1
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Ioannidou M, Francis KB, Stewart-Knox B, Lesk V. Minding some animals but not others: Strategic attributions of mental capacities and moral worth to animals used for food in pescatarians, vegetarians, and omnivores. Appetite 2024; 200:107559. [PMID: 38880280 DOI: 10.1016/j.appet.2024.107559] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2024] [Revised: 06/12/2024] [Accepted: 06/13/2024] [Indexed: 06/18/2024]
Abstract
While moral concern for animals has become increasingly important for both consumer food choice and food policy makers, previous research demonstrated that meat eaters attribute lower moral status and mental capacities to animals raised for meat compared to non-food animals. The current research investigated whether this strategic flexibility in moral concern and mind perceptions also occurs when considering aquatic food animals and animals used for dairy and egg products, and the degree to which these concerns and perceptions are evident in pescatarians and vegetarians. We compared perceptions (mind attributions and moral concern) of land food animals versus aquatic food animals, and of animals in the meat versus dairy and egg industry between omnivores (n = 122), pescatarians (n = 118), vegetarians (n = 138), vegans (n = 120), and flexitarians (n = 60). Pescatarians scored lower than other dietary groups on moral concern and mind attribution for aquatic animals relative to farmed land animals. Unlike the other dietary groups, pescatarians and vegetarians scored lower on moral concern and mind attribution for dairy than beef cows and for layer chickens than broiler chickens. These findings demonstrate that pescatarians and vegetarians were flexible in their moral thinking about different types of food animals in ways that suited their consumption habits, even when the same animal was evaluated (e.g., dairy vs beef cows). This research highlights the psychological barriers that might prevent people from reducing animal product consumption and may need to be addressed in interventions to encourage transitioning towards more plant-based diets.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Valerie Lesk
- Department of Psychology, University of Bradford, UK
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2
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Oh S, Lee S. Fish Welfare-Related Issues and Their Relevance in Land-Based Olive Flounder ( Paralichthys olivaceus) Farms in Korea. Animals (Basel) 2024; 14:1693. [PMID: 38891740 PMCID: PMC11171225 DOI: 10.3390/ani14111693] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2024] [Revised: 05/21/2024] [Accepted: 06/03/2024] [Indexed: 06/21/2024] Open
Abstract
Korean aquaculture has expanded considerably in recent decades; however, this growth has often prioritized quantity over fish welfare. Therefore, we analyzed the aquaculture practices of olive flounder, the predominant species in Korean consumption and production, within the framework of fish welfare. We conducted extensive interviews and surveys across olive flounder farms in Jeju-do and Wando to examine prevalent issues impacting fish welfare in aquaculture. These issues include stressors, mass mortality events, and disease outbreaks, all of which strain the welfare of farmed fish. Moreover, our survey revealed farmers' varying perceptions of fish welfare, highlighting the necessity for a cohesive approach. Accordingly, we propose recommendations to enhance fish welfare and establish a more sustainable aquaculture model in Korea. Ensuring fish welfare in aquaculture operations requires a comprehensive approach that considers the physiological and behavioral needs of fish throughout the farming lifecycle. By prioritizing fish welfare, Korean aquaculture can strengthen its growth while maintaining ethical standards and ensuring the well-being of farmed fish. This welfare-centric approach is crucial for the long-term sustainability and resilience of the Korean aquaculture industry. By addressing welfare concerns and promoting responsible practices, Korean aquaculture can foster an ethically sound and sustainable future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seoyeon Oh
- Fisheries Policy Research Department, The Korean Maritime Institute Busan, Busan 49111, Republic of Korea;
| | - Seunghyung Lee
- Major of Aquaculture and Applied Life Sciences, Division of Fisheries Life Sciences, Pukyong National University, Busan 48513, Republic of Korea
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3
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Lambert H, Cornish A, Waley D. The value of regulating stocking densities in aquaculture must not be dismissed: a reply to Saraiva et al. 2022. Front Vet Sci 2024; 10:1335667. [PMID: 38236529 PMCID: PMC10792038 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2023.1335667] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2023] [Accepted: 12/05/2023] [Indexed: 01/19/2024] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Helen Lambert
- Animal Welfare Consultancy, Kingsteignton, United Kingdom
| | - Amelia Cornish
- Animal Welfare Consultancy, Kingsteignton, United Kingdom
| | - Doug Waley
- Eurogroup for Animals, Brussels, Belgium
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4
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Crespi-Abril AC, Rubilar T. Ethical Considerations for Echinoderms: New Initiatives in Welfare. Animals (Basel) 2023; 13:3377. [PMID: 37958130 PMCID: PMC10647474 DOI: 10.3390/ani13213377] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2023] [Revised: 10/28/2023] [Accepted: 10/30/2023] [Indexed: 11/15/2023] Open
Abstract
This paper explores the ethical considerations surrounding research on echinoderms, a group of invertebrates that has recently garnered attention in the scientific community. The importance of responsible animal handling and the need for an ethical framework that encompasses echinoderms are emphasized. The 3Rs principle, advocating for the replacement of conscious living vertebrates with non-sentient material in research, is discussed as a guiding tool in current animal research practices. As invertebrates are generally classified as non-sentient animals, the replacement dimension tends to favor them as prevalent models in experimental research. While it currently lacks the means to assess the mental states of invertebrates, there is undeniable evidence of social behavior in many species, suggesting that a lack of interactions with these organisms could potentially adversely affect their wellbeing. In the last few years, considerable progress has been made in developing an ethical framework that takes invertebrates into account, particularly cephalopods, crustaceans, and echinoderms. In this context, we discuss the development of a broader conceptual framework of 5Rs that includes responsibility and respect, which may guide practices ensuring welfare in echinoderms, even in the absence of any particular normative.
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Affiliation(s)
- Augusto César Crespi-Abril
- Instituto Patagónico del Mar (IPaM), Universidad Nacional del a Patagonia San Juan Bosco (UNPSJB), Boulevard Brown 2915, Puerto Madryn 9120, Argentina
- Laboratorio de Oceanografía Biológica (LOBio), Centro Para el Estudio de Sistemas Marinos (CESIMAR–CONICET), Boulevard Brown 2915, Puerto Madryn 9120, Argentina;
| | - Tamara Rubilar
- Laboratorio de Oceanografía Biológica (LOBio), Centro Para el Estudio de Sistemas Marinos (CESIMAR–CONICET), Boulevard Brown 2915, Puerto Madryn 9120, Argentina;
- Laboratorio de Química de Organismos Marinos (LabQuiOM), Instituto Patagónico del Mar (IPAM), Facultad de Ciencias Naturales y Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad Nacional de la Patagonia San Juan Bosco, Boulevard Brown 2930, Puerto Madryn 9120, Argentina
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5
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Pedrazzani AS, Cozer N, Quintiliano MH, Tavares CPDS, Biernaski V, Ostrensky A. From egg to slaughter: monitoring the welfare of Nile tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus, throughout their entire life cycle in aquaculture. Front Vet Sci 2023; 10:1268396. [PMID: 37808101 PMCID: PMC10551173 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2023.1268396] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2023] [Accepted: 08/29/2023] [Indexed: 10/10/2023] Open
Abstract
The primary aim of this study was to comprehensively evaluate the welfare of Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) throughout their entire life cycle within aquaculture, spanning from reproduction to slaughter. The methodology was structured to identify welfare indicators closely aligned with the principles of animal freedoms defined by the Farm Animal Council, encompassing environmental, health, nutritional, behavioral, and psychological freedom. Notably, psychological freedom was inherently considered within the behavioral and physical analyses of the animals. To accomplish this, an integrative systematic literature review was conducted to define precise indicators and their corresponding reference values for each stage of tilapia cultivation. These reference values were subsequently categorized using a scoring system that assessed the deviation of each indicator from established ideal (score 1), tolerable (score 2), and critical (score 3) ranges for the welfare of the target species. Subsequently, a laboratory experiment was executed to validate the pre-selected health indicators, specifically tailored for the early life stages of tilapia. This test facilitated an assessment of the applicability of these indicators under operational conditions. Building on the insights gained from this experimentation, partial welfare indices (PWIs) were computed for each assessed freedom, culminating in the derivation of a general welfare index (GWI). Mathematical equations were employed to calculate these indices, offering a quantitative and standardized measure of welfare. This approach equips tilapia farmers and processors with the tools necessary for the continuous monitoring and enhancement of their production systems and stimulate the adoption of more sustainable and ethical practices within the tilapia farming.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Silvia Pedrazzani
- Wai Ora—Aquaculture and Environmental Technology Ltd., Curitiba, State of Paraná, Brazil
| | - Nathieli Cozer
- Wai Ora—Aquaculture and Environmental Technology Ltd., Curitiba, State of Paraná, Brazil
- Graduate Program in Animal Science, Federal University of Paraná, Curitiba, State of Paraná, Brazil
- Integrated Group of Aquaculture and Environmental Studies (GIA), Department of Animal Science, Agricultural Sciences Sector, Federal University of Paraná, Curitiba, State of Paraná, Brazil
| | | | - Camila Prestes dos Santos Tavares
- Wai Ora—Aquaculture and Environmental Technology Ltd., Curitiba, State of Paraná, Brazil
- Integrated Group of Aquaculture and Environmental Studies (GIA), Department of Animal Science, Agricultural Sciences Sector, Federal University of Paraná, Curitiba, State of Paraná, Brazil
- Graduate Program in Zoology, Federal University of Paraná, Curitiba, State of Paraná, Brazil
| | - Vilmar Biernaski
- Integrated Group of Aquaculture and Environmental Studies (GIA), Department of Animal Science, Agricultural Sciences Sector, Federal University of Paraná, Curitiba, State of Paraná, Brazil
| | - Antonio Ostrensky
- Wai Ora—Aquaculture and Environmental Technology Ltd., Curitiba, State of Paraná, Brazil
- Integrated Group of Aquaculture and Environmental Studies (GIA), Department of Animal Science, Agricultural Sciences Sector, Federal University of Paraná, Curitiba, State of Paraná, Brazil
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6
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Elwood RW. Behavioural Indicators of Pain and Suffering in Arthropods and Might Pain Bite Back? Animals (Basel) 2023; 13:2602. [PMID: 37627393 PMCID: PMC10451332 DOI: 10.3390/ani13162602] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2023] [Revised: 08/07/2023] [Accepted: 08/08/2023] [Indexed: 08/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Pain in response to tissue damage functions to change behaviour so that further damage is minimised whereas healing and survival are promoted. This paper focuses on the behavioural criteria that match the function to ask if pain is likely in the main taxa of arthropods. There is evidence consistent with the idea of pain in crustaceans, insects and, to a lesser extent, spiders. There is little evidence of pain in millipedes, centipedes, scorpions, and horseshoe crabs but there have been few investigations of these groups. Alternative approaches in the study of pain are explored and it is suggested that studies on traumatic mating, agonistic interactions, and defensive venoms might provide clues about pain. The evolution of high cognitive ability, sensory systems, and flexible decision-making is discussed as well as how these might influence the evolution of pain-like states.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert W Elwood
