Biodegradation of benzo(a)pyrene by Microbacterium sp. strain under denitrification: Degradation pathway and effects of limiting electron acceptors or carbon source

Chemical inertness conversion of carbon fraction in coal gangue via N-doping for efficient benzo(a)pyrene degradation

Efficient degradation of organic pollutants in complex media via advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) is still critical and challenging. Herein, nitrogen (N)-doped coal gangue (CG) catalysts (N-CG) with economic competitiveness and environmental friendliness were successfully synthesized to activate peroxymonosulfate (PMS), exhibiting ultrafast degradation performance toward benzo(a)pyrene (BaP) with 100.00 % and 93.21 % in contaminated solution and soil under optimized condition, respectively. In addition, 0.4 N-CG possessed excellent reusability toward BaP degradation with over 80.00 % after five cycles. However, BaP removal efficiency was significantly affected by some co-existing anions (HCO3- and SO42-) and humic acid (HA) in solution and soil, as well as inhibited under alkaline conditions, especially pH ≥ 9. According to the characterizations, N-doping could promote the generation of pyridinic N and graphitic N in N-CG via high-temperature calcination, which was conducive to produce hydroxyl radical (•OH), sulfate radical (SO4•-), superoxide radical (•O2-) and single oxygen (1O2). In 0.4 N-CG/PMS system, 1O2 and •O2- were proved to be the predominant reactive oxygen species (ROSs) in BaP degradation, as well as •OH and SO4•- made certain contributions. To sum up, this work provided a promising strategy for synthesis of CG-based catalysts by chemical inertness conversion of carbon fracture via N-doping for PMS activation and opened a novel perspective for environmental remediation of hydrophobic and hydrophilic contaminants pollution.

Effects of nitrate reduction on the biotransformation of 1H-1,2,4-triazole: Mechanism and community evolution

Due to the refractory of 1 H-1,2,4-triazole (TZ), conventional anaerobic biological treatment technology is usually restricted by low removal efficiency and poor system stability. In this study, TZ biodegradation and nitrate reduction was coupled to improve the removal efficiency of TZ from polluted wastewater. Batch assay was performed with pure culture strain Raoultella sp. NJUST42, which was reported to have the capability to degrade TZ in our previous study. Based on batch assay result, complete removal of TZ could be achieved in the presence of nitrate, whereas only 50% of TZ could be removed in the control system. Long-term stability experiment indicated that the relative abundance of microorganisms (Bacteroidetes_vadinHA17, Georgenia, Anaerolinea, etc) was obviously enhanced under nitrate reduction condition. During long-term period, major intermediates for TZ biodegradation such as [1,2,4]Triazolidine-3,5-diol, hydrazine dibasic carboxylic acid and carbamic acid were detected. A novel TZ biotransformation approach via hydration, TZ-ring cleavage, deamination and oxidation was speculated. PICRUSt1 and KEGG pathway analyses indicated that hydration (dch), oxidation (adhD, oah, pucG, fdhA) of TZ and nitrate reduction (Nar, napA, nrfA, nirBK, norB, nosZ) were significantly enhanced in the presence of nitrate. Moreover, the significant enrichment of TCA cycle (gab, sdh, fum, etc.) indicated that carbon and energy metabolism were facilitated with the addition of nitrate, thus improved TZ catabolism. The proposed mechanism demonstrated that TZ biodegradation coupled with nitrate reduction would be a promising approach for efficient treatment of wastewater contaminated by TZ.

Progress of Crude Oil Gasification Technology Assisted by Microorganisms in Reservoirs

Crude oil gasification bacteria, including fermenting bacteria, hydrocarbon-oxidizing bacteria, reducing bacteria, and methanogenic bacteria, participate in multi-step reactions involving initial activation, intermediate metabolism, and the methanogenesis of crude oil hydrocarbons. These bacteria degrade crude oil into smaller molecules such as hydrogen, carbon dioxide, acetic acid, and formic acid. Ultimately, they convert it into methane, which can be utilized or stored as a strategic resource. However, the current challenges in crude oil gasification include long production cycles and low efficiency. This paper provides a summary of the microbial flora involved in crude oil gasification, the gasification metabolism pathways within reservoirs, and other relevant information. It specifically focuses on analyzing the factors that affect the efficiency of crude oil gasification metabolism and proposes suggestions for improving this efficiency. These studies deepen our understanding of the potential of reservoir ecosystems and provide valuable insights for future reservoir development and management.

Microbes and microbial strategies in carcinogenic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons remediation: a systematic review

Degradation, detoxification, or removal of the omnipresent polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) from the ecosphere as well as their prevention from entering into food chain has never appeared simple. In this context, cost-effective, eco-friendly, and sustainable solutions like microbe-mediated strategies have been adopted worldwide. With this connection, measures have been taken by multifarious modes of microbial remedial strategies, i.e., enzymatic degradation, biofilm and biosurfactant production, application of biochar-immobilized microbes, lactic acid bacteria, rhizospheric-phyllospheric-endophytic microorganisms, genetically engineered microorganisms, and bioelectrochemical techniques like microbial fuel cell. In this review, a nine-way directional approach which is based on the microbial resources reported over the last couple of decades has been described. Fungi were found to be the most dominant taxa among the CPAH-degrading microbial community constituting 52.2%, while bacteria, algae, and yeasts occupied 37.4%, 9.1%, and 1.3%, respectively. In addition to these, category-wise CPAH degrading efficiencies of each microbial taxon, consortium-based applications, CPAH degradation-related molecular tools, and factors affecting CPAH degradation are the other important aspects of this review in light of their appropriate selection and application in the PAH-contaminated environment for better human-health management in order to achieve a sustainable ecosystem.

Degradation of Benzo[a]pyrene and 2,2',4,4'-Tebrabrominated Diphenyl Ether in Cultures Originated from an Agricultural Soil

Benzo[a]pyrene (BaP) and 2,2',4,4'-tetrabrominated diphenyl ether (BDE-47) are common contaminants in the environment, posing a threat to the ecosystems and human health. Currently, information on the microbial metabolism of BaP and BDE-47 as well as the correlated bacteria is still limited. This research aimed to study the degradation of BaP and BDE-47 by enriched cultures originated from an agricultural soil in Tianjin (North China) and characterize the bacteria involved in the degradation. Two sets of experiments were set up with BaP and BDE-47 (2 mg/L) as the sole carbon source, respectively. The degradation of BaP and BDE-47 occurred at rate constants of 0.030 /d and 0.026 /d, respectively. For BaP, the degradation products included benzo[a]pyrene-9,10-dihydrodiol or its isomers, ben-zo(a)pyrene-7,8-dihydrodiol-9,10-epoxide, and cis-4 (8-hydroxypyrenyl-7)-2-oxo-3-butenoic acid. For BDE-47, the degradation products included 2,2',4-tribrominated diphenyl ether (BDE-17), 2,4-dibrominated diphenyl ether (BDE-7), and hydroxylated dibromodiphenyl ether. The bacterial community structures in the original soil, the BaP culture, and the BDE-47 culture were quite different. The richness and diversity of bacteria in the two cultures were much lower than that in the original soil, and the BaP culture had higher richness and diversity than the BDE-47 culture. In the BaP culture, multiple species such as Niabella (23.4%), Burkholderia-Caballeronia-Paraburkholderia (13.7%), Cupriavidus (8.3%), and Allorhizobi-um-Neorhizobium-Pararhizobium-Rhizobium (8.0%) were dominant. In the BDE-47 culture, an unassigned species in the Rhizobiaceae was dominant (82.3%). The results from this study provide a scientific basis for the risk assessment and bioremediation of BaP and/or BDE-47 in a contaminated environment.

Biodegradation of benzo[a]pyrene by a marine Chlorella vulgaris LH-1 with heterotrophic ability

In this study, a microalga, Chlorella vulgaris LH-1, with heterotrophic ability to degrade BaP was explored. The effect of BaP concentration on microalga growth was investigated, and the possible biodegradation mechanism of BaP was proposed. Results showed that low BaP concentration (<5 mg/L) had less negative influence on the growth of this microalga under mixotrophic condition, but high BaP concentration (>5 mg/L) had a significant inhibitory effect on its growth. During heterotrophic cultivation, low BaP concentration (<20 mg/L) promoted the growth of C. vulgaris LH-1, whereas high BaP concentration (>20 mg/L) inhibited its growth significantly. The degradation rates of mixotrophic and heterotrophic C. vulgaris LH-1 were 62.56 %-74.13 % and 52.07 %-71.67 %, respectively, when the BaP concentration ranged from 0.5 mg/L to 2 mg/L. The expression of functional enzyme genes of C. vulgaris LH-1 such as phenol 2-monooxygenase activity, protocatechuate 3,4-dioxygenase activity, catechol 1,2-dioxygenase activity, styrene degradation, and benzoate degradation were upregulated in the process of BaP degradation. C. vulgaris LH-1 may degrade BaP by monooxygenase and dioxygenase simultaneously. The degradation of BaP by this microalga under mixotrophic condition goes through the degradation pathway of phthalic acid, whereas it goes through the degradation pathway of benzoic acid under heterotrophic condition.

