Gelatinases (MMP-2 and -9) and their natural inhibitors as prognostic indicators in solid cancers

HER2-targeted, enzyme-activated liposomes show superior in vivo efficacy in an ovarian cancer model

Liposomes carrying chemotherapeutic drugs can accumulate passively in solid tumors at high levels. However, additional targeting of the liposomes towards e.g. receptors expressed on cancer cells may improve their interaction and therapeutic properties. In this study, we designed a liposomal delivery system, which utilizes the intrinsic characteristics of HER2-positive tumors to ensure efficient delivery of oxaliplatin to the cancer cells. On the liposome surface, trastuzumab, an antibody specific to the HER2 receptor, was shown to facilitate internalization by the cancer cells. A polyethylene glycol (PEG) layer on the liposome surface provides protection from mononuclear phagocyte system uptake. To optimize the interaction between liposomes and cancer cells, a protease-sensitive cleavable peptide linker was inserted at the base of each PEG. The PEG layer is then cleaved off by intra- and extracellular matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) upon accumulation in the tumor. Our data demonstrate that the removal of PEG significantly destabilizes the liposomes and leads to substantial oxaliplatin release. The proposed beneficial effect of combining antibody-mediated internalization with MMP sensitivity was confirmed in a series of in vivo studies using ovarian cancer xenograft models. The results demonstrated that HER2-targeted MMP-sensitive liposomes have superior anticancer activity compared to non-targeted and non-cleavable liposomes.

Development of an Albumin-Masked mutPD-1Ig as a Tumor Lesion-Selective Immune Checkpoint Inhibitor

The antitumor effects elicited by immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) have transformed cancer treatments. However, severe immune-related adverse events (irAEs) resulting from these treatments have restricted the application of ICIs. To overcome the adverse events, we developed a tumor lesion-selective pro-PD-1Ig that is activated by proteases overexpressed in tumors. We genetically linked albumin to the N-terminus of a modified PD-1Ig (termed mutPD-1Ig hereafter) via an MMP substrate sequence to form Alb-hinge-mutPD-1Ig. We demonstrate that the binding activity of nondigested Alb-hinge-mutPD-1Ig is approximately 11-folds lower than mutPD-1Ig. However, digestion by type IV collagenase restored the binding activity of Alb-hinge-mutPD-1Ig to a level comparable to that of native mutPD-1Ig. In order to enhance the masking efficiency of Alb-mutPD-1Ig, we simulated the effects of diverse MMP substrate linkers for connecting albumin and PD-1 at various starting positions by bioinformatics tools. Our validation experiments indicate Alb-hinge-mutPD-1Ig displayed the best masking efficiency among all simulated constructs. Our study suggests that albumin may be best applicable to mask a target protein whose binding motif is centralized and in the proximity of the N-terminus of the protein.

The Extracellular Matrix: Its Composition, Function, Remodeling, and Role in Tumorigenesis

The extracellular matrix (ECM) is a ubiquitous member of the body and is key to the maintenance of tissue and organ integrity. Initially thought to be a bystander in many cellular processes, the extracellular matrix has been shown to have diverse components that regulate and activate many cellular processes and ultimately influence cell phenotype. Importantly, the ECM's composition, architecture, and stiffness/elasticity influence cellular phenotypes. Under normal conditions and during development, the synthesized ECM constantly undergoes degradation and remodeling processes via the action of matrix proteases that maintain tissue homeostasis. In many pathological conditions including fibrosis and cancer, ECM synthesis, remodeling, and degradation is dysregulated, causing its integrity to be altered. Both physical and chemical cues from the ECM are sensed via receptors including integrins and play key roles in driving cellular proliferation and differentiation and in the progression of various diseases such as cancers. Advances in 'omics' technologies have seen an increase in studies focusing on bidirectional cell-matrix interactions, and here, we highlight the emerging knowledge on the role played by the ECM during normal development and in pathological conditions. This review summarizes current ECM-targeted therapies that can modify ECM tumors to overcome drug resistance and better cancer treatment.

Metal Complexes as Promising Matrix Metalloproteinases Regulators

Nowadays, cancers and dementia, such as Alzheimer's disease, are the most fatal causes of death. Many studies tried to understand the pathogenesis of those diseases clearly and develop a promising way to treat the diseases. Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) have been reported to be involved in the pathology of cancers and AD through tumor cell movement and amyloid degradation. Therefore, control of the levels and actions of MMPs, especially MMP-2 and MMP-9, is necessary to care for and/or cure cancer and AD. Various molecules have been examined for their potential application as regulators of MMPs expression and activity. Among the molecules, multiple metal complexes have shown advantages, including simple synthesis, less toxicity and specificity toward MMPs in cancer cells or in the brain. In this review, we summarize the recent studies and knowledge of metal complexes (e.g., Pt-, Ru-, Au-, Fe-, Cu-, Ni-, Zn-, and Sn-complexes) targeting MMPs and their potentials for treating and/or caring the most fatal human diseases, cancers and AD.

The Predictive Role of MMP-2, MMP-9, TIMP-1 and TIMP-2 Serum Levels in the Complete Response of the Tumor to Chemotherapy in Breast Cancer Patients

OBJECTIVE

We investigated the serum levels of MMPs and TIMPs in breast cancer (BC) patients to predict the response rate to/after treatment with or without neoadjuvant chemotherapy. BC is the most common cancer in women and MMPs are responsible for the breakdown of ECM proteins during organogenesis and TIMPs are restricted the ECM destruction by MMPs. However, the predictive role of MMPs and TIMPs in the treatment response of BC patients has not identified.

METHODS

This study consisted of 96 BC patients (34 neoadjuvant treatment and 62 surgically treated) and 35 healthy individuals. ELISA was used to determine the level of MMP-2, MMP-9, TIMP-1, and TIMP-2 from serum samples of BC patients.

RESULTS

The mean levels of MMP-9 and TIMP-2 were significantly increased in all BC patients at diagnosis and after chemotherapy, but MMP-2 was considerably lower at diagnosis. There was only a significant difference in the TIMP-1 levels after chemotherapy as well as HER2 and ER status in the neoadjuvant and surgically treated group. Additionally, MMP-2 and MMP-9 serum levels negatively correlated with tumor size and metastatic lymph nodes in BC patients after chemotherapy.