- School of Biological Sciences, Queen's University Belfast, Belfast BT9 5DL, UK
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7
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Andersen L, Rønneseth A, Powell MD, Brønstad A. Defining piscine endpoints: Towards score sheets for assessment of clinical signs in fish research. Lab Anim 2023; 57:455-467. [PMID: 36803282 DOI: 10.1177/00236772231156031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/23/2023]
Abstract
The seminar 'Severity and humane endpoints in fish research' organized by the University of Bergen, the Industrial and Aquatic Laboratory, together with Fondazione Guido Bernadini, took place on 4 October 2019 in Bergen, Norway. The seminar was followed by a workshop, 'Establishing score sheets and defining endpoints in fish experiments', held on 28 January 2020, also in Bergen. The purpose of the seminar was to raise awareness about fish ethics together with severity classification and humane endpoints in fish studies, using examples from farmed fish, mainly salmonids and lumpfish. The overall aim of the workshop was to better define humane endpoints in fish experiments, as well as to discuss suggestions for development and use of score sheets for assessing clinical signs related to endpoints. Endpoints for fish should not only be based on what we know about fish diseases and the lesions they induce but should also take into consideration knowledge about fish species and life stage, fish anatomy, physiology and the general state and behaviour of the fish. For this reason, to reinforce that endpoints should come from the animal's perspective and needs, we renamed humane endpoints for fish to piscine endpoints. This paper reports the main messages from the workshop sessions including advice on development and use of score sheets.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Andersen
- The Industrial and Aquatic Laboratory (ILAB), Norway
| | - A Rønneseth
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Bergen, Norway
| | | | - A Brønstad
- Department of Clinical Medicine, University of Bergen, Norway
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8
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Hart PJB. Exploring the limits to our understanding of whether fish feel pain. JOURNAL OF FISH BIOLOGY 2023; 102:1272-1280. [PMID: 36961257 DOI: 10.1111/jfb.15386] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2023] [Accepted: 03/19/2023] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Paul J B Hart
- Department of Neuroscience, Psychology and Behaviour, School of Life Sciences, University of Leicester, Leicester, UK
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9
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Ioannidou M, Lesk V, Stewart-Knox B, Francis KB. Moral emotions and justifying beliefs about meat, fish, dairy and egg consumption: A comparative study of dietary groups. Appetite 2023; 186:106544. [PMID: 36965525 DOI: 10.1016/j.appet.2023.106544] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2022] [Revised: 03/13/2023] [Accepted: 03/18/2023] [Indexed: 03/27/2023]
Abstract
Meat eaters and meat abstainers differ in their beliefs and moral emotions related to meat consumption alongside gender differences. Few studies have investigated beliefs and moral emotions in pescatarians and vegans. Little is known about differences in moral emotions and beliefs regarding dairy, eggs, and fish or about speciesist beliefs within and between specific dietary groups. To address this gap, we investigated moral emotions (consumption-related disgust and guilt), attitudes towards animals (Animal Attitudes Scale) and justifying beliefs related to meat (Carnism Inventory), dairy, egg, and fish consumption in omnivores (n = 167), pescatarians (n = 110), vegetarians (n = 116), and vegans (n = 149). Results showed that people who consumed animal-derived products reported lower disgust and guilt and held stronger justifying beliefs about consumption of these products than those who did not consume animal products. All dietary groups significantly differed from each other in their attitudes about using animals for human benefit, with omnivores showing the least positive attitudes towards animals, followed by pescatarians and vegetarians, and with vegans showing the most positive attitudes towards animals. Women experienced greater moral emotions and held fewer justifying beliefs than men within groups where animal products were consumed and related to the animal-based products they consume (i.e., fish for pescatarians and eggs/dairy for vegetarians). These findings emphasise the importance of considering a wider range of animal products, such as eggs, dairy and fish, and dietary groups in order to obtain a comprehensive understanding of the psychological underpinnings of animal product consumption. The results highlight differences between dietary groups in attitudes and moral concern towards animals, which may be important to consider when designing interventions to reduce animal product consumption.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Valerie Lesk
- Department of Psychology, University of Bradford, UK
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10
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Tan ML, Xie CT, Tu X, Li YW, Chen QL, Shen YJ, Liu ZH. Short daylight photoperiod alleviated alarm substance-stimulated fear response of zebrafish. Gen Comp Endocrinol 2023; 338:114274. [PMID: 36940834 DOI: 10.1016/j.ygcen.2023.114274] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2023] [Revised: 03/11/2023] [Accepted: 03/17/2023] [Indexed: 03/23/2023]
Abstract
Photoperiod has been well-documented to be involved in regulating many activities of animals. However, whether photoperiod takes part in mood control, such as fear response in fish and the underlying mode(s) of action remain unclear. In this study, adult zebrafish males and females (Danio rerio) were exposed to different photoperiods, Blank (12 h light: 12 h dark), Control (12 h light: 12 h dark), Short daylight (SD, 6 h light: 18 h dark) and Long daylight (LD, 18 h light: 6 h dark) for 28 days. After exposure, fear response of the fish was investigated using a novel tank diving test. After alarm substance administration, the onset to higher half, total duration in lower half and duration of freezing in SD-fish were significantly decreased, suggesting that short daylight photoperiod is capable of alleviating fear response in zebrafish. In contrast, comparing with the Control, LD didn't show significant effect on fear response of the fish. Further investigation revealed that SD increased the levels of melatonin (MT), serotonin (5-HT) and dopamine (DA) in the brain while decreased the plasma level of cortisol comparing to the Control. Moreover, the expressions of genes in MT, 5-HT and DA pathways and HPI axis were also altered consistently. Our data indicated that short daylight photoperiod might alleviate fear response of zebrafish probably through interfering with MT/5-HT/DA pathways and HPI axis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mei-Ling Tan
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Animal Biology, College of Life Sciences, Chongqing Normal University, Chongqing 401331, China
| | - Cheng-Ting Xie
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Animal Biology, College of Life Sciences, Chongqing Normal University, Chongqing 401331, China
| | - Xin Tu
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Animal Biology, College of Life Sciences, Chongqing Normal University, Chongqing 401331, China
| | - Ying-Wen Li
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Animal Biology, College of Life Sciences, Chongqing Normal University, Chongqing 401331, China
| | - Qi-Liang Chen
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Animal Biology, College of Life Sciences, Chongqing Normal University, Chongqing 401331, China
| | - Yan-Jun Shen
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Animal Biology, College of Life Sciences, Chongqing Normal University, Chongqing 401331, China
| | - Zhi-Hao Liu
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Animal Biology, College of Life Sciences, Chongqing Normal University, Chongqing 401331, China.
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11
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De Araújo ERL, Torres MF, Da Costa BMPA, Hamoy M, Sampaio LA, Barbas LAL. Electroencephalographic Response in Juvenile Tambaqui, Colossoma macropomum, Exposed to Short-Term Anaesthetic Baths with Geraniol and Citronellol. BIOLOGY 2023; 12:biology12010090. [PMID: 36671782 PMCID: PMC9855846 DOI: 10.3390/biology12010090] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2022] [Revised: 12/28/2022] [Accepted: 01/03/2023] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
The aim of this study was to evaluate the level of neuronal depression in juvenile tambaqui, Colossoma macropomum, exposed to geraniol (GRL) and citronellol (CTL) in immersion baths. A total of 36 juveniles weighing 35.2 ± 9.4 g were used, organised into six experimental groups: I-control (clean water); II-ethanol (water containing the highest volume of ethanol used in the anaesthetic pre-dilution); III-GRL induction (70 µL·L-1); IV-CTL induction (90 µL·L-1); V-GRL recovery; VI-CTL recovery. Electroencephalographic (EEG) recordings were performed for 300 s in each group. EEG tracings of the control and ethanol groups showed regular and similar activity. Upon exposure to the anaesthetics, irregularities were observed in the tracings showing neuronal excitability and increased amplitudes, mainly in the case of CTL. Overall, GRL-exposed fish showed depression of the central nervous system with low and regular tracings throughout induction, presenting a gradual recovery and stable tracings, which were consistent with an adequate general anaesthetic effect. On the other hand, fish exposed to CTL showed altered EEG activity during induction, that could be considered incompatible with an appropriate anaesthetic effect and smooth recovery, presenting high and irregular EEG tracing amplitudes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ednara Ronise Lima De Araújo
- Laboratório de Piscicultura Estuarina e Marinha, Programa de Pós-Graduação em Aquicultura, Instituto de Oceanografia, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande, CP 474, Rio Grande 96201-900, Brazil
| | - Marcelo Ferreira Torres
- Laboratório de Aquacultura de Espécies Tropicais, Instituto Federal de Educação Ciência e Tecnologia do Pará, Castanhal 68740-970, Brazil
| | - Brenda Maria Pereira Alho Da Costa
- Laboratório de Aquacultura de Espécies Tropicais, Instituto Federal de Educação Ciência e Tecnologia do Pará, Castanhal 68740-970, Brazil
| | - Moisés Hamoy
- Laboratório de Farmacologia e Toxicologia de Produtos Naturais, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal do Pará, Belém 66075-110, Brazil
| | - Luís André Sampaio
- Laboratório de Piscicultura Estuarina e Marinha, Programa de Pós-Graduação em Aquicultura, Instituto de Oceanografia, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande, CP 474, Rio Grande 96201-900, Brazil
| | - Luis André Luz Barbas
- Laboratório de Aquacultura de Espécies Tropicais, Instituto Federal de Educação Ciência e Tecnologia do Pará, Castanhal 68740-970, Brazil
- Correspondence:
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12
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Sladky KK. Treatment of Pain in Fish. Vet Clin North Am Exot Anim Pract 2023; 26:11-26. [PMID: 36402477 DOI: 10.1016/j.cvex.2022.07.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
This chapter provides an overview of our current understanding of clinical analgesic use in fish. Recently, the efficacy and pharmacokinetics of several analgesic drugs for use in fish have been investigated, and the most important data indicates that μ-opioid agonist drugs (e.g, morphine) are consistently effective as analgesics across fish species. In addition, bath application of some analgesic drugs may be useful, which affords multiple methods for delivering analgesics to fish. Although few published studies of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs administered to fish show promise, we have much to learn about the analgesic efficacy of most drugs in this class.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kurt K Sladky
- University of Wisconsin-Madison, School of Veterinary Medicine, 2015 Linden Drive, Madison, WI 53705 USA.