Biodegradation mechanisms of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons: Combination of instrumental analysis and theoretical calculation

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are a common class of petroleum hydrocarbons, widely encountered in both environment and industrial pollution sources. Owing to their toxicity, environmental persistence, and potential bioaccumulation properties, a mounting interest has been kindled in addressing the remediation of PAHs. Biodegradation is widely employed for the removal and remediation of PAHs due to its low cost, lack of second-contamination and ease of operation. This paper reviews the degradation efficiency of degradation and the underlying mechanisms exhibited by algae, bacteria, and fungi in remediation. Additionally, it delved into the application of modern instrumental analysis techniques and theoretical investigations in the realm of PAH degradation. Advanced instrumental analysis methods such as mass spectrometry provide a powerful tool for identifying intermediates and metabolites throughout the degradation process. Meanwhile, theoretical calculations could guide the optimization of degradation processes by revealing the reaction mechanisms and energy changes in PAH degradation. The combined use of instrumental analysis and theoretical calculations allows for a comprehensive understanding of the degradation mechanisms of PAHs and provides new insights and approaches for the development of environmental remediation technologies.

Anaerobic biodegradation of pyrene and benzo[a]pyrene by a new sulfate-reducing Desulforamulus aquiferis strain DSA

The study of anaerobic high molecular weight polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (HMW-PAHs) biodegradation under sulfate-reducing conditions by microorganisms, including microbial species responsible for biodegradation and relative metabolic processes, remains in its infancy. Here, we found that a new sulfate-reducer, designated as Desulforamulus aquiferis strain DSA, could biodegrade pyrene and benzo[a]pyrene (two kinds of HMW-PAHs) coupled with the reduction of sulfate to sulfide. Interestingly, strain DSA could simultaneously biodegrade pyrene and benzo[a]pyrene when they co-existed in culture. Additionally, the metabolic processes for anaerobic pyrene and benzo[a]pyrene biodegradation by strain DSA were newly proposed in this study based on the detection of intermediates, quantum chemical calculations and analyses of the genome and RTqPCR. The initial activation step for anaerobic pyrene and benzo[a]pyrene biodegradation by strain DSA was identified as the formation of pyrene-2-carboxylic acid and benzo[a]pyrene-11-carboxylic acid by carboxylation Thereafter, CoA ligase, ring reduction through hydrogenation, and ring cracking occurred, and short-chain fatty acids and carbon dioxide were identified as the final products. Additionally, DSA could also utilize benzene, naphthalene, anthracene, phenanthrene, and benz[a]anthracene as carbon sources. Our study can provide new guidance for the anaerobic HMW-PAHs biodegradation under sulfate-reducing conditions.

Coupling multifactor dominated the biochemical response and the alterations of intestinal microflora of earthworm Pheretima guillelmi due to typical herbicides

The excessive application of herbicides on farmlands can substantially reduce labor costs and increase crop yields, but can also have undesirable effects on terrestrial ecosystems. To evaluate the ecological toxicity of herbicides, metolachlor and fomesafen, two typical herbicides that are extensively used worldwide were chosen as target pollutants, and the endogeic earthworm Pheretima guillelmi, which is widely distributed in China, was selected as the test organism. A laboratory-scale microcosmic experiment was set, and energy resources, enzymes, and the composition and connections of intestinal microorganisms in earthworms were determined. Both herbicides depleted the energy resources of the earthworms, especially glycogen contents; increased the levels of antioxidant enzymes; and inhibited acetylcholinesterase. Moreover, the richness and diversity of the intestinal bacterial community of the earthworms were suppressed. Additionally, the bacterial composition at the genus level changed greatly and the connections between dominant bacteria increased dramatically. Most interactions among the bacterial genera belonging to the same and different phyla showed mutualism and competition, respectively. Importantly, metolachlor with higher toxicity had a transitory effect on these indicators in earthworms, whereas fomesafen, with lower toxicity but stronger bioaccumulation potential, exerted a sustaining impact on earthworms. Collectively, these results indicate that the toxic effects of herbicides on terrestrial organisms should be comprehensively considered in combination with biological toxicity, persistence, bioaccumulation potential, and other factors.

Dual role of pulmonary surfactant corona in modulating carbon nanotube toxicity and benzo[a]pyrene bioaccessibility

Inhaled carbon nanotubes (CNTs) can deposit in the deep lung, where they interact with pulmonary surfactant (PS) to form coronas, potentially altering the fate and toxicity profile of CNTs. However, the presence of other contaminants in combination with CNTs may affect these interactions. Here, we used passive dosing and fluorescence-based techniques confirm the partial solubilization of BaPs adsorbed on CNTs by PS in simulated alveolar fluid. MD simulations were performed to elucidate the competition of interactions between BaPs, CNTs, and PS. We found that PS play two opposing roles in altering the toxicity profile of the CNTs. First, the formation of PS coronas reduce CNTs' toxicity by decreasing the hydrophobicity of the CNTs and decreasing their aspect ratio. Second, the interaction with PS increases the bioaccessibility of BaP through interactions with PS, which may exacerbate the inhalation toxicity of CNTs. These findings suggest that the inhalation toxicity of PS-modified CNTs should consider the bioaccessibility of coexisting contaminants, with the CNT size and aggregation state playing an important role.

Determining the degradation mechanism and application potential of benzopyrene-degrading bacterium Acinetobacter XS-4 by screening

In industrial wastewater treatment, organic pollutants are usually removed by in-situ microorganisms and exogenous bactericides. Benzo [a] pyrene (BaP) is a typical persistent organic pollutant and difficult to be removed. In this study, a new strain of BaP degrading bacteria Acinetobacter XS-4 was obtained and the degradation rate was optimized by response surface method. The results showed that the degradation rate of BaP was 62.73% when pH= 8, substrate concentration was 10 mg/L, temperature was 25 °C, inoculation amount was 15% and culture rate was 180 r/min. Its degradation rate was better than that of the reported degrading bacteria. XS-4 is active in the degradation of BaP. BaP is degraded into phenanthrene by 3, 4-dioxygenase (α subunit and β subunit) in pathway Ⅰ and rapidly forms aldehydes, esters and alkanes. The pathway Ⅱ is realized by the action of salicylic acid hydroxylase. When sodium alginate and polyvinyl alcohol were added to the actual coking wastewater to immobilize XS-4, the degradation rate of BaP was 72.68% after 7 days, and the removal effect was better than that of single BaP wastewater (62.36%), which has the application potential. This study provides theoretical and technical support for microbial degradation of BaP in industrial wastewater.

Anaerobic biodegradation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons

Although many anaerobic microorganisms that can degrade PAHs have been harnessed, there is still a large gap between laboratory achievements and practical applications. Here, we review the recent advances in the biodegradation of PAHs under anoxic conditions and highlight the mechanistic insights into the metabolic pathways and functional genes. Achievements of practical application and enhancing strategies of anaerobic PAHs bioremediation in soil were summarized. Based on the concerned issues during research, perspectives of further development were proposed including time-consuming enrichment, byproducts with unknown toxicity, and activity inhibition with low temperatures. In addition, meta-omics, synthetic biology and engineering microbiome of developing microbial inoculum for anaerobic bioremediation applications are discussed. We anticipate that integrating the theoretical research on PAHs anaerobic biodegradation and its successful application will advance the development of anaerobic bioremediation.