CONCLUSIONS

BC patients with high levels of MMP-9 and TIMP-2 can be used to predict the stage of the tumor and CR to chemotherapy and higher TIMP-1 serum level after chemotherapy could be related to better response to chemotherapy.

Matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9) promoter -1562C/T functional polymorphism is associated with an increased risk to develop micropapillary thyroid carcinoma

BACKGROUND

Matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9) is an important mediator of tumor initiation and progression. The MMP-9 promoter -1562C/T functional polymorphism increases gene expression and was identified as a susceptibility factor for various cancers.

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the influence of the MMP-9 promoter genotype on the risk of developing papillary thyroid cancer (PTC) and to correlate cancer patient genotype with the clinical and pathological phenotype.

METHODS

We evaluated 236 patients with nodular thyroid disease pre-thyroidectomy (119 benign disease, 117 PTC). Genomic DNA was isolated from whole blood and the MMP-9 -1562C/T genotype was evaluated by PCR-RFLP analysis.

RESULTS

Genotype frequencies were in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium for all groups. The T allele was significantly more frequent in cancer compared to benign disease (17.5% vs 10.1%), p= 0.019. Patients with the CT or CT+TT genotype had an increased risk of developing PTC, specifically micropapillary thyroid carcinoma (MPTC) (CT genotype: OR = 6.467, p= 0.00006; CT+TT: OR = 6.859, p= 0.00002), but not more advanced stages (CT: p= 0.094; CT+TT: p= 0.157). The -1562C/T genotype did not significantly correlate with tumor histological subtype, invasion or TNM stage.

CONCLUSION

The MMP-9 -1562C/T functional polymorphism may indicate susceptibility to develop thyroid cancer, specifically intrathyroidal clinically non-relevant MPTC. This suggests that although this genotype might be a predisposing factor, other genetic/epigenetic events are needed for cancer progression.

Identification of a Common Pharmacophore for Binding to MMP2 and RGD Integrin: Towards a Multitarget Approach to Inhibit Cancer Angiogenesis and Metastasis

During tumor angiogenesis different growth factors, cytokines and other molecules interact closely with each other to facilitate tumor cell invasion and metastatic diffusion. The most intensively studied as molecular targets in anti-angiogenic therapies are vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and related receptors, integrin receptors and matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs). Considering the poor efficacy of cancer angiogenesis monotherapies, we reasoned combining the inhibition of αvβ3 and MMP2 as a multitarget approach to deliver a synergistic blockade of tumor cell migration, invasion and metastasis. Accordingly, we identified a common pharmacophore in the binding cavity of MMP2 and αvβ3, demonstrating such approach with the design, synthesis and bioassays of tyrosine-derived peptidomimetics carrying the necessary functional groups to bind to key pharmacophoric elements of MMP2 and αvβ3 RGD integrin.

Inhibition of human lung cancer cells by anti-p21Ras scFv mediated by the activatable cell-penetrating peptide

Activatable cell-penetrating peptide (ACPP) is a tumour-targeting cell-penetrating peptide. Here, we used ACPP to carry anti-p21Ras scFv for Ras-driven cancer therapy. The ACPP-p21Ras scFv fusion protein was prepared by a prokaryotic expression system and Ni-NTA column purification. The human tumour cell lines A549, SW480, U251 and Huh7 and the normal cell line BEAS 2B were used to study the tumor-targeting and membrane-penetrating ability of ACPP-p21Ras scFv. The antitumour activity of ACPP-p21Ras scFv on A549 cells and H1299 cells in vitro was determined by 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide, scratch wound healing, plate cloning and apoptosis assays. The penetration pathway of ACPP was determined by enhanced green fluorescent protein. The ACPP-p21Ras scFv fusion protein was successfully obtained at a concentration of 1.8 mg/ml. We found that ACPP-p21Ras scFv could penetrate tumour cell membranes with high expression of matrix metalloproteinase-2 (MMP-2), effectively inhibit the migration and proliferation of A549 cells and H1299 cells, and promote the apoptosis of A549 cells and H1299 cells. The membrane penetration experiment demonstrated that ACPP could enter A549 cells by direct penetration. The ability of ACPP to penetrate the membrane was affected by the addition of a membrane affinity inhibitor and a change in the potential difference across the cell membrane but not by the addition of endocytosis inhibitors and a change in temperature. The ACPP-p21Ras scFv fusion protein can penetrate tumour cells with MMP-2 expression and has antitumour activity against A549 cells and H1299 cells in vitro. This molecule is expected to become a potential antitumour drug for Ras gene-driven lung cancer.

Aloperine inhibits the progression of non-small-cell lung cancer through the PI3K/Akt signaling pathway

Background

Lung cancer has become the leading cause of cancer-related death worldwide and non‐small‐cell lung cancer (NSCLC) accounts for approximately 85% of cases. Aloperine (ALO), an alkaloid active natural component from S. alopecuroide, has been found to exhibit anti-inflammatory, anti-tumor and anti-viral activity. However, Whether ALO exerts anti-tumor function on NSCLC remains poorly understood, and the underlying mechanisms remain unknown.

Methods

The CCK-8, colony formation, cell apoptosis with flow cytometry, wound healing and transwell cell invasion assays, were used to analyze the tumor progression of H1299 and A549 cells treated with ALO in vitro, and the xenograft model was constructed to assess the effect of ALO in vivo. The expression of protein was detected by Western blotting.

Results

ALO suppressed the cell proliferation, self-renewal, migration and invasion, induced apoptosis in A549 and H1299 cell. Furthermore, ALO significantly enhanced the level of cytochrome c in cytosol, and resulted in the dramatical increased levels of the cleaved caspase-3, caspased-9 and PARP. ALO also inhibited the expression of MMP-2 and MMP-9. Additionally, ALO also reduced p-AKT and p-mTOR to attenuate the PI3K/AKT signaling pathway.

Conclusion

This study unveils a rationale for ALO through PI3K/Akt signaling pathway affecting the cell progression such as cell growth, apoptosis and invasion, and ALO acts as a potential chemotherapeutic agent for NSCLC.

Comprehensive analysis of expression, prognosis and immune infiltration for TIMPs in glioblastoma

Background

Tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinase (TIMP) family proteins are peptidases involved in extracellular matrix (ECM) degradation. Various diseases are related to TIMPs, and the primary reason is that TIMPs can indirectly regulate remodelling of the ECM and cell signalling by regulating matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) activity. However, the link between TIMPs and glioblastoma (GBM) is unclear.