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13
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Garratt JK, McCulloch SP. Wild Fish Welfare in UK Commercial Sea Fisheries: Qualitative Analysis of Stakeholder Views. Animals (Basel) 2022; 12:ani12202756. [PMID: 36290143 PMCID: PMC9597750 DOI: 10.3390/ani12202756] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2022] [Revised: 10/06/2022] [Accepted: 10/11/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
An estimated 1.5-2.7 billion wild fish are caught by UK commercial sea fishing fleets annually. Most are subjected to severe stressors during capture; stunning is rare and gutting alive is common practice. Fish are recognised in UK law as sentient beings, but commercially caught wild fish are excluded from welfare protections. Animal welfare impacts in wild capture sea fisheries are therefore on a massive scale, with major potential for legislative and market-based reforms. Interviews were conducted with 18 experts working within the fishing and seafood industry, fisheries management, scientific research and animal/fish advocacy organisations. The findings reveal a significant welfare gap between societally acceptable ways to treat sentient animals and the reality of capture fisheries. The participants pointed to harms caused to fish throughout different stages of the capture process caused by combinations of variables from fishing gear and methods to biological, environmental and other factors, noting that all require mitigation. Interviews revealed that the nature of harms may be exacerbated by conservative attitudes towards brutal practices in the industry, driven by profit and efficiency and free from legal restraint. To address the welfare gap, stakeholders favour engagement with the industry to improve understanding of harms and to identify mutually beneficial and shared objectives through alleviating stressors to fish in the capture process. This empirical research is focused on UK wild capture sea fisheries. However, given the dearth of welfare legislation globally, it has significance for fishing nations and the many billions of wild sea fish captured each year around the world.
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14
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Oldfield RG, Bonano PE. Psychological and social well-being of bony fishes in zoos and aquariums. Zoo Biol 2022; 42:185-193. [PMID: 36065963 DOI: 10.1002/zoo.21729] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2022] [Revised: 08/23/2022] [Accepted: 08/24/2022] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Research on the behavior of animals in zoos has been conducted for decades and observations have provided information that has improved the psychological and social well-being of animals. However, research on fishes in zoos and aquariums seems to be lacking. Here we assess the current state of research on fishes in zoos and aquariums by surveying peer-reviewed literature. Our assessment differs from previous surveys in that we examine the taxonomic classes Chondrichthyes (sharks and rays) and Osteichthyes (bony fishes) separately. Our survey finds that bony fishes have been drastically underrepresented in zoo journals, more so than chondrichthyans, revealing an urgent need for zoos and aquariums to conduct research on the behavior of the bony fishes in their care, to ensure a positive state of psychological and social well-being. To plot a course for the future, we discuss the few studies that have been conducted on the behavior of bony fishes in zoos and aquariums, and we discuss research conducted on bony fishes in food-fish aquaculture and biomedicine to identify the types of studies that could be conducted in zoos and aquariums. We conclude that data-driven analyses of fish behavior could aid in development of evidence-based practices that enhance the well-being of bony fishes in zoos and aquariums, just as they already do for terrestrial animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ronald G Oldfield
- Department of Biology, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio, USA
| | - Patrick E Bonano
- Department of Biology, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio, USA
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15
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Coelho MEG, Pedrazzani AS, Quintiliano MH, Bolfe F, Molento CFM. Fish slaughter practices in Brazilian aquaculture and their consequences for animal welfare. Anim Welf 2022. [DOI: 10.7120/09627286.31.2.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
Slaughter is considered an important fish welfare issue. For a slaughter method to be considered humane, effective stunning that lasts until death as well as the reduction of pain and fear throughout all procedures are essential. Our objective was to investigate current techniques for
slaughtering fish in Brazil. A digital questionnaire with six multiple-choice and three open questions was distributed to companies registered as fish slaughterhouses and to fish farms in 2019, addressing fish species, quantities processed and slaughter procedures adopted. From 62 facilities
in 15 Brazilian states that answered the survey, nine slaughterhouses and 30 fish farms slaughtered fish, totalling 452 tonnes per day. All reported pre-slaughter stunning, and live chilling to be the most commonly cited method (82.0%), followed by electronarcosis (18.0%). Slaughtering techniques
included exsanguination (38.5%) and decapitation (2.5%). For the remaining companies, no slaughter method was declared, suggesting death by asphyxiation or by further processing (59.0%). Twenty-nine companies adopted pre-slaughter fasting, lasting from 10 to 48 h. All sites worked with tilapia
(100%) and 24 (82.7%) reported that they worked exclusively with this species. Other species reported were: pacu (25.6%), tambacu (17.9%), tambaqui and carp (15.3%), jundiá (12.8%), pintado and pirarucu (7.7%), matrinxã and pangassius (5.1%). Asphyxia and live chilling are not
considered humane, as animals remain conscious and, thus, suffer. Results show that most establishments do not perform humane slaughter. This scenario highlights the urgent need for development and enforcement of humane fish slaughter techniques, with routine supervision and normative requirements.
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Affiliation(s)
- MEG Coelho
- Animal Welfare Laboratory, Federal University of Paraná, Rua dos Funcionários 1540, 80035-050, Curitiba, Paraná, Brazil
| | - AS Pedrazzani
- Animal Welfare Laboratory, Federal University of Paraná, Rua dos Funcionários 1540, 80035-050, Curitiba, Paraná, Brazil
| | - MH Quintiliano
- FAI Farms do Brasil, Estrada Velha do Irere s/n, Fazenda Santa Marta, 86115000, Londrina, Brazil
| | - F Bolfe
- FAI Farms do Brasil, Estrada Velha do Irere s/n, Fazenda Santa Marta, 86115000, Londrina, Brazil
| | - CFM Molento
- Animal Welfare Laboratory, Federal University of Paraná, Rua dos Funcionários 1540, 80035-050, Curitiba, Paraná, Brazil
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Mason GJ, Lavery JM. What Is It Like to Be a Bass? Red Herrings, Fish Pain and the Study of Animal Sentience. Front Vet Sci 2022; 9:788289. [PMID: 35573409 PMCID: PMC9094623 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2022.788289] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2021] [Accepted: 02/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Debates around fishes' ability to feel pain concern sentience: do reactions to tissue damage indicate evaluative consciousness (conscious affect), or mere nociception? Thanks to Braithwaite's discovery of trout nociceptors, and concerns that current practices could compromise welfare in countless fish, this issue's importance is beyond dispute. However, nociceptors are merely necessary, not sufficient, for true pain, and many measures held to indicate sentience have the same problem. The question of whether fish feel pain - or indeed anything at all - therefore stimulates sometimes polarized debate. Here, we try to bridge the divide. After reviewing key consciousness concepts, we identify "red herring" measures that should not be used to infer sentience because also present in non-sentient organisms, notably those lacking nervous systems, like plants and protozoa (P); spines disconnected from brains (S); decerebrate mammals and birds (D); and humans in unaware states (U). These "S.P.U.D. subjects" can show approach/withdrawal; react with apparent emotion; change their reactivity with food deprivation or analgesia; discriminate between stimuli; display Pavlovian learning, including some forms of trace conditioning; and even learn simple instrumental responses. Consequently, none of these responses are good indicators of sentience. Potentially more valid are aspects of working memory, operant conditioning, the self-report of state, and forms of higher order cognition. We suggest new experiments on humans to test these hypotheses, as well as modifications to tests for "mental time travel" and self-awareness (e.g., mirror self-recognition) that could allow these to now probe sentience (since currently they reflect perceptual rather than evaluative, affective aspects of consciousness). Because "bullet-proof" neurological and behavioral indicators of sentience are thus still lacking, agnosticism about fish sentience remains widespread. To end, we address how to balance such doubts with welfare protection, discussing concerns raised by key skeptics in this debate. Overall, we celebrate the rigorous evidential standards required by those unconvinced that fish are sentient; laud the compassion and ethical rigor shown by those advocating for welfare protections; and seek to show how precautionary principles still support protecting fish from physical harm.
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Affiliation(s)
- G. J. Mason
- Integrative Biology, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada
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17
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Mello e Souza T. Unraveling molecular and system processes for fear memory. Neuroscience 2022; 497:14-29. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2022.03.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2021] [Revised: 03/02/2022] [Accepted: 03/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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Ogawa S, Parhar IS. Role of Habenula in Social and Reproductive Behaviors in Fish: Comparison With Mammals. Front Behav Neurosci 2022; 15:818782. [PMID: 35221943 PMCID: PMC8867168 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2021.818782] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2021] [Accepted: 12/27/2021] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Social behaviors such as mating, parenting, fighting, and avoiding are essential functions as a communication tool in social animals, and are critical for the survival of individuals and species. Social behaviors are controlled by a complex circuitry that comprises several key social brain regions, which is called the social behavior network (SBN). The SBN further integrates social information with external and internal factors to select appropriate behavioral responses to social circumstances, called social decision-making. The social decision-making network (SDMN) and SBN are structurally, neurochemically and functionally conserved in vertebrates. The social decision-making process is also closely influenced by emotional assessment. The habenula has recently been recognized as a crucial center for emotion-associated adaptation behaviors. Here we review the potential role of the habenula in social function with a special emphasis on fish studies. Further, based on evolutional, molecular, morphological, and behavioral perspectives, we discuss the crucial role of the habenula in the vertebrate SDMN.