Biodegradation of benzo(a)pyrene by Pseudomonas strains, isolated from petroleum refinery effluent: Degradation, inhibition kinetics and metabolic pathway

Benzo(a)pyrene, a five-ring polyaromatic hydrocarbon, originating from coal tar, crude oil, tobacco, grilled foods, car exhaust etc, is highly persistent in the environment. It has been classified as a Group I carcinogen, as on its ingestion in human body, diol epoxide metabolites are generated, which bind to DNA causing mutations and eventual cancer. Among various removal methods, bioremediation is most preferred as it is a sustainable approach resulting in complete mineralization of benzo(a)pyrene. Therefore, in this study, biodegradation of benzo(a)pyrene was performed by two strains of Pseudomonas, i. e WDE11 and WD23, isolated from refinery effluent. Maximum benzo(a)pyrene tolerance was 250 mg/L and 225 mg/L against Pseudomonas sp. WD23 and Pseudomonas sp. WDE11 correspondingly. Degradation rate constants varied between 0.0468 and 0.0513/day at 50 mg/L with half-life values between 13.5 and 14.3 days as per first order kinetics, while for 100 mg/L, the respective values varied between 0.006 and 0.007 L/mg. day and 15.28-16.67 days, as per second order kinetics. The maximum specific growth rate of strains WDE11 and WD23 was 0.3512/day and 0.38/day accordingly, while concentrations over 75 mg/L had an inhibitory effect on growth. Major degradation metabolites were identified as dihydroxy-pyrene, naphthalene-1,2-dicarboxylic acid, salicylic acid, and oxalic acid, indicating benzo(a)pyrene was degraded via pyrene intermediates by salicylate pathway through catechol meta-cleavage. The substantial activity of the catechol 2,3 dioxygenase enzyme was noted during the benzo(a)pyrene metabolism by both strains with minimal catechol 1,2 dioxygenase activity. This study demonstrates the exceptional potential of indigenous Pseudomonas strains in complete metabolism of benzo(a)pyrene.

Polyethylene mulching film degrading bacteria within the plastisphere: Co-culture of plastic degrading strains screened by bacterial community succession

As an ecological niche close to the polymer, microorganisms in the plastisphere possess the advantage of degrading plastics. This study aims to investigate the bacterial community succession and obtain degrading bacteria in the plastisphere, as well as identify the most efficient degradation combination by co-culture of multiple strains. The findings demonstrate the alpha-diversity indices of the plastisphere bacterial community are significantly lower, and the community structure is regularly and significantly altered. With the time of culture, the plastisphere community composition alters regularly, and the hydrocarbon-degrading genera become the core members. Functional prediction of community reveals the potential for Xenobiotics Biodegradation and Metabolism of plastisphere, and the apparent variations detections of polyethylene mulching film (PMF) indicating the PMF degrading ability of plastisphere. Besides, three PMF-degrading bacterial strains, Rhodopseudomonas sp. P1 (P), Rhodanobacter sp. Rs (R) and Microbacterium sp. M1 (M), are screened for co-culture with PMF degrading strain Bacillus aryabhattai 5-3 (B). By considering bacterial growth, biofilm adhesion, and apparent degradation of different samples, RB (R. sp. Rs + B. aryabhattai 5-3) is ultimately selected as the best PMF degradation combination. This study provides a new possibility for plastisphere-related research from the perspective of mitigating plastic pollution on agricultural land.

Effects of electrical stimulation on purification of secondary effluent containing chlorophenols by denitrification biofilter

The coexistence of chlorophenols (CPs) and total nitrogen (TN) is common in advanced purification of industrial secondary effluent, which brings challenges to conventional denitrification biofilters (DNBFs). Electrical stimulation is an effective method for the degradation of CPs, However, the application of electrical stimulation in DNBFs to enhance the treatment of secondary effluent containing CPs remains largely unknown. Herein, this study conducted a systematic investigation towards the effects of electrical stimulation on DNBF through eight lab-scale reactors at room and low temperatures and different hydraulic retention times (HRTs). Results showed that the electrical stimulation effect was not greatly affected by temperature and the optimal applied voltage was 3 V. Overall, the removal rates of TN and CPs were increased by 114%-334% and 2.68%-34.79% respectively after electrical stimulation. When the influent concentration of NO₃^--N, COD and each CP of 25 mg/L, 50 mg/L and 5 mg/L, about 15 mg/L of effluent TN could be achieved and the removals of p-chlorophenol, 2,4-dichlorophenol and 2,4,6-trichlorophenol were increased by 10.58%, 5.78% and 34.79% respectively, under the voltage of 3 V and HRT of 4 h. However, the reduction rate of biotoxicity was decreased and could not achieve low toxicity grade in general. Electrical stimulation promoted the elevation of Hydrogenophaga and thus enhanced the removal of TN, and the increase of Microbacterium and Ahniella was significantly associated with the improvement of CPs removal rate. In addition, the obvious accumulation of nitrite was found to be significantly negatively correlated with the abundance of Nitrospira. This study highlighted a further need for the optimization of electrical stimulation in DNBFs treating industrial secondary effluent containing CPs to achieve the goal of pollutant removal and toxicity reduction simultaneously.

Biodegradation kinetics and metabolism of Benzo(a)fluorene by Pseudomonas strains isolated from refinery effluent

The final sinkers of polyaromatic hydrocarbons are water sources, where they undergo bioaccumulation and biomagnification, leading to adverse mutagenic, carcinogenic, and teratogenic effects on exposure in flora, fauna, and humans. Two indigenous strains, Pseudomonas sp. WDE11 and Pseudomonas sp. WD23, isolated from refinery effluent, degraded over 97.5% of benzo(a)fluorene (10 mg/L) in 7 days. On growth at concentration dependent amounts (50 mg/L and 100 mg/L), the degradation reduced to approximately 90% and 80% respectively in 56 days. Degradation kinetics was concentration dependent, as degradation followed first-order and second-order kinetics for 50 mg/L and 100 mg/L respectively. The half-life for degradation of benzo(a)fluorene ranged between 11.64 - 12.26 days and 13.11-14.5 days for strains WDE11 and WD23 respectively. The values of Andrew-Haldane kinetic parameters i.e. μ_max, K_s, and K_i were 0.306 day^-1, 11.11 mg/L, and 120.41 mg/L for strain WDE11 respectively, while for strain WD23, the respective values were 0.312 day^-1, 9.97 mg/L, and 152 mg/L. Degradation metabolites were identified by their MS patterns as 3,4-dihydroxy fluorene, 2-(1-oxo-2,3-dihydro-1H-inden-2-yl) acetic acid, 3,4-dihydrocoumarin, salicylic acid, catechol, and oxalic acid. Metabolic pathway of degradation constructed, revealed that benzo(a)fluorene was metabolized via the formation of fluorene, further metabolized by salicylate pathway forming catechol. The catechol formed was degraded into simpler metabolites by meta-cleavage pathway, which was validated by catechol 2,3 dioxygenase enzyme activity.

Current and emerging trends in bioaugmentation of organic contaminated soils: A review

Organic contaminated soils constitute an important environmental problem, whereas field applicability of existing physical-chemical methods has encountered numerous obstacles, such as high chemical cost, large energy consumption, secondary pollution, and soil degradation. Bioaugmentation is an environmentally friendly and potentially economic technology that efficiently removes toxic pollutants from organic contaminated soils by microorganisms or their enzymes and bioremediation additives. This review attempted to explore the recent advances in bioaugmentation of organic contaminated soils and provided a comprehensive summary of various bioaugmentation methods, including bacterial, fungus, enzymes and bioremediation additives. The practical application of bioaugmentation is frequently limited by soil environmental conditions, microbial relationships, enzyme durability and remediation cycles. To tackle these problems, the future of bioaugmentation can be processed from sustainability of broad-spectrum bioremediation carriers, microbial/enzyme agents targeting combined contaminants, desorption of environmentally friendly additives and small molecular biological stimulants. Findings of this research are expected to provide new references for bioaugmentation methods that are practically feasible and economically potential.

Biodegradation time series characteristics and metabolic fate of different aromatic compounds in the biochemical treatment process of coal chemical wastewater

In this study, the biochemical treatment system of coal chemical wastewater (CCW) was constructed to degrade aromatic compounds. The biodegradation time series characteristics of 8 benzene series (BTEX), 6 phenols, 10 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and 3 nitrogen heterocyclic compounds (NHCs) were detected. The aim was to clarify the storage characteristics and dynamic transformation in water, EPS, and cells of these aromatic compounds. The results showed that BTEX and NHCs were more easily degraded than PAHs and phenols. Furthermore, aromatic compounds were initially adsorbed into EPS from water by microorganisms. Then, some were degraded, and others were transferred into the cell. Finally, they were completely degraded. The percentage of surplus content with them in EPS and cells were PAHs > phenols > NHCs = BTEX. The study could lay a theoretical foundation for the regulation and harmless treatment of the CCW in the stable operation of the biochemical treatment system.