Objective

This study aimed to explore the role of TIMP expression and immune infiltration in GBM.

Methods

Oncomine, GEPIA, OSgbm, LinkedOmics, STRING, GeneMANIA, Enrichr, and TIMER were used to conduct differential expression, prognosis, and immune infiltration analyses of TIMPs in GBM.

Results

All members of the TIMP family had significantly higher expression levels in GBM. High TIMP3 expression correlated with better overall survival (OS) and disease-specific survival (DSS) in GBM patients. TIMP4 was associated with a long OS in GBM patients. We found a positive relationship between TIMP3 and TIMP4, identifying gene sets with similar or opposite expression directions to those in GBM patients. TIMPs and associated genes are mainly associated with extracellular matrix organization and involve proteoglycan pathways in cancer. The expression levels of TIMPs in GBM correlate with the infiltration of various immune cells, including CD4+ T cells, macrophages, neutrophils, B cells, CD8⁺ T cells, and dendritic cells.

Conclusions

Our study inspires new ideas for the role of TIMPs in GBM and provides new directions for multiple treatment modalities, including immunotherapy, in GBM.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12883-021-02477-1.

Serum Matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9) can help identify patients with papillary thyroid cancer at high risk of persistent disease: Value and limitations of a potential marker of neoplasia

BACKGROUND

Matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9) is an important mediator of invasion and metastasis in neoplasia. In thyroid cancer expression levels correlate with aggressiveness but data on peripheral MMP-9 levels are less definitive.

OBJECTIVE

Prospective study evaluating serum MMP-9 in the diagnosis and prognosis of papillary thyroid cancer.

METHODS

Serum samples of MMP-9 were drawn before surgery in 185 consecutively enrolled patients with nodular thyroid disease, stratified on pathology as benign disease (N= 88) and papillary thyroid cancer (N= 97). Serum MMP-9 was measured by an immunometric assay.

RESULTS

MMP-9 levels were not different between benign vs malignant pathology (p= 0.3). In papillary thyroid cancer there was no significant difference in MMP-9 levels between histologies, TNM stage and invasive/non-invasive cancers. High-risk patients with multiple features of aggressiveness had significantly higher MMP-9 levels compared to low-intermediate risk patients (767.5 ± 269.2 ng/ml vs 563.7 ± 228.4 ng/ml, p= 0.019). A cut-off of 806 ng/ml distinguished high from low-intermediate risk patients with a sensitivity of 60% and a specificity of 87.36%, p= 0.018. In patients with available follow-up data (N= 78), MMP-9 was higher in patients who required ⩾ 2 doses of 131I therapy (p= 0.009) and in those with biochemical evidence of persistent disease/who required additional therapy to achieve disease-free status (p= 0.017).

CONCLUSION

Serum MMP-9 is not useful in the diagnosis of PTC, but preliminary data shows that high pre-surgical serum MMP-9 levels may identify patients at higher risk of persistent disease who require intensive treatment. Large volume prospective studies are required to confirm this observation.

SARS-CoV-2 Vaccines Based on the Spike Glycoprotein and Implications of New Viral Variants

Coronavirus 19 Disease (COVID-19) originating in the province of Wuhan, China in 2019, is caused by the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus type 2 (SARS-CoV-2), whose infection in humans causes mild or severe clinical manifestations that mainly affect the respiratory system. So far, the COVID-19 has caused more than 2 million deaths worldwide. SARS-CoV-2 contains the Spike (S) glycoprotein on its surface, which is the main target for current vaccine development because antibodies directed against this protein can neutralize the infection. Companies and academic institutions have developed vaccines based on the S glycoprotein, as well as its antigenic domains and epitopes, which have been proven effective in generating neutralizing antibodies. However, the emergence of new SARS-CoV-2 variants could affect the effectiveness of vaccines. Here, we review the different types of vaccines designed and developed against SARS-CoV-2, placing emphasis on whether they are based on the complete S glycoprotein, its antigenic domains such as the receptor-binding domain (RBD) or short epitopes within the S glycoprotein. We also review and discuss the possible effectiveness of these vaccines against emerging SARS-CoV-2 variants.

Conservation of Epithelial-to-Mesenchymal Transition Process in Neural Crest Cells and Metastatic Cancer

Epithelial to mesenchymal transition (EMT) is a highly conserved cellular process in several species, from worms to humans. EMT plays a fundamental role in early embryogenesis, wound healing, and cancer metastasis. For neural crest cell (NCC) development, EMT typically results in forming a migratory and potent cell population that generates a wide variety of cell and tissue, including cartilage, bone, connective tissue, endocrine cells, neurons, and glia amongst many others. The degree of conservation between the signaling pathways that regulate EMT during development and metastatic cancer (MC) has not been fully established, despite ample studies. This systematic review and meta-analysis dissects the major signaling pathways involved in EMT of NCC development and MC to unravel the similarities and differences. While the FGF, TGFβ/BMP, SHH, and NOTCH pathways have been rigorously investigated in both systems, the EGF, IGF, HIPPO, Factor Receptor Superfamily, and their intracellular signaling cascades need to be the focus of future NCC studies. In general, meta-analyses of the associated signaling pathways show a significant number of overlapping genes (particularly ligands, transcription regulators, and targeted cadherins) involved in each signaling pathway of both systems without stratification by body segments and cancer type. Lack of stratification makes it difficult to meaningfully evaluate the intracellular downstream effectors of each signaling pathway. Finally, pediatric neuroblastoma and melanoma are NCC-derived malignancies, which emphasize the importance of uncovering the EMT events that convert NCC into treatment-resistant malignant cells.

Synthesis of 5H-indeno[1,2-b]pyridine derivatives: Antiproliferative and antimetastatic activities against two human prostate cancer cell lines

This study describes the direct synthesis of 2-amino-4-(phenylsubstituted)-5H-indeno[1,2-b]pyridine-3-carbonitrile derivatives 5-21, through sequential multicomponent reaction of aromatic aldehydes, malononitrile, and 1-indanone in the presence of ammonium acetate and acetic acid (catalytic). The biological study showed that compound 10 significantly impeded proliferation of the cell lines PC-3, LNCaP, and MatLyLu. The antimetastatic effects of compound 10 could be related with inhibition of MMP9 in the PC-3 and LNCaP human cell lines. On the basis of a study of the structure-activity relationship of these compounds, we propose that the presence of two methoxy groups at positions 6 and 7 of the indeno nucleus and a 4-hydroxy-3-methoxy phenyl substitution pattern at position 4 of the pyridine ring is decisive for these types of molecules to exert very good antiproliferative and antimetastatic activities.