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19
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Cueto-Escobedo J, German-Ponciano LJ, Guillén-Ruiz G, Soria-Fregozo C, Herrera-Huerta EV. Zebrafish as a Useful Tool in the Research of Natural Products With Potential Anxiolytic Effects. Front Behav Neurosci 2022; 15:795285. [PMID: 35095438 PMCID: PMC8789748 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2021.795285] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2021] [Accepted: 12/16/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Zebrafish (Danio rerio) is a popular and valuable species used in many different biomedical research areas. The complex behavior that fish exhibit in response to different stimuli allows researchers to explore the biological and pharmacological basis of affective and mood disorders. In this sense, anxiety is commonly studied in preclinical research with animal models in rodents. During the last decade, those models have been successfully adapted to zebrafish. Stressful stimuli, such as novel environments, chemical substances, light conditions, and predator images, can trigger defensive behaviors considered indicators of an anxiety-like state. In the first stage, models were adapted and validated with different stressors and anxiolytic drugs with promising results and are now successfully used to generate scientific knowledge. In that sense, zebrafish allows several routes of administration and other methodological advantages to explore the anxiolytic effects of natural products in behavioral tests as novel tank, light-dark chamber, and black/white maze, among others. The present work will review the main findings on preclinical research using adult zebrafish to explore anxiolytics effects of natural products as plant secondary metabolites such as flavonoids, alkaloids and terpenes or standardized extracts of plants, among others. Scientific literature confirms the utility of zebrafish tests to explore anxiety-like states and anxiolytic-like effects of plant secondary metabolites, which represent a useful and ethical tool in the first stages of behavioral.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan Cueto-Escobedo
- Departamento de Investigación Clínica y Traslacional, Instituto de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad Veracruzana, Xalapa, Mexico
| | | | - Gabriel Guillén-Ruiz
- Investigador por México, Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología (CONACyT) – Instituto de Neuroetología, Universidad Veracruzana, Xalapa, Mexico
| | - Cesar Soria-Fregozo
- Laboratorio Ciencias Biomédicas/Área Histología y Psicobiología, Departamento de Ciencias de la Tierra y de la Vida, Centro Universitario de Los Lagos, Universidad de Guadalajara, Lagos de Moreno, Mexico
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20
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Janssens M. Animal Business: an Ethical Exploration of Corporate Responsibility Towards Animals. FOOD ETHICS 2021; 7:2. [PMID: 34746371 PMCID: PMC8556856 DOI: 10.1007/s41055-021-00094-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 09/28/2021] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
The aim of this paper is to take normative aspects of animal welfare in corporate practice from a blind spot into the spotlight, and thus connect the fields of business ethics and animal ethics. Using insights from business ethics and animal ethics, it argues that companies have a strong responsibility towards animals. Its rationale is that animals have a moral status, that moral actors have the moral obligation to take the interests of animals into account and thus, that as moral actors, companies should take the interests of animals into account, more specifically their current and future welfare. Based on this corporate responsibility, categories of corporate impact on animals in terms of welfare and longevity are offered, including normative implications for each of them. The article concludes with managerial implications for several business sectors, including the most animal-consuming and animal-welfare-threatening industry: the food sector. Welfare issues are discussed, including the issue of killing for food production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Monique Janssens
- Rotterdam School of Management, Erasmus University Rotterdam, Rotterdam, Netherlands
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21
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Knowledge of, and Attitudes towards, Live Fish Transport among Aquaculture Industry Stakeholders in China: A Qualitative Study. Animals (Basel) 2021; 11:ani11092678. [PMID: 34573646 PMCID: PMC8466337 DOI: 10.3390/ani11092678] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2021] [Revised: 08/21/2021] [Accepted: 09/01/2021] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary China is the world’s largest producer of food fish, and Chinese consumers have a preference to buy live fish. Live transport of fish is, therefore, a common procedure in aquaculture and is a potential animal welfare hazard. Little has been published on current fish transportation practices in China or the knowledge and attitudes of stakeholders in this industry. Our qualitative study aimed to obtain original information about live transport processes from a cross-section of aquaculture stakeholders in China by conducting individual interviews. Stakeholders were interviewed about their knowledge of live transport and their attitudes towards the welfare of fish. Self-described knowledge of live transport varied between participants with different job types. Most participants had heard of and understood the concept of “animal welfare”, but many understood it to only refer to terrestrial livestock, not fish. This suggests that knowledge of fish welfare in the industry may be less than for other farm animals. The findings of this pilot study contribute to a better understanding of live fish transport from a stakeholder point of view. The findings will also assist in informing, educating, and sensitizing stakeholders to the importance of fish welfare during live transport. Abstract China is the largest food fish producer in the world. Chinese consumers normally purchase fish that are still alive to ensure freshness. Therefore, the live transport of fish is important in China’s aquaculture, although it carries potential risks for animal welfare. This study investigated the attitudes and knowledge of stakeholders within Chinese aquaculture towards the live transport and welfare of fish. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 12 participants who were involved with the aquaculture industry in China. Most participants self-rated their transport-related knowledge as moderate and had some understanding of animal welfare, although this term was generally considered only relevant to terrestrial animals. Participants’ responses indicated that the live transport of fish occurs frequently in China, generally using sealed tanks, plastic bags, and foam boxes, in purpose-built vehicles. Seasonal changes, such as changes in ambient and water temperature, are considered to be important contributors to successful live transport, as well as sufficient oxygen supplies and stocking density. The use of anesthetics was not commonly reported, particularly in food fish, and fish capture is predominantly by conventional dipnets. The health status of transported fish is determined mostly by morphology (body injury, body or eye color, and fin condition), as well as vigor and swimming ability. Our results indicate that live transport poses a number of welfare risks to fish but that participants in the process associated welfare concerns more with terrestrial animals, not fish.
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22
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Vucetich JA, Damania R, Cushman SA, Macdonald EA, Burnham D, Offer-Westort T, Bruskotter JT, Feltz A, Eeden L, Macdonald DW. A Minimally Nonanthropocentric Economics: What Is It, Is It Necessary, and Can It Avert the Biodiversity Crisis? Bioscience 2021. [DOI: 10.1093/biosci/biab045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Abstract
An important line of scholarship concludes that stemming the biodiversity crisis requires widespread nonanthropocentric modes of action and decision-making. In this regard, knowing what would even constitute a nonanthropocentric economic decision-making framework is hobbled by failing to recognize a conflation in the taxonomy of capital as supposed by traditional (anthropocentric) economics. We explain how natural capital (a basic category in anthropocentric economies) conflates natural capital without intrinsic value and natural capital with intrinsic value. Recognizing this conflation allowed us to identify instances of quantitative analyses that have elements of nonanthropocentrism but that seem not to have been previously recognized as such. We also explore inescapable consequences of recognizing this conflation, including the need to better understand how economic decision-making should take account for interspecies distributive justice and human well-being. That second need augments independent calls by economists and policy experts to take better account of human well-being.
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Affiliation(s)
- John A Vucetich
- Michigan Technological University, Houghton, Michigan, United States, and with the Martin School, University of Oxford, Oxford, England, United Kingdom
| | | | - Sam A Cushman
- US Forest Service, Flagstaff, Arizona, United States
| | | | - Dawn Burnham
- Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, Oxford, England, United Kingdom
| | - Thomas Offer-Westort
- Department of Psychology, University of Oklahoma, Norman, Oklahoma, United States
| | | | - Adam Feltz
- Department of Psychology, University of Oklahoma, Norman, Oklahoma, United States
| | | | - David W Macdonald
- Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, Oxford, England, United Kingdom
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23
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de la Rosa I, Castro PL, Ginés R. Twenty Years of Research in Seabass and Seabream Welfare during Slaughter. Animals (Basel) 2021; 11:ani11082164. [PMID: 34438621 PMCID: PMC8388502 DOI: 10.3390/ani11082164] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2021] [Revised: 07/14/2021] [Accepted: 07/19/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Sea cage farms dominate European aquaculture production of seabass (Dicentrarchus labrax) and gilthead seabream (Sparus aurata). It means that to complete the commercialization process, fish must be crowded in a net, lifted from the rearing cage, and placed in a stunning/slaughtering tank during the extraction procedure. Brailing and pumping are the two techniques used. The brailing involves the use of a large net that is hoisted by a crane, and the fish and water are released from the brail by opening the closed end of the net with a release. The fish enter water through a pipe and pass through a grid that removes the water before being placed in the stunning/slaughtering tank. This paper examines the scientific progress made in these areas over the last two decades in relation to farmed seabass and seabream describing the consequences of different methodologies on the time fish takes to reach the unconscious stage, the different concentrations of stress indicators in plasma, and the evolution of flesh quality related to spoilage during fish shelf-life. Abstract The behavioural responses of fish to a stressful situation must be considered an adverse reaction caused by the perception of pain. Consequently, the handling prior to stunning and the immediacy of loss consciousness following stunning are the aspects to take into account during the slaughtering process. The most common commercial stunning method in seabream and seabass is based on hypothermia, but other methods such as electrical stunning, carbon dioxide narcosis or anaesthetic with clove oil, are discussed in relation to the time to reach the unconsciousness stage and some welfare indicators. Although seawater plus ice slurry is currently accepted in some guidelines of fish welfare well practices at slaughter, it cannot be considered completely adequate due to the deferred speed at which cause loss of consciousness. New methods of incorporating some kind of anaesthetic in the stunning tank could be a solution to minimize the impact on the welfare of seabass and seabream at slaughtering.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ignacio de la Rosa
- Departamento de Ciencias Agroforestales, Universidad de Huelva, 21004 Huelva, Spain;
| | - Pedro L. Castro
- Grupo de Investigación en Acuicultura-GIA, IU-ECOAQUA, Universidad de Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, 35214 Telde, Spain;
- Correspondence:
| | - Rafael Ginés
- Grupo de Investigación en Acuicultura-GIA, IU-ECOAQUA, Universidad de Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, 35214 Telde, Spain;
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24
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Berlinghieri F, Panizzon P, Penry-Williams IL, Brown C. Laterality and fish welfare - A review. Appl Anim Behav Sci 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.applanim.2021.105239] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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25
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Ogawa S, Pfaff DW, Parhar IS. Fish as a model in social neuroscience: conservation and diversity in the social brain network. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2021; 96:999-1020. [PMID: 33559323 DOI: 10.1111/brv.12689] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/24/2019] [Revised: 01/19/2021] [Accepted: 01/20/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Mechanisms for fish social behaviours involve a social brain network (SBN) which is evolutionarily conserved among vertebrates. However, considerable diversity is observed in the actual behaviour patterns amongst nearly 30000 fish species. The huge variation found in socio-sexual behaviours and strategies is likely generated by a morphologically and genetically well-conserved small forebrain system. Hence, teleost fish provide a useful model to study the fundamental mechanisms underlying social brain functions. Herein we review the foundations underlying fish social behaviours including sensory, hormonal, molecular and neuroanatomical features. Gonadotropin-releasing hormone neurons clearly play important roles, but the participation of vasotocin and isotocin is also highlighted. Genetic investigations of developing fish brain have revealed the molecular complexity of neural development of the SBN. In addition to straightforward social behaviours such as sex and aggression, new experiments have revealed higher order and unique phenomena such as social eavesdropping and social buffering in fish. Finally, observations interpreted as 'collective cognition' in fish can likely be explained by careful observation of sensory determinants and analyses using the dynamics of quantitative scaling. Understanding of the functions of the SBN in fish provide clues for understanding the origin and evolution of higher social functions in vertebrates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Satoshi Ogawa
- Brain Research Institute, Jeffrey Cheah School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Monash University Malaysia, Bandar Sunway, Selangor, 47500, Malaysia
| | - Donald W Pfaff
- Laboratory of Neurobiology and Behavior, Rockefeller University, New York, NY, 10065, U.S.A
| | - Ishwar S Parhar
- Brain Research Institute, Jeffrey Cheah School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Monash University Malaysia, Bandar Sunway, Selangor, 47500, Malaysia
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Understanding the Determination of Meat Quality Using Biochemical Characteristics of the Muscle: Stress at Slaughter and Other Missing Keys. Foods 2021; 10:foods10010084. [PMID: 33406632 PMCID: PMC7823487 DOI: 10.3390/foods10010084] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2020] [Revised: 12/18/2020] [Accepted: 12/22/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Despite increasingly detailed knowledge of the biochemical processes involved in the determination of meat quality traits, robust models, using biochemical characteristics of the muscle to predict future meat quality, lack. The neglecting of various aspects of the model paradigm may explain this. First, preslaughter stress has a major impact on meat quality and varies according to slaughter context and individuals. Yet, it is rarely taken into account in meat quality models. Second, phenotypic similarity does not imply similarity in the underlying biological causes, and several models may be needed to explain a given phenotype. Finally, the implications of the complexity of biological systems are discussed: a homeostatic equilibrium can be reached in countless ways, involving thousands of interacting processes and molecules at different levels of the organism, changing over time and differing between animals. Consequently, even a robust model may explain a significant part, but not all of the variability between individuals.
