effects on aquatic, plants and human life to provide concise assessment in the light of recently published reports. The findings demonstrate that 2,4-D is present in a low concentration in surface water of regions where its usage is high. The highest concentrations of 2,4-D were detected in soil, air and surface water surrounded by crop fields, which suggest that mitigation strategies must be implanted locally to prevent the entry of 2,4-D into the environment. A general public may have frequent exposure to 2,4-D due to its wide applications at home lawns and public parks, etc. Various in vivo and in vitro investigations suggest that several species (or their organs) at different trophic levels are extremely sensitive to the 2,4-D exposure, which may explain variation in outcomes of reported investigations. However, implications for the prenatal exposure to 2,4-D remain unknown because 2,4-D-induced toxicity thresholds in organism have only been derived from juveniles or adults. In near future, introduction of 2,4-D resistant crops will increase its use in agriculture, which may cause relatively high and potentially unsafe residue levels in the environment. The recent findings indicate the urgent need to further explore fate, accumulation and its continuous low level exposure impacts on the environment to generate reliable database which is key in drafting new regulation and policies to protect the population from further exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Faisal Islam
- College of Agriculture and Biotechnology, Zhejiang Key Laboratory of Crop Germplasm, Institute of Crop Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Jian Wang
- College of Agriculture and Biotechnology, Zhejiang Key Laboratory of Crop Germplasm, Institute of Crop Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Muhammad A Farooq
- College of Agriculture and Biotechnology, Zhejiang Key Laboratory of Crop Germplasm, Institute of Crop Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China; Institute of Pure and Applied Biology, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan 60800, Pakistan
| | - Muhammad S S Khan
- College of Agriculture and Biotechnology, Zhejiang Key Laboratory of Crop Germplasm, Institute of Crop Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Ling Xu
- Zhejiang Key Laboratory of Plant Secondary Metabolism and Regulation, College of Life Sciences, Zhejiang Sci-Tech University, Hangzhou 310018, China
| | - Jinwen Zhu
- College of Agriculture and Biotechnology, Zhejiang Key Laboratory of Crop Germplasm, Institute of Crop Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Min Zhao
- Zhejiang Key Laboratory for Subtropical Water Environment and Marine Biological Resources Protection, Wenzhou University, Wenzhou 325035, China
| | - Stéphane Muños
- Laboratoire des Interactions Plantes Micro-organismes, Université de Toulouse, CNRS-INRA, 441-2594, France
| | - Qing X Li
- Department of Molecular Biosciences and Bioengineering, University of Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu 96822, USA
| | - Weijun Zhou
- College of Agriculture and Biotechnology, Zhejiang Key Laboratory of Crop Germplasm, Institute of Crop Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China.
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13
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Mescher C, Gilbertson D, Randall NM, Tarchand G, Tomaska J, Baumann Kreuziger L, Morrison VA. The impact of Agent Orange exposure on prognosis and management in patients with chronic lymphocytic leukemia: a National Veteran Affairs Tumor Registry Study. Leuk Lymphoma 2017; 59:1348-1355. [PMID: 28905668 DOI: 10.1080/10428194.2017.1375109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Exposure to Agent Orange (AO) has been associated with the development of chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL). We performed a retrospective study of 2052 Vietnam veterans identified in the National VA Tumor Registry to assess the impact of AO exposure on CLL prognosis, treatment and survival. Prognostic factors did not differ based on exposure. Veterans exposed to AO were diagnosed younger (63.2 vs. 70.5 years, p < .0001) and had longer overall survival (median not reached vs. 91 months, p < .001). This prolonged survival was in the subgroups of patients aged 60-69 years (p< .0001) and those with 11q deletion (p < .0001). Those exposed to AO were more likely to be treated with fludarabine, chlorambucil and rituximab (38 vs. 21%, p < .001) and bendamustine plus rituximab (25 vs. 18%, p = 0.039) as first line therapy. Exposure to AO was not associated with either poor prognostic factors or shortened overall survival in our large veteran population with CLL.