Effect of terminal electron acceptors on the anaerobic biodegradation of PAHs in marine sediments

The existing polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in marine sediment has become a critical threat to biological security. Terminal electron acceptor (TEA) amendment has been applied as a potential strategy to accelerate bioremediation in sediment. HCO₃^-, NO₃^-, and SO₄^2- were separately added to anaerobic sediment system containing five kinds of PAH, namely, phenanthrene, anthracene, fluoranthene, pyrene and benzo(a)pyrene. PAH concentration, PAH metabolites, TEA concentration, and electron transport system (ETS) activity were investigated. The HCO₃^- amendment group achieved the max PAH degradation efficiency of 84.98 %. SO₄^2- group led to the highest benzo(a)pyrene removal rate of 69.26 %. NO₃^- had the lowest PAH degradation rate of 76.16 %. ETS activity test showed that NO₃^- significantly inhibited electron transport activity in the sediment. The identified PAH metabolites were the same in each group, including 4,5-dimethylphenanthrene, 3-acetylphenanthrene, 9,10-anthracenedione, pyrene-7-hydroxy-8-carboxylic acid, anthrone, and dibenzothiophene. After 126 d's anaerobic degradation at 25 °C, the utilization of HCO₃^- and SO₄^2- as selected TEAs promoted the PAH biodegradation performance better than the utilization of NO₃^-.

Biosynthesis and chemical composition of nanomaterials in agricultural soil bioremediation: a review

Nanomaterials (NMs) are currently being used in agricultural soils as part of a new bioremediation (BR) process. In this study, we reviewed the biosynthesis of NMs, as well as their chemical composition and prospective strategies for helpful and sustainable agricultural soil bioremediation (BR). Different types of NMs, such as nanoparticles, nanocomposites, nanocrystals, nano-powders, and nanotubes, are used in agricultural soil reclamation, and they reflect the toxicity of NMs to microorganisms. Plants (Sargassum muticum, Dodonaea viscose, Aloe Vera, Rosemarinus officinalis, Azadirachta indica, Green tea, and so on) and microorganisms (Escherichia coli, Shewanella oneidensis, Pleurotus sp., Klebsiella oxytoca, Aspergillus clavatus, and so on) are the primary sources for the biosynthesis of NMs. By using the BR process, microorganisms, such as bacteria and plants, can immobilize metals and change both inorganic and organic contaminants in the soil. Combining NMs with bioremediation techniques for agricultural soil remediation will be a valuable long-term solution.

Impact of biosurfactant and iron nanoparticles on biodegradation of polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are hazardous toxic contaminants and considered as primary pollutants due to their persistent nature and most of them are carcinogenic and mutagenic. The key challenge in PAHs degradation is their hydrophobic nature, which makes them one of the most complex materials and inaccessible by a broad range of microorganisms. This bioavailability can be increased by using a biosurfactant. In the present study mixed PAHs were degraded using the biosurfactant producing bacterial strains. In addition, iron nanoparticles were synthesized and the impact of iron nanoparticles on the growth of the mixed bacterial strains (Pseudomonas stutzeri NA3 and Acinetobacter baumannii MN3) was optimized. The mixed PAHs (anthracene, pyrene, and benzo(a)pyrene) degradation was enhanced by addition of biosurfactant (produced by Bacillus subtilis A1) and iron nanoparticles, resulting in 85% of degradation efficiency. The addition of the biosurfactant increased the bioavailability of the PAHs in the aqueous environment, which might help bacterial cells for the initial settlement and development. The addition of iron nanoparticles increased both bacterial biomass and PAHs adsorption over their surface. These overall interactions assisted in the utilization of PAHs by the mixed bacterial consortia. This study illustrates that this integrated approach can be elaborated for the removal of the complex PAHs pollutants from soil and aqueous environments.

The High-Effective Catalytic Degradation of Benzo[a]pyrene by Mn-Corrolazine Regulated by Oriented External Electric Field: Insight From DFT Study

The degradation of BaP into hydroxybenzo[a]pyrene by Mn-corrolazine and its regulation by an oriented external electronic field (OEEF) were systematically studied using first-principle calculations. Extensive density function calculations showed that the degradation of BaP into hydroxybenzo[a]pyrene by Mn-corrolazine occurs via a three-step process in the absence of OEEF, in which a more toxic and stable epoxide intermediate is generated. However, upon application of OEEF along the intrinsic Mn-O reaction axis, the degradation of BaP into hydroxybenzo[a]pyrene is greatly simplified. The negative charge on the terminal O atom of Mn-OO corrolazine increases with an increase in the OEEF intensity. As the intensity of the OEEF increases over 0.004 a.u., the negatively charged terminal O atom has the ability to directly abstract the positively charged H atom of BaP and the degradation of BaP into hydroxybenzo[a]pyrene can be completed via a one-step process, avoiding the production of more toxic epoxide intermediates.

Degradation mechanism of montmorillonite-enhanced antibiotic wastewater: performance, antibiotic resistance genes, microbial communities, and functional metabolism

The effective degradation of Sulfamethoxazole (SMX) is of great importance to alleviate environmental pollution. In this study, the degradation capacity of an ordinary sequencing batch activated sludge system (SBR) and montmorillonite (MMT) system was compared for their ability to degrade different concentrations of SMX. Compared with SBR system, the MMT system exhibited higher stability and degradation capacity. The changes in the composition of tightly bound extracellular polymeric substances (TB-EPS) were likely key to the observed stability of the system. High concentrations of SMX inhibited the degradation performance of SBR. MMT-supplemented reduced the generation of antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs). Thauera is a gene that is able to degrade SMX, and its abundance in MMT system reached 7.84%. As potential hosts of ARGs, the proportions of Paenarthrobacter and Caldilineacea were significantly correlated with sulfonamide resistance genes (sul1 and sul2). Overall, MMT-supplemented system was found to be a favorable method of treating antibiotic.

Co-degradation of ofloxacin and its impact on solid phase denitrification with polycaprolactone as carbon source

Solid-phase denitrification has been applied for advanced nitrogen removal from wastewater and can co-degrade emerging pollutants. Fluoroquinolones (FQs), broad-spectral antibiotic, are frequently detected in the effluent of conventional wastewater treatment plants. However, it remains unclear whether solid-phase denitrifying bacteria can remove FQs. Thus, this study investigated the removal capacity of ofloxacin (OFX) as a representative of FQs and the microbial community structures of denitrifying sludge acclimated to polycaprolactone and OFX. The Results indicate that OFX had a negative effect on denitrification performance. OFX was degraded, and a possible pathway was revealed based on ultra-high performance liquid chromatography-quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry. The dominant genera in the acclimated denitrifying sludge were Microbacterium, Simplicispira, Alicycliphilus, Reyranella, Sediminibacterium, Acidovorax and Thermomonas. Moreover, ABC transporters and cytochrome P450, related to multi-drug resistance and drug metabolism, were highly expressed in the acclimated sludge. This study provides novel insights into antibiotics control.

An insight on microbial degradation of benzo[a]pyrene: current status and advances in research

Benzo[a]pyrene (BaP) is a high molecular weight polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon produced as a result of incomplete combustion of organic substances. Over the years, the release of BaP in the atmosphere has increased rapidly, risking human lives. BaP can form bonds with DNA leading to the formation of DNA adducts thereby causing cancer. Therefore addressing the problem of its removal from the environment is quite pertinent though it calls for a very cumbersome and tedious process owing to its recalcitrant nature. To resolve such issues many efforts have been made to develop physical and chemical technologies of BaP degradation which have neither been cost-effective nor eco-friendly. Microbial degradation of BaP, on the other hand, has gained much attention due to added advantage of the high level of microbial diversity enabling great potential to degrade the substance without impairing environmental sustainability. Microorganisms produce enzymes like oxygenases, hydrolases and cytochrome P450 that enable BaP degradation. However, microbial degradation of BaP is restricted due to several factors related to its bio-availability and soil properties. Technologies like bio-augmentation and bio-stimulation have served to enhance the degradation rate of BaP. Besides, advanced technologies such as omics and nano-technology have opened new doors for a better future of microbial degradation of BaP and related compounds.