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Díaz-Rúa A, Chivite M, Velasco C, Comesaña S, Soengas JL, Conde-Sieira M. Periprandial response of central cannabinoid system to different feeding conditions in rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss. Nutr Neurosci 2020; 25:1265-1276. [DOI: 10.1080/1028415x.2020.1853412] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Adrián Díaz-Rúa
- Laboratorio de Fisioloxía Animal, Departamento de Bioloxía Funcional e Ciencias da Saúde, Facultade de Bioloxía and Centro de Investigación Mariña-CIM, Universidade de Vigo, Vigo, Spain
| | - Mauro Chivite
- Laboratorio de Fisioloxía Animal, Departamento de Bioloxía Funcional e Ciencias da Saúde, Facultade de Bioloxía and Centro de Investigación Mariña-CIM, Universidade de Vigo, Vigo, Spain
| | - Cristina Velasco
- Laboratorio de Fisioloxía Animal, Departamento de Bioloxía Funcional e Ciencias da Saúde, Facultade de Bioloxía and Centro de Investigación Mariña-CIM, Universidade de Vigo, Vigo, Spain
| | - Sara Comesaña
- Laboratorio de Fisioloxía Animal, Departamento de Bioloxía Funcional e Ciencias da Saúde, Facultade de Bioloxía and Centro de Investigación Mariña-CIM, Universidade de Vigo, Vigo, Spain
| | - José L. Soengas
- Laboratorio de Fisioloxía Animal, Departamento de Bioloxía Funcional e Ciencias da Saúde, Facultade de Bioloxía and Centro de Investigación Mariña-CIM, Universidade de Vigo, Vigo, Spain
| | - Marta Conde-Sieira
- Laboratorio de Fisioloxía Animal, Departamento de Bioloxía Funcional e Ciencias da Saúde, Facultade de Bioloxía and Centro de Investigación Mariña-CIM, Universidade de Vigo, Vigo, Spain
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Sueur C, Forin-Wiart MA, Pelé M. Are They Really Trying to Save Their Buddy? The Anthropomorphism of Animal Epimeletic Behaviours. Animals (Basel) 2020; 10:ani10122323. [PMID: 33297457 PMCID: PMC7762333 DOI: 10.3390/ani10122323] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2020] [Revised: 11/26/2020] [Accepted: 12/04/2020] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Anthropomorphism, defined as attributing human traits to animals and other entities, seems to have appeared during evolution to improve an individual’s understanding of other species (or indeed the world in general). Yet anthropomorphism can have beneficial or harmful consequences especially for animals, and there seems to be little interest in monitoring the potential danger of this approach. Few studies have focused on the factors affecting how we attribute intentions or beliefs to animals, and more quantitative studies are needed to identify how and why humans attribute mental states and cognitive abilities to other animals. In this study, participants answer questions about three videos in which an individual (a sparrow, an elephant and a macaque, respectively) displayed behaviours towards an inanimate conspecific that suddenly regained consciousness at the end of the footage. A fourth video showed a robot dog being kicked by an engineer to demonstrate its stability. These questions were designed to measure how far participants attribute humanlike intentions, beliefs or mental states to non-human animals and robots. Men and older participants are less likely to attribute humanlike mental states to animals. Similarly, people who work with animals or have at least one pet at home demonstrated less naïve anthropomorphism. Conversely, we found that members of animal protection associations showed more biophilia (affinity for other living organisms), attributed more intentions and mental states to animals and were further from biological reality (current scientific knowledge of each species) than non-members. Understanding the potential usefulness of these factors can lead to better relationships with animals and encourage human-robot interactions. Abstract Anthropomorphism is a natural tendency in humans, but it is also influenced by many characteristics of the observer (the human) and the observed entity (here, the animal species). This study asked participants to complete an online questionnaire about three videos showing epimeletic behaviours in three animal species. In the videos, an individual (a sparrow, an elephant and a macaque, respectively) displayed behaviours towards an inanimate conspecific that suddenly regained consciousness at the end of the footage. A fourth video showed a robot dog being kicked by an engineer to demonstrate its stability. Each video was followed by a series of questions designed to evaluate the degree of anthropomorphism of participants, from mentaphobia (no attribution of intentions and beliefs, whatever the animal species) to full anthropomorphism (full attribution of intentions and beliefs by animals, to the same extent as in humans) and to measure how far the participants had correctly assessed each situation in terms of biological reality (current scientific knowledge of each species). There is a negative correlation (about 61%) between the mental states attributed to animals by humans and the real capability of animals. The heterogeneity of responses proved that humans display different forms of anthropomorphism, from rejecting all emotional or intentional states in animals to considering animals to show the same intentions as humans. However, the scores participants attributed to animals differed according to the species shown in the video and to human socio-demographic characteristics. Understanding the potential usefulness of these factors can lead to better relationships with animals and encourage a positive view of human-robot interactions. Indeed, reflective or critical anthropomorphism can increase our humanity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cédric Sueur
- Université de Strasbourg, CNRS, IPHC UMR 7178, F-67000 Strasbourg, France;
- Centre Européen d’Enseignement et de Recherche en Éthique, F-67000 Strasbourg, France
- Institut Universitaire de France, 75006 Paris, France
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +33(0)3-8810-7453
| | | | - Marie Pelé
- Anthropo-Lab, ETHICS EA7446, Lille Catholic University, 59000 Lille, France;
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Pedrazzani AS, Quintiliano MH, Bolfe F, Sans ECDO, Molento CFM. Tilapia On-Farm Welfare Assessment Protocol for Semi-intensive Production Systems. Front Vet Sci 2020; 7:606388. [PMID: 33324705 PMCID: PMC7723968 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2020.606388] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2020] [Accepted: 11/02/2020] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
The aim of this study was to develop and test a tilapia on-farm welfare assessment protocol, based on Brazilian semi-intensive production systems. The study included two mains steps: the elaboration of tilapia welfare protocol and its on-field feasibility test. The protocol, including the potential indicators organized into health, environmental, nutritional, and behavioral categories, was tested on three farms. Skin, eyes, gills, jaws, fins, and vertebral spine were individually examined in 139 individual tilapias. Water physicochemical parameters and production system were considered. The overall nutritional status of individuals was assessed through body condition factor, feed conversion ratio, feed crude protein ratio, and feed ingestion behavior. During massive capture, signals of stress, level of crowding, and duration of air exposure were registered. Time required for loss of consciousness was evaluated by clinical reflexes and other behaviors during slaughter. Eye, jaw, and gill scores were different across farms (Kruskal-Wallis test, p = 0.011; 0.015; 0.043, respectively), showing good discrimination power. Critical welfare points were extremely low dissolved oxygen in water, fin and skin lesions, prolonged air exposure during pre-slaughter handling and non-humane slaughter techniques, as decapitation or asphyxia. The protocol presents practical viability and it is an initial step for the development of a tilapia welfare strategy, where the prioritization of critical welfare points, implementation of corrective actions and monitoring of the results is part of a permanent welfare management system.
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Kisspeptin-1 regulates forebrain dopaminergic neurons in the zebrafish. Sci Rep 2020; 10:19361. [PMID: 33168887 PMCID: PMC7652893 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-75777-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2020] [Accepted: 09/28/2020] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
The habenula is a phylogenetically conserved epithalamic structure, which conveys negative information via inhibition of mesolimbic dopamine neurons. We have previously shown the expression of kisspeptin (Kiss1) in the habenula and its role in the modulation of fear responses in the zebrafish. In this study, to investigate whether habenular Kiss1 regulates fear responses via dopamine neurons in the zebrafish, Kiss1 peptides were intracranially administered close to the habenula, and the expression of dopamine-related genes (th1, th2 and dat) were examined in the brain using real-time PCR and dopamine levels using LC–MS/MS. th1 mRNA levels and dopamine levels were significantly increased in the telencephalon 24-h and 30-min after Kiss1 administration, respectively. In fish administered with Kiss1, expression of neural activity marker gene, npas4a and kiss1 gene were significantly decreased in the ventral habenula. Application of neural tracer into the median raphe, site of habenular Kiss1 neural terminal projections showed tracer-labelled projections in the medial forebrain bundle towards the telencephalon where dopamine neurons reside. These results suggest that Kiss1 negatively regulates its own neuronal activity in the ventral habenula via autocrine action. This, in turn affects neurons of the median raphe via interneurons, which project to the telencephalic dopaminergic neurons.