Internally Responsive Nanomaterials for Activatable Multimodal Imaging of Cancer

Advances in technology and nanomedicine have led to the development of nanoparticles that can be activated for multimodal imaging of cancer, where a stimulus induces a material modification that enhances image contrast. Multimodal imaging using nanomaterials with this capability can combine the advantages and overcome the limitations of any single imaging modality. When designed with stimuli-responsive abilities, the target-to-background ratio of multimodal imaging nanoprobes increases because specific stimuli in the tumor enhance the signal. Several aspects of the tumor microenvironment can be exploited as an internal stimulus response for multimodal imaging applications, such as the pH gradient, redox processes, overproduction of various enzymes, or combinations of these. In this review, design strategies are discussed and an overview of the recent developments of internally responsive multimodal nanomaterials is provided. Properly implementing this approach improves noninvasive cancer diagnosis and staging as well as provides a method to monitor drug delivery and treatment response.

Obesity Potentiates Esophageal Squamous Cell Carcinoma Growth and Invasion by AMPK-YAP Pathway

Obesity could increase the risk of esophageal squamous cell carcinoma (ESCC) and affect its growth and progression, but the mechanical links are unclear. The objective of the study was to explore the impact of obesity on ESCC growth and progression utilizing in vivo trials and cell experiments in vitro. Diet-induced obese and lean nude mice were inoculated with TE-1 cells, then studied for 4 weeks. Serum glucose, insulin, leptin, and visfatin levels were assayed. Sera of nude mice were obtained and then utilized to culture TE-1. MTT, migration and invasion assays, RT-PCR, and Western blotting were used to analyze endocrine effect of obesity on cell proliferation, migration, invasion, and related genes expression of TE-1. Obese nude mice bore larger tumor xenografts than lean animals, and were hyperglycemic and hyperinsulinemic with an elevated level of leptin and visfatin in sera, and also were accompanied by a fatty liver. As for the subcutaneous tumor xenograft model, tumors were more aggressive in obese nude mice than lean animals. Tumor weight correlated positively with mouse body weight, liver weight of mice, serum glucose, HOMA-IR, leptin, and visfatin. Obesity prompted significant TE-1 cell proliferation, migration, and invasion by endocrine mechanisms and impacted target genes. The expression of AMPK and p-AMPK protein decreased significantly (P < 0.05); MMP9, total YAP, p-YAP, and nonphosphorylated YAP protein increased significantly (P < 0.05) in the cells cultured with conditioned media and xenograft tumor from the obese group; the mRNA expression of AMPK decreased significantly (P < 0.05); YAP and MMP9 mRNA expression increased significantly (P < 0.05) in the cells exposed to conditioned media from the obese group. In conclusion, the altered adipokine milieu and metabolites in the context of obesity may promote ESCC growth in vivo; affect proliferation, migration, and invasion of ESCC cells in vitro; and regulate MMP9 and AMPK-YAP signaling pathway through complex effects including the endocrine effect.

New directions of activity-based sensing for in vivo NIR imaging

In vivo imaging is a powerful approach to study biological processes. Beyond cellular methods, in vivo studies allow for biological stimuli (small molecules or proteins) to be studied in their native environment. This has the potential to aid in the discovery of new biology and guide the development of diagnostics and therapies for diseases. To ensure selectivity and an observable readout, the probe development field is shifting towards activity-based sensing (ABS) approaches and near-infrared (NIR) imaging modalities. This perspective will highlight recent in vivo ABS applications that utilize NIR imaging platforms.

Anti-Migratory Effects of 4'-Geranyloxyferulic Acid on LPS-Stimulated U937 and HCT116 Cells via MMP-9 Down-Regulation: Involvement of ROS/ERK Signaling Pathway

Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) play a crucial role in tumor angiogenesis, and metastasis. 4'-geranyloxyferulic acid (GOFA) has anti-tumor and anti-inflammatory proprieties. Herein, we aimed to determine whether this compound affects cell survival, invasion, and migration through reactive oxygen species (ROS)-mediated MMPs activation of extracellular signal-regulated kinases (ERKs) and p38 signaling in lymphocytic histiocytoma (U937) and colorectal cancer (HCT116) cells. We observed that lipopolysaccharide (LPS) stimulated U937 and HCT116 cells presented abnormal cell proliferation and increased metalloproteinase (MMP-9) activity and expression. Non-cytotoxic doses of GOFA blunted matrix invasive potential by reducing LPS-induced MMP-9 expression and cell migration via inhibiting ROS/ ERK pathway. GOFA also attenuated apoptosis and cell senescence. Our findings indicate that GOFA, inhibiting cancer cell proliferation and migration, could be therapeutically beneficial to prevent tumor metastasis.

Characterization of a Novel Murine Colon Carcinoma Subline with High-Metastatic Activity Established by In Vivo Selection Method

The establishment of cancer cell lines, which have different metastatic abilities compared with the parental cell, is considered as an effective approach to investigate mechanisms of metastasis. A highly metastatic potential mouse colon cancer cell subline, Colon-26MGS, was derived from the parental cell line Colon-26 by in vivo selection using continuous subcutaneous implanting to immunocompetent mice. To clarify the mechanisms involved in the enhancement of metastasis, morphological characteristics, cell proliferation, and gene expression profiles were compared between Colon-26MGS and the parental cell. Colon-26MGS showed over 10 times higher metastatic ability compared with the parental cell, but there were no differences in morphological characteristics and in vitro proliferation rates. In addition, the Colon-26MGS-bearing mice exhibited no marked change of splenocyte population and lung pre-metastatic niche with tumor-free mice, but there were significant differences compared to Colon-26-bearing mice. RNA-seq analyses indicated that immune costimulatory molecules were significantly up-regulated in Colon-26MGS. These results suggest that Colon-26MGS showed not only higher metastatic activity, but also less induction property of host immune response compared to parental Colon-26. Colon-26MGS has proven to be a novel useful tool for studying multiple mechanisms involving metastasis enhancement.