Unravelling the genetic and functional diversity of dominant bacterial communities involved in manure co-composting bioremediation of complex crude oil waste sludge

The present study aimed to characterize the bacterial community and functional diversity in co-composting microcosms of crude oil waste sludge amended with different animal manures, and to evaluate the scope for biostimulation based in situ bioremediation. Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS) analyses revealed enhanced attenuation (>90%) of the total polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs); the manure amendments significantly enhancing (up to 30%) the degradation of high molecular weight (HMW) PAHs. Microbial community analysis showed the dominance (>99% of total sequences) of sequences affiliated to phyla Proteobacteria, Firmicutes, Actinobacteria and Bacteroidetes. The core genera enriched were related to hydrocarbon metabolism (Pseudomonas, Delftia, Methylobacterium, Dietzia, Bacillus, Propionibacterium, Bradyrhizobium, Streptomyces, Achromobacter, Microbacterium and Sphingomonas). However, manure-treated samples exhibited high number and heterogeneity of unique operational taxonomic units (OTUs) with enrichment of additional hydrocarbon-degrading bacterial taxa (Proteiniphilum, unclassified Micrococcales, unclassified Lachnospiraceae, Sphingobium and Stenotrophomonas). Thirty-three culturable hydrocarbon-degrading microbes were isolated from the co-composting microcosms and mainly classified into Burkholderia, Sanguibacter, Pseudomonas, Bacillus, Rhodococcus, Lysinibacillus, Microbacterium, Brevibacterium, Geobacillus, Micrococcus, Arthrobacter, Cellulimicrobacterium, Streptomyces Dietzia,etc,. that was additionally affirmed with the presence of catechol 2,3-dioxygenase gene. Finally, enhanced in situ degradation of total (49%), LMW (>75%) and HMW PAHs (>35%) was achieved with an enriched bacterial consortium of these microbes. Overall, these findings suggests that co-composting treatment of crude oil sludge with animal manures selects for intrinsically diverse bacterial community, that could be a driving force behind accelerated bioremediation, and can be exploited for engineered remediation processes.

Different performance of pyrene biodegradation on metal-modified montmorillonite: Role of surface metal ions from a bioelectrochemical perspective

Microbial extracellular electron transfer (EET) at microbe-mineral interface has been reported to play a significant role in pollutant biotransformation. Different metals often co-exist with organic pollutants and are immobilized on mineral surfaces. However, little is known about the influence of mineral surface metal ions on organic pollutant biodegradation and the involved electron transfer mechanism. To address this knowledge gap, pyrene was used as a model compound to investigate the biodegradation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon on montmorillonite mineral saturated with metal ions (Na(I), Ni(II), Co(II), Cu(II) and Fe(III)) by Mycobacteria strain NJS-1. Further, the possible underlying electron transfer mechanism by electrochemical approaches was investigated. The results show that pyrene biodegradation on montmorillonite was markedly influenced by surface metal ions, with degradation efficiency following the order Fe(III) > Na(I) ≈ Co(II) > Ni(II) ≈ Cu(II). Bioelectrochemical analysis showed that electron transfer activities (i.e., electron donating capacity and electron transport system activity) varied in different metal-modified montmorillonites and were closely related to pyrene biodegradation. Fe(III) modification greatly stimulated degrading enzyme activities (i.e., peroxidase and dioxygenase) and electron transfer activities resulting in enhanced pyrene biodegradation, which highlights its potential as a technique for pollutant bioremediation. The bacterial extracellular protein and humic substances played important roles in EET processes. Membrane-bound cytochrome C protein and extracellular riboflavin were identified as the electron shuttles responsible for transmembrane and cross extracellular matrix electron transfer, respectively. Additions of exogenetic electron mediators of riboflavin, humic acid and potassium ferricyanide accelerated pyrene biodegradation which further verified the critical role of EET in PAH transformation at bacteria-mineral interfaces. These results support the development of clay mineral based advanced bioremediation techniques through regulating the electron transfer processes at the microbe-mineral interfaces by mineral surface modification.

Pilot-scale bioaugmentation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH)-contaminated soil using an indigenous bacterial consortium in soil-slurry bioreactors

Soil-slurry bioreactor based bioremediation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) contaminated soil was studied through laboratory and pilot-scale trials, in which the degradation mechanism was explored. Indigenous PAH-degrading consortium was firstly screened out and it degraded 80.5% of total PAHs in lab-scale bioreactors. Then a pilot-scale trial lasting 410 days was conducted in two bioreactors of 1.5 m³ to examine the operating parameters and validate the optimum running conditions. During the initial 200 days, the crucial running parameters affecting PAH removal were evaluated and selected. Subsequently, an average PAH removal rate of 93.4% was achieved during 15 consecutive batches (210 days) under the optimum running conditions. The kinetic analysis showed that the reactor under optimum conditions achieved the highest PAH degradation rate of 0.1795 day^-1 and the shortest half-life of 3.86 days. Notably, efficient mass transfer of PAHs and high biodegradation capability by bioaugmented consortia in soil-slurry bioreactors were two key mechanisms for appreciable PAH removal performance. Under the optimal operating conditions, the degradation rate of low-molecular-weight (LMW) PAHs was significantly higher than high-molecular-weight (HMW) PAHs; when the mass transfer was limited, there was no significant difference between their degradation behaviors. Both microbial co-metabolism and collaborative metabolism might occur when all PAHs demonstrated low degradation rates. The findings provide insightful guidance on the future assessment and remediation practices of PAH-contaminated sites.

Competitive and/or cooperative interactions of graphene-family materials and benzo[a]pyrene with pulmonary surfactant: a computational and experimental study

BACKGROUND

Airborne nanoparticles can be inhaled and deposit in human alveoli, where pulmonary surfactant (PS) molecules lining at the alveolar air-water interface act as the first barrier against inhaled nanoparticles entering the body. Although considerable efforts have been devoted to elucidate the mechanisms underlying nanoparticle-PS interactions, our understanding on this important issue is limited due to the high complexity of the atmosphere, in which nanoparticles are believed to experience transformations that remarkably change the nanoparticles' surface properties and states. By contrast with bare nanoparticles that have been extensively studied, relatively little is known about the interactions between PS and inhaled nanoparticles which already adsorb contaminants. In this combined experimental and computational effort, we investigate the joint interactions between PS and graphene-family materials (GFMs) with coexisting benzo[a]pyrene (BaP).

RESULTS

Depending on the BaP concentration, molecular agglomeration, and graphene oxidation, different nanocomposite structures are formed via BaPs adsorption on GFMs. Upon deposition of GFMs carrying BaPs at the pulmonary surfactant (PS) layer, competition and cooperation of interactions between different components determines the interfacial processes including BaP solubilization, GFM translocation and PS perturbation. Importantly, BaPs adsorbed on GFMs are solubilized to increase BaP's bioavailability. By contrast with graphene adhering on the PS layer to release part of adsorbed BaPs, more BaPs are released from graphene oxide, which induces a hydrophilic pore in the PS layer and shows adverse effect on the PS biophysical function. Translocation of graphene across the PS layer is facilitated by BaP adsorption through segregating it from contact with PS, while translocation of graphene oxide is suppressed by BaP adsorption due to the increase of surface hydrophobicity. Graphene extracts PS molecules from the layer, and the resultant PS depletion declines with graphene oxidation and BaP adsorption.

CONCLUSION

GFMs showed high adsorption capacity towards BaPs to form nanocomposites. Upon deposition of GFMs carrying BaPs at the alveolar air-water interface covered by a thin PS layer, the interactions of GFM-PS, GFM-BaP and BaP-PS determined the interfacial processes of BaP solubilization, GFM translocation and PS perturbation.

Identification of pyrene degraders via DNA-SIP in oilfield soil during natural attenuation, bioaugmentation and biostimulation

Pyrene is a model contaminant of high molecular weight polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (HMW-PAHs), which are compounds that have potential carcinogenic effects and pose a serious threat to human health. Finding effective pyrene-degrading bacteria is crucial for removing PAHs from soil. In this study, DNA-based stable isotope probing (DNA-SIP) technology was used to investigate pyrene degraders in PAH-contaminated oilfield soil during natural attenuation (NA), bioaugmentation (BA) and biostimulation (BS). The results show that BA played an important role in pyrene degradation with the highest pyrene removal rate (~95%) after 12 days incubation, followed by removal rates of ~90% for NA and ~30% for BS. In addition, 6 novel pyrene degraders were identified, while 12 well-known PAH degraders were demonstrated to participate in the biodegradation of pyrene. Additionally, the external homologous strains introduced during BA promoted the degradation of pyrene, but not by directly participating in the metabolism of the target compound. Rhamnolipid supplementation during BS promoted the involvement of more microorganisms in the degradation of pyrene, which was beneficial to identifying more pyrene degraders via DNA-SIP. These findings provide new insight into the effects of external homologous strains and supplementary rhamnolipids on pyrene degradation.