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Affiliation(s)
- Craig Mescher
- a Division of Hematology, Oncology and Transplant , University of Minnesota , Minneapolis , MN , USA
| | - David Gilbertson
- b Chronic Disease Research Group , Minneapolis Medical Research Foundation , Minneapolis , MN , USA
| | - Nicole M Randall
- c Indiana Hemophilia & Thrombosis Center , Indianapolis , IN , USA
| | | | - Julie Tomaska
- d Veterans Affairs Medical Center , Minneapolis , MN , USA
| | - Lisa Baumann Kreuziger
- e Blood Center of Wisconsin , Milwaukee , WI , USA.,f Department of Medicine, Division of Hematology , Medical College of Wisconsin , Minneapolis , MN , USA
| | - Vicki A Morrison
- g Hematology/Oncology & Infectious Disease , University of Minnesota , Minneapolis , MN , USA.,h Hennepin County Medical Center , Minneapolis , MN , USA
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14
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Smith AM, Smith MT, La Merrill MA, Liaw J, Steinmaus C. 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) and risk of non-Hodgkin lymphoma: a meta-analysis accounting for exposure levels. Ann Epidemiol 2017; 27:281-289.e4. [PMID: 28476329 DOI: 10.1016/j.annepidem.2017.03.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2016] [Revised: 01/06/2017] [Accepted: 03/19/2017] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) is one of the most commonly used selective herbicides in the world. A number of epidemiology studies have found an association between 2,4-D exposure and non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL) but these results are inconsistent and controversial. A previous meta-analysis found no clear association overall but did not specifically examine high-exposure groups. We conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis of the peer-reviewed epidemiologic studies of the associations between 2,4-D and NHL, with a particular focus on high-exposure groups, and evaluations of heterogeneity, dose-response, and bias. A total of 12 observational studies, 11 case-control studies, and one cohort study, were included. The summary relative risk for NHL using study results comparing subjects who were ever versus never exposed to 2,4-D was 1.38 (95% confidence interval (CI), 1.07-1.77). However, in analyses focusing on results from highly exposed groups, the summary relative risk for NHL was 1.73 (95% CI, 1.10-2.72). No clear bias based on study design, exposure assessment methodology, or outcome misclassification was seen. Overall, these findings provide new evidence for an association between NHL and exposure to the herbicide 2,4-D.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam M Smith
- School of Public Health, University of California at Berkeley, Berkeley
| | - Martyn T Smith
- School of Public Health, University of California at Berkeley, Berkeley
| | - Michele A La Merrill
- Department of Environmental Toxicology, Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of California at Davis, Davis
| | - Jane Liaw
- Arsenic Health Effects Research Program, UC Berkeley School of Public Health, Berkeley, CA
| | - Craig Steinmaus
- Arsenic Health Effects Research Program, UC Berkeley School of Public Health, Berkeley, CA.
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15
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Costa VIDBD, Mello MSDCD, Friedrich K. Exposição ambiental e ocupacional a agrotóxicos e o linfoma não Hodgkin. SAÚDE EM DEBATE 2017. [DOI: 10.1590/0103-1104201711205] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
RESUMO Este ensaio versa sobre a exposição a agrotóxicos e o risco de desenvolvimento de linfoma não Hodgkin (LNH), um tipo de câncer hematológico que teve aumento progressivo nas últimas décadas no Brasil e no mundo. Foi realizada uma revisão integrativa para avaliar a associação de agrotóxicos com a indução de LNH. A pesquisa mostrou que os agrotóxicos ácido diclorofenoxiacético (2,4-D), diazinona, glifosato e malationa estão associados a essa neoplasia e compartilham alguns mecanismos de carcinogenicidade. Essas informações podem subsidiar medidas regulatórias mais restritivas e que contemplem a realidade da exposição a misturas de agrotóxicos, amplamente utilizados no meio rural e urbano.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Karen Friedrich
- Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Brazil; Universidade Federal do Estado do Rio de Janeiro, Brasil
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16
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Goodman JE, Loftus CT, Zu K. 2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid and non-Hodgkin's lymphoma: results from the Agricultural Health Study and an updated meta-analysis. Ann Epidemiol 2017; 27:290-292.e5. [PMID: 28292638 DOI: 10.1016/j.annepidem.2017.01.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2016] [Accepted: 01/30/2017] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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17
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Lurquin PF. Production of a toxic metabolite in 2,4-D-resistant GM crop plants. 3 Biotech 2016; 6:82. [PMID: 28330152 PMCID: PMC4764611 DOI: 10.1007/s13205-016-0387-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2015] [Accepted: 10/24/2015] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
This Note questions the safety of crop plants engineered with transgenes coding for the degradation of the herbicide 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) into its cytotoxic metabolite 2,4-dichlorophenol (2,4-DCP).
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