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The Dignity of Kangal Fish in the Context of the Swiss Animal Protection Act. Animals (Basel) 2020; 10:ani10040561. [PMID: 32230789 PMCID: PMC7222362 DOI: 10.3390/ani10040561] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2019] [Revised: 02/21/2020] [Accepted: 03/24/2020] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Since 2008, the Swiss Animal Protection Act protects not only the welfare but also the dignity of animals. This article explains the concept of the dignity of animals in the context of the Act. Weighing of interests is applied in a specific situation to answer the question of whether the dignity of the animal is respected or not. With this method, the strain imposed on the animal and the interests involved in the situation are evaluated and compared. The seven-step model for the weighing of interests is explained in detail. How the weighing of interests deals with practical questions is shown with the example of kangal fish used for therapeutic or recreational purposes. Abstract Since 2008, the Swiss Animal Protection Act (AniPA) protects not only the welfare but also the dignity of the animal. Weighing of interests plays a crucial role in the implementation of the dignity concept. This article outlines the concept of the dignity of animals and explains the method of weighing of interests in the context of the AniPA. The ‘Dignity of the Animal’ study group (DSG) of the Federal Food Safety and Veterinary Office (FSVO) has disputed the implementation of this novel concept in animal welfare and has developed a model procedure to ensure that weighing of interests in the context of the AniPA is carried out correctly and in a standardized way. Weighing of interests is performed in seven steps: 1. Describing the aim; 2. presentation of the facts; 3. assessing suitability; 4. assessing necessity; 5. identifying and assessing strain; 6. identifying and assessing interests; and 7. comparing strain vs. interests. The application of the model is shown with the example of kangal fish used for therapeutic or recreational purposes. It shows how the outcome of the weighing of interests will differ for the same setup depending on the nature of interests involved.
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Inside the Fish Brain: Cognition, Learning and Consciousness. Anim Welf 2020. [DOI: 10.1007/978-3-030-41675-1_7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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Guedegba NL, Imorou Toko I, Agbohessi PT, Zoumenou B, Douny C, Mandiki SNM, Schiffers B, Scippo ML, Kestemont P. Comparative acute toxicity of two phytosanitary molecules, lambda-cyhalothrin and acetamiprid, on Nile Tilapia ( Oreochromis Niloticus) juveniles. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND HEALTH. PART. B, PESTICIDES, FOOD CONTAMINANTS, AND AGRICULTURAL WASTES 2019; 54:580-589. [PMID: 31266377 DOI: 10.1080/03601234.2019.1616986] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
This study aimed to compare the toxicity for fish of two active ingredients (lambda-cyhalothrin-20 g L-1, a pyrethroid, and acetamiprid-15 g L-1, a neonicotinoid) which are components of a commercial insecticide (Acer 35 EC) used in cotton crop in many West African countries. The juveniles of Oreochromis niloticus (4.01 ± 0.34 g, mean body weight) were exposed for 96 h to increasing concentrations of active ingredients (lambda-cyhalothrin and acetamiprid) or a mixture similar to Acer 35 EC (composed by 20 g of chemical compound lambda-cyhalothrin and 15 g of acetamiprid dissolved in 1 L of acetone). The experiments were carried out under controlled conditions in aquaria according to OECD Guidelines. During the experiments, the behavioral responses (loss of balance, color change, hyperactivity, etc.) that usually precede death were observed in exposed fish. Mortalities were recorded in each aquarium and the LC50-96h of each chemical was determined. The LC50-96h obtained were respectively 0.1268, 0.0029, 182.9 and 0.5685 ppm for Acer 35 EC, lambda-cyhalothrin, acetamiprid and mixture. All insecticides used in this study had profound impact on Nile tilapia behavior which may confirm the neurotoxicity of each single active compound as well as of their mixture.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicresse L Guedegba
- a Research Unit in Environmental and Evolutionary Biology (URBE), Institute of Life, Earth & Environment (ILEE), University of Namur , Namur , Belgium
- b Faculty of Agronomy , Research Laboratory in Aquaculture and Aquatic Ecotoxicology (LaRAEAq), University of Parakou , Parakou , Benin
| | - Ibrahim Imorou Toko
- b Faculty of Agronomy , Research Laboratory in Aquaculture and Aquatic Ecotoxicology (LaRAEAq), University of Parakou , Parakou , Benin
| | - Prudencio T Agbohessi
- b Faculty of Agronomy , Research Laboratory in Aquaculture and Aquatic Ecotoxicology (LaRAEAq), University of Parakou , Parakou , Benin
| | - Berny's Zoumenou
- d Laboratory of Food Analysis, Fundamental and Applied Research for Animals & Health (FARAH) , Veterinary Public Health, University of Liège , Liège , Belgium
| | - Caroline Douny
- d Laboratory of Food Analysis, Fundamental and Applied Research for Animals & Health (FARAH) , Veterinary Public Health, University of Liège , Liège , Belgium
| | - Syaghalirwa N M Mandiki
- a Research Unit in Environmental and Evolutionary Biology (URBE), Institute of Life, Earth & Environment (ILEE), University of Namur , Namur , Belgium
| | - Bruno Schiffers
- c Pesticide Science Laboratory , Gembloux Agro-Bio Tech (ULiège) , Gembloux , Belgium
| | - Marie-Louise Scippo
- d Laboratory of Food Analysis, Fundamental and Applied Research for Animals & Health (FARAH) , Veterinary Public Health, University of Liège , Liège , Belgium
| | - Patrick Kestemont
- a Research Unit in Environmental and Evolutionary Biology (URBE), Institute of Life, Earth & Environment (ILEE), University of Namur , Namur , Belgium
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Abstract
Traditional animal welfare paradigms have focused on maintaining physical health and mitigating negative impacts to wellbeing. Recently, however, the field has increasingly recognized the importance of positive welfare (i.e., mental and physical states that exceed what is necessary for immediate survival) and accordingly introduced manipulations and indicators of positive welfare for use in agriculture, laboratories, and zoos/aquaria. The creation and monitoring of positive welfare requires an in-depth knowledge of species-specific behavior and biology, which necessitates species-specific or, at a minimum, taxa-specific standards. Research on positive welfare in fish is lagging in this regard and therefore merits further consideration. In this paper, we aim to merge what is already known about positive welfare with the existing fish behavior literature to develop a plan of action for fish welfare research that will ultimately contribute to the development of positive welfare standards and assessment strategies for fish. We begin by exploring the origins of positive welfare research and then outline the physical, psychological and species-specific areas of inquiry that can be investigated in fish. In addition to presenting current findings on fish motivation, emotion, potential sources of positive welfare such as fulfillment of motivational urges (establishing agency, engaging in exploration and learning), and play behavior, we also identify promising areas for future research aimed at developing accurate and appropriate indicators of positive welfare in fish.
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Sloman KA, Bouyoucos IA, Brooks EJ, Sneddon LU. Ethical considerations in fish research. JOURNAL OF FISH BIOLOGY 2019; 94:556-577. [PMID: 30838660 DOI: 10.1111/jfb.13946] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2018] [Accepted: 03/01/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Fishes are used in a wide range of scientific studies, from conservation research with potential benefits to the species used to biomedical research with potential human benefits. Fish research can take place in both laboratories and field environments and methods used represent a continuum from non-invasive observations, handling, through to experimental manipulation. While some countries have legislation or guidance regarding the use of fish in research, many do not and there exists a diversity of scientific opinions on the sentience of fish and how we determine welfare. Nevertheless, there is a growing pressure on the scientific community to take more responsibility for the animals they work with through maximising the benefits of their research to humans or animals while minimising welfare or survival costs to their study animals. In this review, we focus primarily on the refinement of common methods used in fish research based on emerging knowledge with the aim of improving the welfare of fish used in scientific studies. We consider the use of anaesthetics and analgesics and how we mark individuals for identification purposes. We highlight the main ethical concerns facing researchers in both laboratory and field environments and identify areas that need urgent future research. We hope that this review will help inform those who wish to refine their ethical practices and stimulate thought among fish researchers for further avenues of refinement. Improved ethics and welfare of fishes will inevitably lead to increased scientific rigour and is in the best interests of both fishes and scientists.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katherine A Sloman
- School of Health and Life Sciences, University of the West of Scotland, Paisley, UK
| | - Ian A Bouyoucos
- Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies, James Cook University, Townsville, Australia
- PSL Research University, EPHE-UPVD-CNRS, USR 3278 CRIOBE, Université de Perpignan, Perpignan Cedex, France
| | - Edward J Brooks
- Cape Eleuthera Island School, Rock Sound, Eleuthera, The Bahamas
| | - Lynne U Sneddon
- Institute of Integrative Biology, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK
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Sanhueza N, Donoso A, Aguilar A, Farlora R, Carnicero B, Míguez JM, Tort L, Valdes JA, Boltana S. Thermal Modulation of Monoamine Levels Influence Fish Stress and Welfare. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2018; 9:717. [PMID: 30559717 PMCID: PMC6287116 DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2018.00717] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2018] [Accepted: 11/13/2018] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Fish are ectotherm organisms that move through different thermal zones according to their physiological requirements and environmental availability, a behavior known as thermoregulation. Thermoregulation in ectothermic animals is influenced by their ability to effectively respond to thermal variations. While it is known that ectotherms are affected by thermal changes, it remains unknown how physiological and/or metabolic traits are impacted by modifications in the thermal environment. In captivity (land-based infrastructures or nets located in the open sea), fish are often restricted to spatially constant temperature conditions within the containment unit and cannot choose among different thermal conditions for thermoregulation. In order to understand how spatial variation of temperature may affect fish welfare and stress, we designed an experiment using either restricted or wide thermal ranges, looking for changes at hormonal and molecular levels. Also, thermal variability impact on fish behavior was measured. Our results showed that in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar), a wide thermal range (ΔT 6.8°C) was associated with significant increases in monoamines hormone levels and in the expression of clock genes. Aggressive and territoriality behavior decreased, positively affecting parameters linked to welfare, such as growth and fin damage. In contrast, a restricted thermal range (ΔT 1.4°C) showed the opposite pattern in all the analyzed parameters, therefore, having detrimental effects on welfare. In conclusion, our results highlight the key role of thermal range amplitude on fish behavior and on interactions with major metabolism-regulating processes, such as hormone performance and molecular regulatory mechanisms that have positive effects on the welfare.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nataly Sanhueza
- Department of Oceanography, Interdisciplinary Center for Aquaculture Research, Biotechnology Center, University of Concepción, Concepción, Chile
| | - Andrea Donoso
- Department of Oceanography, Interdisciplinary Center for Aquaculture Research, Biotechnology Center, University of Concepción, Concepción, Chile
| | - Andrea Aguilar
- Department of Oceanography, Interdisciplinary Center for Aquaculture Research, Biotechnology Center, University of Concepción, Concepción, Chile
| | - Rodolfo Farlora
- Instituto de Biología, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Valparaíso, Valparaíso, Chile
| | - Beatriz Carnicero
- Department of Oceanography, Interdisciplinary Center for Aquaculture Research, Biotechnology Center, University of Concepción, Concepción, Chile