A review on the enzymes and metabolites identified by mass spectrometry from bacteria and microalgae involved in the degradation of high molecular weight PAHs

High molecular weight PAHs (HMW PAHs) are dangerous pollutants widely distributed in the environment. The use of microorganisms represents an important tool for HMW PAHs bioremediation, so, the understanding of their biochemical pathways facilitates the development of biodegradation strategies. For this reason, the potential role of species of microalgae, bacteria, and microalga-bacteria consortia in the degradation of HMW PAHs is discussed. The identification of their metabolites, mostly by GC-MS and LC-MS, allows a better approach to the enzymes involved in the key steps of the metabolic pathways of HMW PAHs biodegradation. So, this review intends to address the proteomic research on enzyme activities and their involvement in regulating essential biochemical functions that help bacteria and microalgae in the biodegradation processes of HMW PAHs. It is noteworthy that, given that to the best of our knowledge, this is the first review focused on the mass spectrometry identification of the HMW PAHs metabolites; whereby and due to the great concern of the presence of HMW PAHs in the environment, this material could help the urgency of developing new bioremediation methods. The elucidation of the metabolic pathways of persistent pollutant degrading microorganisms should lead to a better knowledge of the enzymes involved, which could contribute to a very ecological route to the control of environmental contamination in the future.

Characterization and genomic analysis of an efficient dibutyl phthalate degrading bacterium Microbacterium sp. USTB-Y

A promising bacterial strain for biodegrading dibutyl phthalate (DBP) was successfully isolated from activated sludge and characterized as a potential novel Microbacterium sp. USTB-Y based on 16S rRNA sequence analysis and whole genome average nucleotide identity (ANI). Initial DBP of 50 mg/L could be completely biodegraded by USTB-Y both in mineral salt medium and in DBP artificially contaminated soil within 12 h at the optimal culture conditions of pH 7.5 and 30 ℃, which indicates that USTB-Y has a strong ability in DBP biodegradation. Phthalic acid (PA) was identified as the end-product of DBP biodegraded by USTB-Y using GC/MS. The draft genome of USTB-Y was sequenced by Illumina NovaSeq and 29 and 188 genes encoding for putative esterase/carboxylesterase and hydrolase/alpha/beta hydrolase were annotated based on NR (non redundant protein sequence database) analysis, respectively. Gene3781 and gene3780 from strain USTB-Y showed 100% identity with dpeH and mpeH from Microbacterium sp. PAE-1. But no phthalate catabolic gene (pht) cluster was found in the genome of strain USTB-Y. The results in the present study are valuable for obtaining a more holistic understanding on diverse genetic mechanisms of PAEs biodegrading Microbacterium sp. strains.

Heterologous expression of bacterial cytochrome P450 from Microbacterium keratanolyticum ZY and its application in dichloromethane dechlorination

Dichloromethane (DCM) is a volatile halogenated hydrocarbon with teratogenic, mutagenic and carcinogenic effects. Biodegradation is generally regarded as an effective and economical approach of pollutant disposal. In this study, a novel strain was isolated and its cytochrome P450 was heterologously expressed for DCM degradation. The isolate, Microbacterium keratanolyticum ZY, was characterized as a Gram-positive, rod-shaped and flagella-existed bacterium without spores (GenBank No. SUB8814364; CCTCC M 2019953). After successive whole-genome sequencing, assembly and annotation, eight identified functional genes (encoding cytochrome P450, monooxygenase, dehalogenase and hydrolase) were successfully cloned and expressed in Escherichia coli BL21 (DE3). The recombinant strain expressing cytochrome P450 presented the highest degradation efficiency (90.6%). Moreover, the specific activity of the recombinant cytochrome P450 was more than 1.2 times that of the recombinant dehalogenase (from Methylobacterium rhodesianum H13) under their optimum conditions. The kinetics of DCM degradation by recombinant cytochrome P450 was well fitted with the Haldane model and the value of maximum specific degradation rate was determined to be 0.7 s^-1. The DCM degradation might occur through successive hydroxylation, dehydrohalogenation, dechlorination and oxidation to generate gem-halohydrin, formyl chloride, formaldehyde and formic acid. The study helps to comprehensively understand the DCM dechlorination process under the actions of bacterial functional enzymes (cytochrome P450 and dehalogenase).

Dynamics of bacterial functional genes and community structures during rhizoremediation of diesel-contaminated compost-amended soil

The objective of this study was to characterize the effects of organic soil amendment (compost) on bacterial populations associated with petroleum hydrocarbon (PH) degradation and nitrous oxide (N₂O) dynamics via pot experiments. Soil was artificially contaminated with diesel oil at total petroleum hydrocarbon (TPH) concentration of 30,000 mg·kg-soil^-1 and compost was mixed with the contaminated soil at a 1:9 ratio (w/w). Maize seedlings were planted in each pot and a total of ten pots with two treatments (compost-amended and unamended) were prepared. The pot experiment was conducted for 85 days. The compost-amended soil had a significantly higher TPH removal efficiency (51.1%) than unamended soil (21.4%). Additionally, the relative abundance of the alkB gene, which is associated with PH degradation, was higher in the compost-amended soil than in the unamended soil. Similarly, cnorB and nosZ (which are associated with nitric oxide (NO) and N₂O reduction, respectively) were also highly upregulated in the compost-amended soil. Moreover, the compost-amended soil exhibited higher richness and evenness indices, indicating that bacterial diversity was higher in the amended soil than in the unamended soil. Therefore, our findings may contribute to the development of strategies to enhance remediation efficiency and greenhouse gas mitigation during the rhizoremediation of diesel-contaminated soils.

Efficient anaerobic bioremediation of high-concentration benzo[a]pyrene in marine environments

Benzo[a]pyrene (BaP), a persistent organic pollutant that may accumulate in sea sediments after oil spill or BaP chemical leakage accidents, considerably harms marine ecosystems and human health. Previous studies have been predominantly focused on its degradation at low concentrations, while the remediation of BaP pollution with high concentrations was neglected. Additionally, the metabolic pathways associated with its anaerobic degradation remain unclear. As a first attempt, super-efficient systems for BaP anaerobic degradation were established, and the corresponding metabolic pathways were elucidated in this study. The results showed that the BaP removal rate in BaP-only system with initial concentrations of 200 mg/L reached 3.09 mg/(L·d) within 45 days. Co-solvent, acetone promoted anaerobic BaP degradation (4.252 mg/(L·d)), while dichloromethane showed a newly-discovered co-metabolic effect. In the system with 500 mg/L of BaP and dichloromethane addition, the removal rate increased drastically (14.64 mg/(L·d)) at 400 mg/L turn point of BaP. Additionally, the corresponding microbial community-level metabolic network was firstly proposed.

An overview of neonicotinoids: biotransformation and biodegradation by microbiological processes

Neonicotinoids are a class of pesticides widely used in different phases of agricultural crops. Similar to other classes of pesticides, they can damage human and environmental health if overused, and can be resistent to degradation. This is especially relevant to insect health, pollination, and aquatic biodiversity. Nevertheless, application of pesticides is still crucial for food production and pest control, and should therefore be carefully monitored by the government to control or reduce neonicotinoid contamination reaching human and animal feed. Aware of this problem, studies have been carried out to reduce or eliminate neonicotinoid contamination from the environment. One example of a green protocol is bioremediation. This review discusses the most recent microbial biodegradation and bioremediation processes for neonicotinoids, which employ isolated microorganisms (bacteria and fungi), consortiums of microorganisms, and different types of soils, biobeds, and biomixtures.

Organic matter composition, BaP biodegradation and microbial communities at sites near and far from the bioanode in a soil microbial fuel cell

Bioanodes in a soil microbial fuel cell (SMFC) can serve as sustainable electron acceptors in microbial metabolism processes; thus, SMFCs are considered a promising in situ bioremediation technology. Most related studies have focused on the removal efficiency of contaminants. Relatively few efforts have been made to comprehensively investigate the organic matter composition and biodegradation metabolites of organic contaminants and microbial communities at various distances from the bioanode. In this study, the level and composition of dissolved organic matter (DOM), biodegradation metabolites of benzo[a]pyrene (BaP), and microbial communities at two sites with different distances (S_1cm and S_11cm) to the bioanode were investigated in an SMFC. The consumption efficiency of dissolved organic carbon (R_DOC) and removal efficiency of BaP (R_BaP) at S_1cm were slightly higher than those at S_11cm after 100 days (R_DOC 47.82 ± 5.77% at S_1cm and 44.98 ± 10.76% at S_11cm; R_BaP 72.52 ± 1.88% at S_1cm and 68.50 ± 4.34% at S_11cm). More fulvic acid-like components and more low-molecular-weight metabolites (indicating a higher biodegradation degree) of BaP were generated at S_1cm than at S_11cm. The microbial community structures were similar at the two sites. Electroactive bacteria (EAB) and some polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon degraders were both enriched at the bioanode. Energy metabolism at the bioanode could be upregulated to generate more adenosine triphosphate (ATP). In conclusion, the bioanode could modulate the metabolic pathways in the adjacent soil by strengthening the contact between the EAB and BaP degraders, and providing more ATP to the BaP degraders.