Regulatory T Cells Induce Metastasis by Increasing Tgf-β and Enhancing the Epithelial–Mesenchymal Transition

Malignant melanoma is the most aggressive form of skin cancer; a substantial percentage of patients present with distant metastases. However, the mechanism of metastasis is not well understood. Here, we demonstrate that the administration of exogenous regulatory T cells (Tregs) into melanoma tumor-bearing mice results in a significant increase in lung metastasis. An increase in the invasive and metastatic phenotype of melanoma was mediated by cell-to-cell contact between melanoma cells and Tregs, which elevated the expression level of transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) and the subsequent induction of the epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT).B16-BL6 melanoma tumors co-cultured with Tregs showed a larger population of migrating cells compared to B16-BL6 tumors cultured without Tregs. Additionally, the injection of exogenous Tregs into B16-BL6 melanoma tumors led to the recruitment and infiltration of endogenous Tregs into tumor tissues, thus increasing the overall Treg percentage in the tumor infiltrating lymphocyte population. Collectively, our findings propose novel mechanisms in which exogenous Treg-dependent upregulation of TGF-β and mesenchymal markers is important for augmenting the migration capacity and invasiveness of melanoma, thereby contributing to the metastasis.

[Effect of Atractylodes macrocephala polysaccharide on proliferation and invasion of hepatocellular carcinoma cells in vitro]

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the inhibitory effect of polysaccharide of Atractylodes macrocephala (PAM) on the proliferation and invasion of hepatocellular carcinoma cells and the underlying mechanism.

METHODS

Hepatocellular carcinoma HepG2 cells were treated with different concentrations of PAM, and their proliferation and invasive ability were examined using CCK-8 assay and Transwell assay. Immunofluorescence assay was performed to detect the expression level of β-catenin, and real-time PCR and Western blotting were used to detect the mRNA and protein expressions of AKT, GSK-3β and MMP-2 in the cells. The changes in the proliferation, invasiveness and the expressions of pGSK-3β and MMP2 were examined in the cells following treatment with LiCl/PAM/LiCl plus PAM.

RESULTS

PAM treatment significantly reduced the cell viability, the number of migration cells, and the expression levels of β-catenin and MMP-2 (P < 0.05), and obviously inhibited the phosphorylation of AKT and GSK-3β in the cells (P < 0.05) in a dose-dependent manner. The rescue experiment showed that LiCl reversed the inhibition of cell proliferation, invasiveness, and the Wnt/β-catenin pathway induced by PAM.

CONCLUSIONS

PAM can inhibit the proliferation and invasion of hepatocellular carcinoma cells in vitro possibly by inhibiting the Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway.

Tuning the matrix metalloproteinase-1 degradability of peptide amphiphile nanofibers through supramolecular engineering

Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) are a family of endopeptidases capable of degrading extracellular matrix (ECM) components. They are known to play crucial roles during the ECM turnover in both physiological and pathological processes. As such, their activities are utilized as biological stimuli to engineer MMP-responsive peptide-based biomaterials such as self-assembled peptide amphiphiles (PAs). Although previous studies have unveiled the role of PAs secondary structure on the mechanical and biological properties of their self-assembled nanostructures, the effect on the degradability of their assemblies by MMP-1 has not been reported. Herein, a series of PAs are designed and synthesized, all comprising the same MMP-1 cleavable domain but with variable structural segments, to decipher the role of PA's secondary structure on the MMP-1 degradability of their assemblies. This study reveals a correlation between the MMP-1 degradation efficiency and the β-sheet content of the self-assembled PA nanofibers, with the MMP-1 cleavability being significantly reduced in the PA nanofibers with stronger β-sheet characteristics. These results shed light on the role of supramolecular cohesion in PA assemblies on their hydrolysis by MMP-1 and open up the possibility to control the degradation rate of PA-based nanostructures by MMP-1 through tweaking their molecular sequences.

Increased expression of MMP-2 and MMP-9 indicates poor prognosis in glioma recurrence

The main characteristic of glioma is recurrence, even after intensive multidisciplinary treatment. Studies show that enhanced invasive ability will increase the ability of tumor cells to escape from the primary tumor mass, which is a key factor contributing to tumor relapse and recurrence. In this study, we assessed the expression of MMP-2, MMP-9, two important matrix metallopeptidases that increase the invasive ability of glioma, and their suppressors, TIMP-1, TIMP-2 in glioma tissues from primary and recurrent glioma patients by immunohistochemistry. Glioma cells and nude mice were used for in vitro and in vivo studies. Results showed that the expression of MMP-2 and MMP-9 in recurrent gliomas were significantly higher than those in primary gliomas (P = 3.075 × 10^{-11, P = 1.510 × 10-5}, respectively). We also found that radiotherapy increased the expression of MMP-9, but had no effect on MMP-2 and TIMP-1/2. With glioma cell line U251, we found that irradiation increased the expression of MMP-9 in vitro. Tumor tissues from an orthotopic xenograft model showed that after irradiation treatment, the expression of MMP-9 increased significantly in vivo. We also found that knocking down MMP-9 decreased irradiation-induced invasion obviously. Above all, we concluded that higher expressions of MMP-2/-9 indicate poor prognosis in glioma recurrence. The increased expression of MMP-9 after radiotherapy suggests that MMP-9 might be an important target in the radiosensitization of glioma.

Association between TIMP-2 gene polymorphism and breast cancer in Han Chinese women

BACKGROUND

TIMP-2 gene plays an important role in the development of breast cancer. The present study was conducted to evaluate whether TIMP-2 gene polymorphisms are associated with breast cancer risk in a Han Chinese cohort.

METHODS

Six single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) within the TIMP-2 gene in 571 breast cancer and 578 healthy control subjects were genotyped through the Agena MassARRAY. Logistic regression analysis was used to assess the influence of TIMP-2 polymorphisms on breast cancer. Functional annotation of TIMP-2 variants and TIMP-2 expression were analyzed by bioinformatics.

RESULTS

Bioinformatics analysis found that rs4789936 was likely to affect transcription factor binding, motifs, DNase footprint, and DNase peaks; and TIMP-2 was under-expressed in breast cancer, the risk allele of rs4789936 was associated with increased expression of TIMP-2 in peripheral blood samples. Importantly, individuals carrying TIMP-2 rs2277698 T allele have a 19% lower risk of breast cancer than individuals with allele C, providing protection (OR = 0.81, 95%CI = 0.67-0.99, p = 0.041). In the breast cancer patients with c-erb positive and PR positive, when the CC genotype was used as a reference, individuals carrying the TT genotype increased the risk of breast cancer. Haplotype analysis showed "TCC" was associated with a reduced risk of breast cancer (OR = 0.79, 95%CI = 0.63-0.97, p = 0.028).