| | - Jesús Manuel Míguez
- Laboratorio de Fisioloxía Animal, Departamento de Bioloxía Funcional e Ciencias da Saúde, Facultade de Bioloxía, Universidade de Vigo, Vigo, Spain
| | - Lluis Tort
- Departamento de Biología Celular, Inmunología i Fisiologia Animal, Universidad Autónoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Juan Antonio Valdes
- Facultad de Ciencias de la Vida, Departamento de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Andrés Bello, Santiago, Chile
| | - Sebastian Boltana
- Department of Oceanography, Interdisciplinary Center for Aquaculture Research, Biotechnology Center, University of Concepción, Concepción, Chile
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Graham C, von Keyserlingk MA, Franks B. Zebrafish welfare: Natural history, social motivation and behaviour. Appl Anim Behav Sci 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.applanim.2017.11.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
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Li G, Ye H, Su G, Han Z, Xie C, Zhou B, Letcher RJ, Giesy JP, Yu H, Liu C. Establishment of a three-step method to evaluate effects of chemicals on development of zebrafish embryo/larvae. CHEMOSPHERE 2017; 186:209-217. [PMID: 28780448 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2017.07.163] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2017] [Revised: 07/27/2017] [Accepted: 07/31/2017] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
Core endpoints in zebrafish embryos are crucial indicators in screening harmful effects of chemicals. In this study, we established a three-step process to more quantitatively and less-subjective determine effects of chemicals on phenotypes of developing zebrafish embryos. Embryos were exposed to each of two concentrations of the representative chemicals cadmium chloride (CdCl2), tris(1,3-dichloro-2-propyl) phosphate (TDCIPP) or 1H, 1H, 2H, 2H-nonafluoro-1-hexanol (4:2 FTOH) from 0.75 h post-fertilization (hpf) to 96 hpf. After exposure, larvae were imaged by use of a three-step method to describe morphology. Seven points were selected, which resulted in acquisition of 21 lines and 105 angles from images of larvae. Exposure to TDCIPP (0.1 or 0.2 mg/L), CdCl2 (1 or 4 mg/L) or 4:2 FTOH (0.3 or 1 mg/L) significantly changed lengths of some lines and magnitudes of some angles, that resulted in differential scoring of points. Points were then prioritized and directions, distances and trajectories of movement were further described and standard reference values were developed. Movement of the point describing the mouth during embryonic development was found to be a sensitive parameter for assessment of adverse effects of chemicals. The present study provides a new strategy to characterize phenotypes of development of zebrafish embryo/larva following exposure to environmental toxins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guangyu Li
- College of Fisheries, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070, China
| | - Huike Ye
- College of Fisheries, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070, China
| | - Guanyong Su
- Department of Chemistry, Carleton University, Ottawa, Ontario, K1S 5B6, Canada; State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing, 210023, China
| | - Zhihua Han
- Nanjing Institute of Environmental Science, MEP, Nanjing, Jiangsu, 210042, China
| | - Congxin Xie
- College of Fisheries, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070, China
| | - Bingsheng Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Freshwater Ecology and Biotechnology, Institute of Hydrobiology, Chinese Academy of Science, Wuhan, 430072, China
| | - Robert J Letcher
- Department of Chemistry, Carleton University, Ottawa, Ontario, K1S 5B6, Canada
| | - John P Giesy
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing, 210023, China; Department of Veterinary Biomedical Sciences and Toxicology Centre, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, S7N 5B3, Canada; Department of Zoology and Centre for Integrative Toxicology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, United States
| | - Hongxia Yu
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing, 210023, China
| | - Chunsheng Liu
- College of Fisheries, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070, China; Collaborative Innovation Center for Efficient and Health Production of Fisheries in Hunan Province, China.
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Stress and Welfare of African Catfish (Clarias gariepinus Burchell, 1822) in a Coupled Aquaponic System. WATER 2017. [DOI: 10.3390/w9070504] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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Skår MW, Haugland GT, Powell MD, Wergeland HI, Samuelsen OB. Development of anaesthetic protocols for lumpfish (Cyclopterus lumpus L.): Effect of anaesthetic concentrations, sea water temperature and body weight. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0179344. [PMID: 28678815 PMCID: PMC5497946 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0179344] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2017] [Accepted: 05/26/2017] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
In recent years, use of lumpfish (Cyclopterus lumpus L.) as cleaner-fish to remove sea-lice have been chosen by many salmon farmers in Europe and Canada as an alternative to medical treatment, which has led to large scale production of lumpfish. At present, there is limited knowledge of how lumpfish respond upon anaesthesia, which anaesthetics and concentrations that are efficient and conditions for euthanasia. We have therefore tested and developed protocols for bath immersion for three commonly used anaesthetics metacaine (Finquel, buffered tricaine methanesulfonate, MS-222 and Tricaine Pharmaq), benzocaine (Benzoak vet) and isoeugenol (Aqui-S), determined concentration for normal and fast anaesthesia and evaluated safety margin for each condition. Also, a behavioral matrix has been developed. We have examined the effect of fish size (10-20 g, 200-400 g and 600-1300 g) and sea water temperature (6°C and 12°C). We found that 200 mg L-1 metacaine is an efficient dose for deep narcosis independently for fish size and temperature due to good safety margins with regards to both exposure times and doses. However, for many tasks lighter anaesthesia is sufficient, and then 100 mg L-1 metacaine can be used. Benzocaine is less efficient than metacaine, but can be used as anaesthetic of fish < 400 g. The optimal doses of benzocaine were 100-200 mg L-1 for small fish (10-20 g) and 200 mg L-1 for medium sized fish (200-400 g). For larger fish (> 600 g), benzocaine is not suitable. Isoeugenol cannot be recommended for full anesthesia of lumpfish. The conditions for lethal doses varied with chosen anaesthetic, fish size and temperature. For small fish (10-20 g), exposure to 1600 mgL-1 of metacaine in 10 minutes it lethal. Guided protocols for non-lethal anaesthesia will contribute to ensure safe treatment of lumpfish according to an ethical standard for good fish welfare.
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Affiliation(s)
- Malene W. Skår
- Department of Biology, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway
| | - Gyri T. Haugland
- Department of Biology, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway
- * E-mail:
| | - Mark D. Powell
- Department of Biology, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway
| | | | - Ole B. Samuelsen
- Department of Biology, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway
- Institute of Marine Research, Bergen, Norway
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Hall KC, Broadhurst MK, Butcher PA, Cameron L, Rowland SJ, Millar RB. Sublethal effects of angling and release on golden perch Macquaria ambigua: implications for reproduction and fish health. JOURNAL OF FISH BIOLOGY 2017; 90:1980-1998. [PMID: 28349540 DOI: 10.1111/jfb.13282] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2016] [Accepted: 01/19/2017] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
The present study tested the hypothesis of no delayed sublethal effects of mild angling and release on the feeding, growth, somatic condition and gonadal development of golden perch Macquaria ambigua during gametogenesis. Subsamples of adult M. ambigua (n = 17-21 of 207), originally captured from the wild and stocked into ten 0·1 ha earthen ponds, were angled and released during early and late gametogenesis. Wild samples that were concurrently collected throughout the experiment underwent rapid and synchronous gonadal development and many spawned. While no spawning occurred in the ponds, most M. ambigua underwent normal gonadal development to maturity, including the angled fish. Angled fish also fed, maintained condition and actually grew faster than non-angled captive controls. Although females that were angled during late gametogenesis more readily ingested and retained baited hooks, neither their subsequent condition nor gonadal development was significantly affected. The predominance of null results was attributed to the combined effects of the flexible reproductive strategy of M. ambigua, the benignness of mouth hooking and immediate release, and possible methodological issues arising from differential hooking success of more aggressive and resilient individuals. The findings support earlier catch-and-release research, but contrast with reports of acute reproductive effects following capture and handling for aquaculture broodstock. This discrepancy highlights the need for research to specifically address welfare questions relevant to recreational fisheries across various species and angling scenarios.
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Affiliation(s)
- K C Hall
- New South Wales Department of Primary Industries, National Marine Science Centre, PO Box 4321, Coffs Harbour, NSW, 2450, Australia
| | - M K Broadhurst
- New South Wales Department of Primary Industries, National Marine Science Centre, PO Box 4321, Coffs Harbour, NSW, 2450, Australia
| | - P A Butcher
- New South Wales Department of Primary Industries, National Marine Science Centre, PO Box 4321, Coffs Harbour, NSW, 2450, Australia
| | - L Cameron
- New South Wales Department of Primary Industries, Grafton Fisheries Centre, Private Mail Bag 2, Grafton, NSW, 2460, Australia
| | - S J Rowland
- New South Wales Department of Primary Industries, Grafton Fisheries Centre, Private Mail Bag 2, Grafton, NSW, 2460, Australia
| | - R B Millar
- Department of Statistics, The University of Auckland, Private Bag 92019, Auckland, New Zealand
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Perception of Fish Sentience, Welfare and Humane Slaughter by Highly Educated Citizens of Bogotá, Colombia and Curitiba, Brazil. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0168197. [PMID: 28068372 PMCID: PMC5222424 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0168197] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2015] [Accepted: 11/22/2016] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Discussions on farm animal welfare have become frequent, especially in developed countries. The aim of this research was to study the perception of fish sentience, welfare and slaughter by highly educated citizens from Bogotá, Colombia, and Curitiba, Brazil. An online survey with 12 questions presented as open-ended, multiple choice and 5-point Likert-type scale formats was available to respondents. Answers from 395 participants in Bogotá and 387 in Curitiba were analyzed, and results are presented in the order Bogotá followed by Curitiba. The percentage of participants who perceived fish as sentient animals was 79.7% and 71.8%. The classification of sentience perception among taxonomic groups seems in accordance with the phylogenetic proximity to humans, suggesting participants were more likely to perceive sentience in mammals than in other animals. The descending order related to the highest perception of fish suffering in different scenarios was fishing with hook and line (75.6%, 70.6%); municipal live fish fair (68.7%—only in Curitiba); fish-and-pay ponds (59.7%, 54.4%); fish kept as laboratory animals (58.0, 48.1%); fish farming (35.7, 36.8%); fish in pet stores (35.5%, 26.1%); production of ornamental fish (19.3%, 21.8%); fish in aquarium exhibits (18.8%,16.9%); and fish kept as pets (12.4%,12.3%). Lack of knowledge about the conditions of capture, handling, transport and sale of ornamental fish may justify the perception of low level of suffering in the last scenarios. Regarding humane slaughter, 57.0% and 55.0% of respondents were unaware of the issue. After reflection induced by the questionnaire, 76.0% and 72% of participants believed that fish should be included in humane slaughter regulations. This study presents original data suggesting that respondents from Bogotá and Curitiba consider fish as sentient beings. The perception of suffering in specific scenarios challenges common activities. Recognition of suffering also endorses humane slaughter regulations to reduce pain in a large number of individuals of fish slaughtered annually for human consumption in Colombia and Brazil.