Anaerobic degradation of high-concentration polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in seawater sediments

Recurring oil spill accidents have been a global challenge and contribute to PAHs' heavy accumulation in marine sediments. The rapid bioremediation of PAHs with high concentrations in marine sediments has rarely been studied. In this study, four representative PAHs in crude oil were tested for fast anaerobic biodegradation. An efficient system for the anaerobic degradation of high-concentration PAHs was obtained using petroleum-acclimated marine sediments as inoculants in the treatment system. The degradation efficiencies of benzo[b]fluoranthene, benzo[a]pyrene, pyrene, and phenanthrene reached 0.21, 1.71, 3.89, and 4.10 mg/(L·d), respectively, which are 16, 2.8, 1.8, and 1.0 times higher than the reported values. Nitrate was preferred to sulfate as an electron acceptor. The acclimated sediment contains a high abundance of hydrocarbon-degrading bacteria. The number and diversity of species in the treatment system supplemented with PAHs decreased, but the abundance of some hydrocarbon-degrading bacteria and hydrocarbon-intermediate utilising bacteria increased, and ecological succession was observed.

Nitric oxide-dependent biodegradation of phenanthrene and fluoranthene: The co-occurrence of anaerobic and intra-aerobic pathways

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) pollution as well as the emissions of nitric oxide (NO) and greenhouse gas nitrous oxide (N₂O) in denitrification processes are currently two environmental issues of great concern. Although bioremediation of PAHs under denitrification is considered a promising approach, denitrification was an important contributor to N₂O and NO emissions. This long-term study confirmed for the first time that microorganisms could utilize NO to efficiently degrade phenanthrene and fluoranthene. When the two systems of NO-dependent phenanthrene and fluoranthene degradation were stable, the first-order rate constants of phenanthrene and fluoranthene in the two systems (0.1940 and 0.0825 day^-1, respectively) were close to those values (0.2290 and 0.1085 day^-1, respectively) observed at nitrate-reducing conditions. Further analysis of functional genes revealed that phenanthrene and fluoranthene might be degraded under the combined action of the anaerobic pathway mediated by NO reduction and intra-aerobic pathway mediated by NO dismutation. The genomic analysis showed that Nod genes had high diversity and most of them were similar to aquifer cluster group in the two systems. Microbial community structure analysis indicated that Pseudomonas and Ochrobactrum might be key participants in NO-dependent phenanthrene degradation system, and Azoarcus, Alicycliphilus and Moheibacter might play vital roles in NO-dependent fluoranthene degradation system. This study provides new perspective for anaerobic remediation of PAH pollution and simultaneously reducing NO and N₂O emissions during bioprocesses, which has important ecological significance for amending sediment and soil PAHs contamination and potential application for the removal of PAHs in flue gas.

Anaerobic degradation of xenobiotic organic contaminants (XOCs): The role of electron flow and potential enhancing strategies

In groundwater, deep soil layer, sediment, the widespread of xenobiotic organic contaminants (XOCs) have been leading to the concern of human health and eco-environment safety, which calls for a better understanding on the fate and remediation of XOCs in anoxic matrices. In the absence of oxygen, bacteria utilize various oxidized substances, e.g. nitrate, sulphate, metallic (hydr)oxides, humic substance, as terminal electron acceptors (TEAs) to fuel anaerobic XOCs degradation. Although there have been increasing anaerobic biodegradation studies focusing on species identification, degrading pathways, community dynamics, systematic reviews on the underlying mechanism of anaerobic contaminants removal from the perspective of electron flow are limited. In this review, we provide the insight on anaerobic biodegradation from electrons aspect - electron production, transport, and consumption. The mechanism of the coupling between TEAs reduction and pollutants degradation is deconstructed in the level of community, pure culture, and cellular biochemistry. Hereby, relevant strategies to promote anaerobic biodegradation are proposed for guiding to an efficient XOCs bioremediation.

A coupled UV photolysis-biodegradation process for the treatment of decabrominated diphenyl ethers in an aerobic novel bioslurry reactor

The commercial flame retardant is an emerging contaminant (EC) commonly found in soils and sediments. A coupled UV-photolysis-biodegradation process was used to decompose decabromodiphenyl ether (BDE-209) in clay slurries. A novel bioslurry bioreactor (NBB) was employed in which BDE-209 degradation was maximized by the simultaneous application of LED UVA irradiation and biodegradation by a mixed bacterial culture. The rate of BDE-209 degradation decreased in the order: coupled UV photolysis-biodegradation (1.31 × 10-2 day-1) > UV photolysis alone (1.10 × 10-2 day-1) > biodegradation alone (1.00 × 10-2 day-1). Degradation intermediates detected included hydroxylated polybrominated diphenylethers, partially debrominated PBDE congeners and polybrominated dibenzofuran. The UV-resistant bacterial strains isolated that could utilize BDE-209 as a sole carbon source included Stenotrophomonas sp., Pseudomonas sp., and Microbacterium sp. These strains encoded important functional genes such as dioxygenase and reductive dehalogenases. Continuous UV irradiation during the NBB process affected various biochemical oxidative reactions during PBDEs biodegradation. Simultaneous photolysis and biodegradation in the NBB system described reduces operational time, energy, expense, and maintenance-demands required for the remediation of BDE-209 when compared to sequential UV-biodegradation process or to biodegradation alone.

Current Status of and Future Perspectives in Bacterial Degradation of Benzo[a]pyrene

Benzo[a]pyrene (BaP) is one the main pollutants belonging to the high-molecular-weight PAHs (HMW-PAHs) class and its degradation by microorganisms remains an important strategy for its removal from the environment. Extensive studies have been carried out on the isolation and characterisation of microorganisms that can actively degrade low-molecular-weight PAHs (LMW-PAHs), and to a certain extent, the HMW-PAH pyrene. However, so far, limited work has been carried out on BaP biodegradation. BaP consists of five fused aromatic rings, which confers this compound a high chemical stability, rendering it less amenable to biodegradation. The current review summarizes the emerging reports on BaP biodegradation. More specifically, work carried out on BaP bacterial degradation and current knowledge gaps that limit our understanding of BaP degradation are highlighted. Moreover, new avenues of research on BaP degradation are proposed, specifically in the context of the development of "omics" approaches.

A high-efficiency phenanthrene-degrading Diaphorobacter sp. isolated from PAH-contaminated river sediment

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are typical persistent organic pollutants that accumulate in the environment, mainly from anthropogenic activities. Microbial degradation is the main pathway of PAHs degradation in the natural environment. Therefore, the widen of the available bank of microbial resources and exploration of the molecular degradation mechanisms of PAHs are crucial to the proper management of PAHs-polluted sites. In this work, a bacterial strain, YM-6, which has a high ability to utilize phenanthrene (PHE) as its sole source of carbon and energy, was isolated from sediment contaminated with PAHs. The strain YM-6 was found to degrade 96.3% of 100 mg/L of PHE in liquid cultures within 52 h. The strain was identified as Diaphorobacter sp. by 16S rDNA sequencing. The optimum growth conditions of the YM-6 strain were studied, and the results indicated that the optimum growth temperature of the strain was 30 °C, and the optimum growth pH was 7. The stain is well-suited for high-temperature stress (40 °C), and it could withstand 400 mg/L of PHE. The strain's PHE metabolism was assayed using GC-MS analyses. The results revealed that the YM-6 strain metabolized PHE via the phthalic acid pathway because the intermediates, such as phthalic acid, diethyl ester and phthalaldehydic acid, methyl ester, were detected. The use of this strain may be an attractive alternative for the bioremediation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in an aquatic environment.