CONCLUSION

Our study indicated that TIMP-2 rs2277698 was associated with breast cancer susceptibility.

Nano-Strategies to Target Breast Cancer-Associated Fibroblasts: Rearranging the Tumor Microenvironment to Achieve Antitumor Efficacy

Cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAF) are the most abundant cells of the tumor stroma and they critically influence cancer growth through control of the surrounding tumor microenvironment (TME). CAF-orchestrated reactive stroma, composed of pro-tumorigenic cytokines and growth factors, matrix components, neovessels, and deregulated immune cells, is associated with poor prognosis in multiple carcinomas, including breast cancer. Therefore, beyond cancer cells killing, researchers are currently focusing on TME as strategy to fight breast cancer. In recent years, nanomedicine has provided a number of smart delivery systems based on active targeting of breast CAF and immune-mediated overcome of chemoresistance. Many efforts have been made both to eradicate breast CAF and to reshape their identity and function. Nano-strategies for CAF targeting profoundly contribute to enhance chemosensitivity of breast tumors, enabling access of cytotoxic T-cells and reducing immunosuppressive signals. TME rearrangement also includes reorganization of the extracellular matrix to enhance permeability to chemotherapeutics, and nano-systems for smart coupling of chemo- and immune-therapy, by increasing immunogenicity and stimulating antitumor immunity. The present paper reviews the current state-of-the-art on nano-strategies to target breast CAF and TME. Finally, we consider and discuss future translational perspectives of proposed nano-strategies for clinical application in breast cancer.

Diagnostic Power of Cytokine M-CSF, Metalloproteinase 2 (MMP-2) and Tissue Inhibitor-2 (TIMP-2) in Cervical Cancer Patients Based on ROC Analysis

Macrophage colony-stimulating factor (M-CSF), matrix metalloproteinase-2 (MMP-2) and its specific tissue inhibitor (TIMP-2) may play an important role in the pathogenesis of cancer disease. We investigated the plasma levels and diagnostic power (ROC curve analysis) of M-CSF, MMP-2, TIMP-2 and tumor markers CA 125 and SCC-Ag in cervical cancer (CC) patients as compared to control group. The study included 89 patients with cervical cancer. The control group consisted of 50 healthy, untreated women. The plasma levels of M-CSF, MMP-2 and TIMP-2 were determined using ELISA, CA 125 and SCC-Ag – by CMIA method. The median levels of M-CSF, TIMP-2, SCC-Ag and CA 125 in the entire group of CC were significantly different than compared to the healthy women group. MMP-2 showed the highest value of sensitivity from all examined parameters (in stage I of CC – 93.10%, II – 82.76%, III and IV – 96.88%, total group – 92.05%). The highest specificity was obtained by M-CSF (86%). The area under the ROC curve (AUC) of M-CSF (0.8051) was the largest of all the tested parameters (even higher than commonly used tumor markers) in the group of cervical cancer. The combination of M-CSF, MMP-2 or TIMP-2 with SCC antigen resulted in an increase AUCs in all cases (0.8760;0.7880;0.8081;respectively). The findings of this study suggest the usefulness of all examined parameters in the diagnostics of CC patients. Out of the tested substances, M-CSF also appears to be the best candidate for cancer diagnostics in all stages of the disease, based on ROC analysis.

Semen levels of matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) and tissue inhibitor of metallorproteinases (TIMP) protein families members in men with high and low sperm DNA fragmentation

Matrix Metalloproteinases (MMPs) and their regulators – Tissue Inhibitors of Matrix Metalloproteinases (TIMPs) – participate in extracellular matrix remodeling, fibrosis, and semen liquefaction, as well as to inflammatory activity. Seminal plasma has been shown to contain MMPs (MMP-2 and MMP-9) and TIMPs (TIMP-1 and TIMP-2). Also, a link between MMPs gene expression and excessive reactive oxygen species (ROS) has been established. In semen, ROS are associated with altered sperm function and increased DNA fragmentation. In this study, it is hypothesized that seminal MMPs and TIMPs levels are associated with sperm DNA fragmentation due to the fact that MMPs have been associated with semen quality. We also hypothesized that these proteins could predict DNA fragmentation status in sperm. Therefore, this study set out to verify if sperm DNA fragmentation levels relate to seminal levels of members of the MMP and TIMP protein families. The High sperm DNA fragmentation group presented lower seminal plasma levels of MMP-2, MMP-7, TIMP-1, TIMP-2 and TIMP-4 when compared to Low sperm DNA fragmentation group. Also, samples in the high sperm DNA fragmentation group presented higher acrosome integrity and lower mitochondrial activity levels when compared to low sperm DNA fragmentation samples. In the logistic regression analysis, MMP-2, MMP-7, and TIMP-4 classified samples as low and high sperm DNA fragmentation, with an overall model fit of 74.5%. Results from this study may demonstrate a specific inflammatory mechanism in samples with high sperm DNA fragmentation. This, in turn, can lead to the development of new studies regarding this mechanism and, in the future, create an opportunity to treat these patients for sperm DNA fragmentation by treating inflammatory seminal activity.

5p and 3p Strands of miR-34 Family Members Have Differential Effects in Cell Proliferation, Migration, and Invasion in Cervical Cancer Cells

The micro RNA (miR)-34 family is composed of 5p and 3p strands of miR-34a, miR-34b, and miR-34c. The 5p strand's expression and function is studied in cervical cancer. The 3p strand's function and regulation remain to be elucidated. To study the function of the passenger strands of miR-34 family members, we overexpressed 5p and 3p strands using a synthetic miRNA in cervical cell lines. Cell proliferation was evaluated using crystal violet. Migration and invasion were tested using transwell assays, Western blot, and zymography. Possible specific targets and cell signaling were investigated for each strand. We found that miR-34a-5p inhibited proliferation, migration, and cell invasion accompanied by matrix metalloproteinase 9 (MMP9) activity and microtubule-associated protein 2 (MAP2) protein reduction. We also found that miR-34b-5p and miR-34c-5p inhibit proliferation and migration, but not invasion. In contrast, miR-34c-5p inhibits MMP9 activity and MAP2 protein, while miR-34b-5p has no effect on these genes. Furthermore, miR-34a-3p and miR-34b-3p inhibit proliferation and migration, but not invasion, despite the later reducing MMP2 activity, while miR-34c-3p inhibit proliferation, migration, and cell invasion accompanied by MMP9 activity and MAP2 protein inhibition. The difference in cellular processes, MMP2 and MMP9 activity, and MAP2 protein inhibition by miR-34 family members suggests the participation of other regulated genes. This study provides insights into the roles of passenger strands (strand*) of the miR-34 family in cervical cancer.