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Lucon-Xiccato T, Dadda M, Gatto E, Bisazza A. Development and testing of a rapid method for measuring shoal size discrimination. Anim Cogn 2016; 20:149-157. [PMID: 27796658 DOI: 10.1007/s10071-016-1050-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2016] [Revised: 10/19/2016] [Accepted: 10/23/2016] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
The shoal-choice test is a popular method to investigate quantity discrimination in social fish based on their spontaneous preference for the larger of two shoals. The shoal-choice test usually requires a long observation time (20-30 min), mainly because fish switch between the two shoals with low frequency, thus reducing the possibilities of comparison. This duration limits the use of the shoal-choice test for large-scale screenings. Here, we developed a new version of the shoal-choice test in which the subject was confined in a large transparent cylinder in the middle of the tank throughout the experiment to bound the minimum distance from the stimulus shoals and favour switching. We tested the new method by observing guppies (Poecilia reticulata) in a 4 versus 6 fish discrimination (experiment 1). The new method allowed for a faster assessment of the preference for the larger shoal (<5 min), resulting in potential application for large population screenings. Guppies switched five times more frequently between the two shoals and remained close to the first chosen shoal ten times less compared to experiments with the old method. In experiment 2, we found that with the new method guppies were able to discriminate up to 5 versus 6 fish, a discrimination that was not achieved with the classical method. This last result indicates that minor methodological modifications can lead to very different findings in the same species and suggests that caution should be exercised when interpreting inter-specific differences in quantitative abilities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tyrone Lucon-Xiccato
- Dipartimento di Psicologia Generale, Università di Padova, Via Venezia 8, 35131, Padova, Italy.
| | - Marco Dadda
- Dipartimento di Psicologia Generale, Università di Padova, Via Venezia 8, 35131, Padova, Italy
| | - Elia Gatto
- Dipartimento di Psicologia Generale, Università di Padova, Via Venezia 8, 35131, Padova, Italy
| | - Angelo Bisazza
- Dipartimento di Psicologia Generale, Università di Padova, Via Venezia 8, 35131, Padova, Italy
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Rey S, Huntingford FA, Boltaña S, Vargas R, Knowles TG, Mackenzie S. Fish can show emotional fever: stress-induced hyperthermia in zebrafish. Proc Biol Sci 2016; 282:rspb.2015.2266. [PMID: 26609087 PMCID: PMC4685827 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2015.2266] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Whether fishes are sentient beings remains an unresolved and controversial question. Among characteristics thought to reflect a low level of sentience in fishes is an inability to show stress-induced hyperthermia (SIH), a transient rise in body temperature shown in response to a variety of stressors. This is a real fever response, so is often referred to as ‘emotional fever’. It has been suggested that the capacity for emotional fever evolved only in amniotes (mammals, birds and reptiles), in association with the evolution of consciousness in these groups. According to this view, lack of emotional fever in fishes reflects a lack of consciousness. We report here on a study in which six zebrafish groups with access to a temperature gradient were either left as undisturbed controls or subjected to a short period of confinement. The results were striking: compared to controls, stressed zebrafish spent significantly more time at higher temperatures, achieving an estimated rise in body temperature of about 2–4°C. Thus, zebrafish clearly have the capacity to show emotional fever. While the link between emotion and consciousness is still debated, this finding removes a key argument for lack of consciousness in fishes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sonia Rey
- Institute of Aquaculture, School of Natural Sciences, University of Stirling, Stirling FK9 4LA, UK Institut de Biotecnologia i Biomedicina, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, Spain
| | - Felicity A Huntingford
- Institute of Aquaculture, School of Natural Sciences, University of Stirling, Stirling FK9 4LA, UK
| | - Sebastian Boltaña
- Institute of Aquaculture, School of Natural Sciences, University of Stirling, Stirling FK9 4LA, UK Institut de Biotecnologia i Biomedicina, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, Spain
| | - Reynaldo Vargas
- Institut de Biotecnologia i Biomedicina, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, Spain
| | - Toby G Knowles
- School of Veterinary Science, University of Bristol, Langford, Bristol BS40 5DU, UK
| | - Simon Mackenzie
- Institute of Aquaculture, School of Natural Sciences, University of Stirling, Stirling FK9 4LA, UK Institut de Biotecnologia i Biomedicina, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, Spain
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Bennett RH, Ellender BR, Mäkinen T, Miya T, Pattrick P, Wasserman RJ, Woodford DJ, Weyl OL. Ethical considerations for field research on fishes. KOEDOE: AFRICAN PROTECTED AREA CONSERVATION AND SCIENCE 2016. [DOI: 10.4102/koedoe.v58i1.1353] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/01/2022]
Abstract
Collection of data from animals for research purposes can negatively impact target or by-catch species if suitable animal ethics practices are not followed. This study aimed to assess the ethical requirements of peer-reviewed scientific journals that publish primary literature on fishes, and review the ethical considerations and animal care guidelines of national and international documents on the ethical treatment of animals for research, to provide an overview of the general ethical considerations for field research on fishes. A review of 250 peer-reviewed, ISI-rated journals publishing primary research on fishes revealed that nearly half (46%) had no mention of ethics, treatment of animals or ethical requirements for publication in their author guidelines or publication policies. However, 18% of the journals reviewed identify a specific set of ethical guidelines to be followed before publishing research involving animals. Ethical considerations for investigators undertaking field research on fishes, common to most animal care policies, legislation and guiding documents, include adhering to relevant legislation, minimising sample sizes, reducing or mitigating pain and distress, employing the most appropriate and least invasive techniques and accurately reporting methods and findings. This information will provide potential investigators with a useful starting point for designing and conducting ethical field research. Application of ethical best practices in field sampling studies will improve the welfare of study animals and the conservation of rare and endangered species.Conservation implications: This article provides a list of ethical considerations for designing and conducting field research on fishes. By reviewing sampling techniques and processes that are frequently used in field research on fishes and by highlighting the potential negative impacts of these sampling techniques, this article is intended to assist researchers in planning field research to minimise impacts on fish populations. It is envisaged that this review will be a useful resource for journal editorial committees intending to introduce ethical requirements for publication and for researchers, managers, conservation practitioners and research organisations when designing field studies on fishes, applying for ethical clearance and developing institutional ethical guidelines.
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Gaffney LP, Franks B, Weary DM, von Keyserlingk MAG. Coho Salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch) Prefer and Are Less Aggressive in Darker Environments. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0151325. [PMID: 27028731 PMCID: PMC4814047 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0151325] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2015] [Accepted: 02/27/2016] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Fish are capable of excellent vision and can be profoundly influenced by the visual properties of their environment. Ambient colours have been found to affect growth, survival, aggression and reproduction, but the effect of background darkness (i.e., the darkness vs. lightness of the background) on preference and aggression has not been evaluated systematically. One-hundred Coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch), a species that is increasing in popularity in aquaculture, were randomly assigned to 10 tanks. Using a Latin-square design, every tank was bisected to allow fish in each tank to choose between all the following colour choices (8 choices in total): black vs. white, light grey, dark grey, and a mixed dark grey/black pattern, as well as industry-standard blue vs. white, light grey, dark grey, and black. Fish showed a strong preference for black backgrounds over all other options (p < 0.01). Across tests, preference strength increased with background darkness (p < 0.0001). Moreover, having darker backgrounds in the environment resulted in less aggressive behaviour throughout the tank (p < 0.0001). These results provide the first evidence that darker tanks are preferred by and decrease aggression in salmonids, which points to the welfare benefits of housing farmed salmon in enclosures containing dark backgrounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leigh P. Gaffney
- Animal Welfare Program, Faculty of Land and Food Systems, University of British Columbia, 2357 Main Mall, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z6, Canada
| | - Becca Franks
- Animal Welfare Program, Faculty of Land and Food Systems, University of British Columbia, 2357 Main Mall, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z6, Canada
| | - Daniel M. Weary
- Animal Welfare Program, Faculty of Land and Food Systems, University of British Columbia, 2357 Main Mall, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z6, Canada
| | - Marina A. G. von Keyserlingk
- Animal Welfare Program, Faculty of Land and Food Systems, University of British Columbia, 2357 Main Mall, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z6, Canada
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Baker TR, Baker BB, Johnson SM, Sladky KK. Comparative analgesic efficacy of morphine sulfate and butorphanol tartrate in koi (Cyprinus carpio) undergoing unilateral gonadectomy. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2016; 243:882-90. [PMID: 24004238 DOI: 10.2460/javma.243.6.882] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To identify pain-related behaviors and assess the effects of butorphanol tartrate and morphine sulfate in koi (Cyprinus carpio) undergoing unilateral gonadectomy. Design-Prospective study. ANIMALS 90 adult male and female koi. PROCEDURES Each fish received saline (0.9% NaCl) solution (which is physiologically compatible with fish) IM, butorphanol (10 mg/kg [4.5 mg/lb], IM), or morphine (5 mg/kg [2.3 mg/lb], IM) as an injection only (6 fish/treatment); an injection with anesthesia and surgery (12 fish/treatment); or an injection with anesthesia but without surgery (12 fish/treatment). Physiologic and behavioral data were recorded 12 hours before and at intervals after treatment. RESULTS Compared with baseline values, the saline solution-surgery group had significantly decreased respiratory rates (at 12 to 24 hours), food consumption assessed as a percentage of floating pellets consumed (at 0 to 36 hours), and activity score (at 0 to 48 hours). Respiratory rate decreased in all butorphanol-treated fish; significant decreases were detected at fewer time points following morphine administration. In the butorphanol-surgery group, the value for food consumption initially decreased but returned to baseline values within 3 hours after treatment; food consumption did not change in the morphine-surgery group. Surgery resulted in decreased activity, regardless of treatment, with the most pronounced effect in the saline solution-surgery group. Changes in location in water column, interactive behavior, and hiding behavior were not significantly different among groups. Butorphanol and morphine administration was associated with temporary buoyancy problems and temporary bouts of excessive activity, respectively. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE Butorphanol and morphine appeared to have an analgesic effect in koi, but morphine administration caused fewer deleterious adverse effects. Food consumption appeared to be a reliable indicator of pain in koi.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tracie R Baker
- Department of Surgical Sciences, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI 53706, USA
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Maria Poli B. Farmed fish welfare-suffering assessment and impact on product quality. ITALIAN JOURNAL OF ANIMAL SCIENCE 2016. [DOI: 10.4081/ijas.2009.s1.139] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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