A study on the degradation efficiency of fluoranthene and the transmembrane protein mechanism of Rhodococcus sp. BAP-1 based on iTRAQ

Based on previous studies that examined the whole proteome of Rhodococcus sp. BAP-1 during the degradation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), transmembrane proteins have a large role in the degradation of fluoranthene. To further study the specific functions and mechanisms of transmembrane proteins from Rhodococcus sp. BAP-1 involved in the degradation process of fluoranthene, the degradation of PAHs and the membrane permeability were determined. In addition, the isobaric tags for relative and absolute quantization (iTRAQ) method were used to conduct a proteomics analysis of Rhodococcus sp. BAP-1 after exposure to fluoranthene for 1 d, 3 d, and 6 d. The results showed that the degradation rate was the highest on the first and sixth days, and the membrane permeability was also the highest on the sixth day. The iTRAQ analysis results showed 18, 29, and 48 upregulated proteins and 111, 97, and 21 downregulated proteins in the 1 d group vs control group, 3 d group vs control group, and 6 d group vs control group samples respectively. According to a Clusters of Orthologous Groups of proteins (COG) analysis, amino acid transport and metabolism are the most important functions. According to functional analysis from the gene ontology (GO) database, the oxidation-reduction process is the most important biological process; transporter activity is the main molecular function; and transmembrane proteins are the most important in the cell composition. This study combined the degradation rate, membrane permeability and transmembrane protein functions to analyze the functions and mechanisms of transmembrane proteins from Rhodococcus sp. BAP-1, which are involved in the degradation of fluoranthene at the protein level, and this study provides a solid foundation for further research on the metabolic processes of bacteria.

Rhizodegradation of PAHs differentially altered by C3 and C4 plants

Pyrosequencing of 16S ribosomal RNA (rRNA) was employed to characterize bacterial communities colonizing the rhizosphere of plants with C3 and C4 photosynthetic pathways grown in soil contaminated with polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) after 60 and 120 days. The results of this study exhibited a clear difference in bacterial diversity between the rhizosphere and non-rhizosphere samples and between the rhizospheres of the C3 and C4 plants after 120 days. In both C3 and C4 rhizospheres, an incremental change in PAHs degrading bacterial genera was observed in the 120th day samples compared to the 60th day ones. Among the PAHs degrading bacterial genera, Pseudomonas showed good resistance to PAHs in the 120th day rhizosphere of both C3 and C4 plants. Conversely, the genus Sphingomonas showed sensitivity to PAHs in the 120th day rhizosphere soils of C3 plants only. Also, a significant increase in the PAHs degrading genera was observed at 120th day in the C4 rhizosphere in comparison to the C3 rhizosphere, which was reflected in a reduced PAHs concentration measured in the soil remediated with C4 plants rather than C3 plants. These results suggest that the rhizoremediation of PAHs was primarily governed by the plant photosystems, which led to differences in root secretions that caused the variation in bacterial diversity seen in the rhizospheres. This study is the first report to demonstrate the greater effectiveness of C4 plants in enhancing the PAHs degrading bacterial community than C3 plants.

Streptomyces sp. S501, a Marine Petroleum-Degrading Actinobacterium Isolated from Sediment of Yalujiang Estuary, Northern China, and Its Genome Annotation

Streptomyces sp. S501, which was isolated from the sediment of Yalujiang Estuary in China, was the first marine Streptomyces species discovered to act as an excellent petroleum degrader. We analyzed the effect of pH, temperature, and concentration of NH₄NO₃ on the petroleum degradation of strain S501, and the optimum biodegradation rate reached 63.02% under the condition of 2 g/L NH₄NO₃ addition at 30 °C and pH 8. The complete genome sequence of Streptomyces sp. S501 was determined by using the PacBio RSII platform, which contains a linear chromosome with 7,173,651 bp and a linear plasmid with 288,181 bp, with GC contents of 71.19% and 67.57%, respectively. The genome sequence suggests that Streptomyces sp. S501 has the ability to degrade several hazardous pollutants, as well as the ability to biosynthesize diverse secondary metabolites and enzymes. There are fifty annotated genes involved in oil component degradation, and there are three genes without known annotation information in Streptomyces sp. S501, which have high homology with genes encoding P450 family enzymes and should be novel genes involved in alkane degradation. This study provides useful genetic information for investigating the molecular mechanisms of marine Streptomyces, with biodegradation and application potential.

Cellular changes of microbial consortium GY1 during decabromodiphenyl ether (BDE-209) biodegradation and identification of strains responsible for BDE-209 degradation in GY1

Microbial consortium remediation has been considered to be a promising technique for BDE-209 elimination in water, soil and sediment. Herein, we studied malondialdehyde (MDA), membrane potential (MP), and reactive active species (ROS) of a microbial consortium GY1 exposed to BDE-209. The results indicated that the microbial antioxidant defense system was vulnerable by BDE-209. Both early and late apoptosis of microbial consortium induced by BDE-209 were observed. The sequencing results revealed that Stenotrophomonas, Microbacterium and Sphingobacterium in GY1 played major roles in BDE-209 degradation. Moreover, a novel facultative anaerobic BDE-209 degrading strain named Microbacterium Y2 was identified from GY1, by which approximately 56.1% of 1 mg/L BDE-209 was degraded within 7 days, and intracellular enzymes of which contributed great to the result. Overall, the current study provided new insights to deeply understand the mechanisms of BDE-209 degradation by microbial consortium.

Periphytic biofilm: An innovative approach for biodegradation of microplastics

Microplastics (MPs) have been gaining the attention of environmental researchers since the 1960s anecdotal reports of plastic entanglement and ingestion by marine creatures. Due to their increasing accretion in aquatic environments, as well as resistance towards degradation, marine litter research has focused on microplastics more recently. In the present study, a relatively new method of biodegradation was implemented for the biodegradation of three structurally different MPs i.e. polypropylene (PP), polyethylene (PE) and polyethylene terephthalate (PET). Periphytic biofilm was used for this purpose in various backgrounds of carbon sources (glucose, peptone, and glucose and peptone). Biodegradation of MPs was estimated in terms of weight loss. It was observed that the addition of glucose enhanced the biodegradation of MPs by periphyton biofilm for all MPs (from 9.52%-18.02%, 5.95%-14.02% and 13.24-19.72% for PP, PE and PET respectively) after 60 days compared to natural biofilm alone. To the contrary, peptone, and glucose and peptone together, were inhibitory. Biodegradation was further confirmed by morphological changes observed using SEM, FTIR spectra and GPC lent further support to the results whereby new peaks appeared along with reduction in old peaks and decrease in peak intensities. MiSeq sequencing shows that Deinococcus-thermus > Proteobacteria > Cyanobacteria are the dominant phyla in natural biofilms, and their relative abundances increase after the addition of glucose. However, the abundances shifted to Deinococcus-thermus > Cyanobacteria > Firmicutes > Bacteroidetes, when the biofilms were treated with either peptone alone, or with glucose and peptone together. Therefore, the change in biodegradation capability might also be due to the change in the microbial community structures after addition of the C-sources. These experiments provide an innovative approach towards effective biodegradation of MPs using a relatively new environment-friendly method.

Production of biosurfactant using the endemic bacterial community of a PAHs contaminated soil, and its potential use for PAHs remobilization

Biosurfactants are surface-active agents produced by microorganisms whose use in soil remediation processes is increasingly discussed as a more environmentally friendly alternative than chemically produced surfactants. In this work, we report the production of a biosurfactant by a bacterial community extracted from a polluted soil, mainly impacted by PAHs, in order to use it in a soil-washing process coupled with bioremediation. Nutrient balance was a critical parameter to optimize the production. Best conditions for biosurfactant production were found to be 20 g/L of glucose, 2 g/L of NH₄NO₃, and 14.2 g/L of Na₂HPO₄, corresponding to a C/N/P molar ratio equal to 13/1/2. Purification of the produced biosurfactant by acidification and double extraction with dichloromethane as a solvent allowed measuring the Critical Micellar Concentration (CMC) as equal to 42 mg/L. The capacity of the purified biosurfactant to increase the apparent solubility of four reference PAHs (naphthalene, phenanthrene, pyrene and benzo[a]pyrene) was completed. The solubilisation ratios, in mg of PAH/g of biosurfactant for phenanthrene, pyrene and benzo[a]pyrene are 0.214, 0.1204 and 0.0068, respectively. Identification of the bacteria found in the colony producing the biosurfactant showed the presence of bacteria able to produce biosurfactant (Enterobacteriaceae, Pseudomonas), as well as, others able to degrade PAHs (Microbacterium, Pseudomonas, Rhodanobacteraceae).