[Gelatinases A and B and their endogenous regulators in the corpus uteri in squamous cell cervical carcinoma]

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the expression of gelatinases A and B (matrix metalloproteinases (MMP 2 and MMP 9) and endogenous regulators of their activity, such as a tissue inhibitor of MMP - TIMP-2 and a Pro-MMP-9 activator - urokinase-type plasminogen activator (uPA) as factors of corpus uteri invasion in squamous cell cervical carcinoma (SCCC).

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The surgical material obtained after hysterectomy in patients diagnosed with SCCC was examined. RT-PCR, immunohistochemistry (IHC), and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay were used.

RESULTS

In SCCC, the expressions of MMP 2 and MMP 9 were found to be high not only in carcinoma of the cervix uteri but also in the corpus uteri, which makes an additional contribution to the enhanced invasive potential of tumors and may have a prognostic value. In SCCC, the expression of MMP 9 may be induced in the corpus uteri where it was absent in normal conditions. MMP 9 can serve as a marker of an invasive process. In most cases, the activity of uPA in the tumor was significantly higher than that in intact uterine tissue, and the expression of TIMP-2 did not change substantially along the entire length of a tissue band (from the vaginal wall to the uterine fundus), as evidenced by RT-PCR, and was at a low level or absent, as shown by IHC. Impaired regulation of MMP 2 and MMP 9 expressions was found not only at the gene level, but also at post-translational one.

CONCLUSION

The expression of the gelatinases MMP 2, MMP 9 and regulators of their activity is aimed at increasing the tumor destructive (invasive) potential and can occur (be induced) in the intact corpus uteri tissue that is morphologically different from cervix uteri tissue with apparent participation of signaling through an epithelial-mesenchymal interaction. The induced MMP 9 can serve as a marker for invasive potential. The data indicate different tissue functions of MMP 2 and MMP 9. They are important for understanding the role of the gelatinases MMP 2, MMP 9 during carcinogenesis, can have a prognostic value, and affect a therapeutic strategy for patient management.

Human Plasma Levels of Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor, Matrix Metalloproteinase 9, and Tissue Inhibitor of Matrix Metalloproteinase 1 and Their Applicability as Tumor Markers in Diagnoses of Cervical Cancer Based on ROC Analysis

Cervical cancer (CC) remains a major diagnostic problem. The introduction of human papillomavirus vaccination significantly reduced the number of new cases; however, the search for new methods that would earlier indicate the development of cancerous changes is vital. The aim of this study was to investigate the diagnostic power of those parameters in comparison to Cancer Antigen 125 (CA 125) and Squamous Cell Carcinoma Antigen (SCC-Ag) in patients with CC and in relation to the control group. The study included 100 patients with CC and 50 healthy women. Plasma levels of tested parameters were determined by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, CA 125, and SCC-Ag by chemiluminescent microparticle immunoassay. Plasma levels of all parameters in the total cancer group showed statistical significance (in all cases P < .05). In stage I cancer, only vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinase 1; in stage II, all the tested parameters and CA 125; and in stage III + IV, VEGF, matrix metalloproteinase 9 (MMP-9), and CA 125 showed statistical significance when compared to the healthy volunteers group. Vascular endothelial growth factor showed the highest value of sensitivity from all tested parameters (I: 75%, II: 76%, III + IV: 94%, and 82% in total CC group). The highest specificity was obtained by MMP-9 (94%). In the total CC, stage I, and stage II groups, all tested parameters showed statistically significant area under the receiver operating characteristics curve (AUC), but maximum range was obtained for the combination VEGF + SCC-Ag (I: 0.9146, II: 0.8941, III + IV: 0.9139, total CC group: 0.9347). The combined analysis of tested parameters and tumor markers resulted in an increase in sensitivity and AUC values, which provides hope for developing new panel of biomarkers that may be used in the diagnosis of CC in the future.

New Insights into the Role of Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress in Breast Cancer Metastasis

Cellular stress severely disrupts endoplasmic reticulum (ER) function, leading to the abnormal accumulation of unfolded or misfolded proteins in the ER and subsequent development of endoplasmic reticulum stress (ERS). To accommodate the occurrence of ERS, cells have evolved a highly conserved, self-protecting signal transduction pathway called the unfolded protein response. Notably, ERS signaling is involved in the development of a variety of diseases and is closely related to tumor development, particularly in breast cancer. This review discusses recent research regarding associations between ERS and tumor metastasis. The information presented here will help researchers elucidate the precise mechanisms underlying ERS-mediated tumor metastasis and provide new directions for tumor therapies.

Lipocalin 2: a potential therapeutic target for breast cancer metastasis

Although systematic therapeutic approaches have reduced cancer-associated mortality, metastatic breast cancer can still evade therapy, particularly triple-negative breast cancer, which remains associated with high rates of cancer metastasis and has the worst clinical prognosis. Lipocalin 2 (LCN2) is a secreted glycoprotein that transports small lipophilic ligands. Its abnormal expression serves critical roles in the epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition process, angiogenesis, and cell migration and invasion in breast cancer. Notably, LCN2 functions as an initiator of carcinogenesis and metastasis by involving multiple signaling pathways. The present review aims to summarize research findings on the abnormal expression of LCN2 in breast cancer progression. Furthermore, the review highlights the latest developments of potential LCN2-targeting agents and proposed LCN2-associated molecular mechanisms with regard to breast cancer invasion and metastasis.

[Silencing of SLP-2 inhibits the migration and invasion of cervical cancer cells in vitro]

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the effect of SLP-2 silencing on the migration and invasion of human cervical cancer cells and explore the mechanism.

METHODS

Small interfering RNA (siRNA) was used to knockdown the expression of SLP-2 in Hela cells and Siha cells. At 48 h after the transfection, the cells were examined for SLP-2 expression with Western blotting, and wound healing assay and Transwell assay were used to evaluate the changes in the cell migration; Matrigel Transwell assay was used to evaluate the changes in the invasion ability of the cells. The expressions of E-cadherin, β-catenin, vimentin and Twist in Hela and Siha cells following the transfection were detected with Western blotting.

RESULTS

Compared with the control cells, siRNA transfection significantly lowered the expression of SLP-2 and suppressed the migration and invasion ability of Hela cells and Siha cells (P < 0.01). Silencing SLP-2 induced obvious up-regulation of epithelial cell phenotype proteins E-cadherin and β-catenin, down- regulated the expression of interstitial cell phenotype protein vimentin, and lowered the expression of Twist in the cells.

CONCLUSIONS

Silencing SLP-2 via siRNA transfection can inhibit epithelial-mesenchymal transition of human cervical cancer cells and lower their migration and invasion abilities possibly in relation with downregulated expression of Twist.

Stomatin-like protein 2 inhibits cisplatin-induced apoptosis through MEK/ERK signaling and the mitochondrial apoptosis pathway in cervical cancer cells

Stomatin-like protein 2 (STOML2 or SLP-2) is an oncogenic anti-apoptotic protein that is upregulated in several types of cancer, including cervical cancer. However, the mechanisms responsible for the SLP-2 anti-apoptotic function remain poorly understood. Here, we show that siRNA-mediated SLP-2 suppression decreases growth of human cervical cancer HELA and SIHA cells, and increases cisplatin-induced apoptosis through activation of MEK/ERK signaling and suppression of the mitochondrial pathway. The inhibition of the mitochondrial pathway is mediated by increasing the mitochondrial Ca²⁺ concentration and mitochondrial membrane potential, thereby downregulating p-MEK and p-ERK levels, upregulating the Bax/Bcl-2 ratio, increasing cytochrome C release from mitochondria into the cytosol, and upregulating levels of cleaved-caspase 9, cleaved-caspase 3, and cleaved poly ADP-ribose polymerase (PARP). Overexpression of SLP-2 using adenovirus-STOML2 has the opposite effect: it upregulates p-MEK and p-ERK and downregulates the Bax/Bcl-2 ratio and levels of cleaved-caspase 9 to caspase 9, cleaved-caspase 3 to caspase 3, and cleaved-PARP to PARP in cisplatin-treated cells. These data show that SLP-2 inhibits cisplatin-induced apoptosis by activating the MEK/ERK signaling and inhibiting the mitochondrial apoptosis pathway in cervical cancer cells.

Nanoplatform Assembled from a CD44-Targeted Prodrug and Smart Liposomes for Dual Targeting of Tumor Microenvironment and Cancer Cells

The tumor microenvironment (TME) plays a critical role in tumor initiation, progression, invasion, and metastasis. Therefore, a therapy that combines chemotherapeutic drugs with a TME modulator could be a promising route for cancer treatment. This paper reports a nanoplatform self-assembled from a hyaluronic acid (HA)-paclitaxel (PTX) (HA-PTX) prodrug and marimastat (MATT)-loaded thermosensitive liposomes (LTSLs) (MATT-LTSLs) for the dual targeting of the TME and cancer cells. Interestingly, the prodrug HA-PTX can self-assemble on both positively and negatively charged liposomes, forming hybrid nanoparticles (HNPs, 100 nm). Triggered by mild hyperthermia, HA-PTX/MATT-LTSLs HNPs rapidly release their payloads into the extracellular environment, and the released HA-PTX quickly enters 4T1 cells through a CD44-HA affinity. The HNPs possess promoted tumor accumulation (1.6-fold), exhibit deep tumor penetration, and significantly inhibit the tumor growth (10-fold), metastasis (100%), and angiogenesis (10-fold). Importantly, by targeting the TME and maintaining its integrity via inhibiting the expression and activity of matrix metalloproteinases (>5-fold), blocking the fibroblast activation by downregulating the TGF-β1 expression (5-fold) and suppressing the degradation of extracellular matrix, the HNPs allow for significant metastasis inhibition. Overall, these findings indicate that a prodrug of an HA-hydrophobic-active compound and liposomes can be self-assembled into a smart nanoplatform for the dual targeting of the TME and tumor cells and efficient combined treatment; additionally, the co-delivery of MATT and HA-PTX with the HNPs is a promising approach for the treatment of metastatic cancer. This study creates opportunities for fabricating multifunctional nanodevices and offers an efficient strategy for disease therapy.

High expression of MMP-9 is associated with better prognosis in extrahepatic bile duct cancer patients

PURPOSE

To evaluate the prognostic value of matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9) in patients with extrahepatic bile duct (EHBD) cancer undergoing surgical resection and adjuvant radiotherapy.

METHODS

Between January 2000 and August 2006, patients who underwent complete resection followed by adjuvant radiotherapy for EHBD cancer were enrolled in this study. The expression of MMP-9 was assessed with immunohistochemical staining. The prognostic values of the MMP-9 expression and other clinicopathologic factors were evaluated in univariate and multivariate analyses.

RESULTS

Sixty-six patients were included in this study. All received radiotherapy with a median dose of 40 Gy (range, 40-56), and 61 patients received concomitant fluoropyrimidine chemotherapy. MMP-9 was highly expressed in 33 patients (50.0%). MMP-9 expression was significantly associated with locoregional recurrence-free survival (LRRFS) and overall survival (OS) but not with distant metastasis-free survival (DMFS). The 5-year LRRFS and OS rates were 50.8% versus 86.5% (p = .0281), and 23.3% versus 68.1% (p = .0087) in patients with low and high expression of MMP-9, respectively. Among the clinicopathologic factors, tumor location was associated with DMFS and OS (p = .0292 and .0003, respectively). Nodal stage and histologic differentiation showed significant association with DMFS (p = .0277 and .0060, respectively). Based on multivariate analysis for OS, tumor location was the only significant prognostic factor (p = .0021), while MMP-9 expression showed marginal significance (p = .0633).

CONCLUSION

MMP-9 expression is a useful prognostic factor for predicting LRRFS and OS in patients with EHBD cancer after surgical resection and adjuvant radiotherapy.

Regional specificity of matrix metalloproteinase-9 expression in the brain: voxel-level mapping in primary glioblastomas

AIM

To investigate the anatomical specificity of matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9) expression in glioblastomas by using voxel-based neuroimaging analysis.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Clinical information and preoperative magnetic resonance images of 133 patients with glioblastomas were reviewed. Evaluation of MMP-9 expression was performed by using immunohistochemistry. Tumour lesions were segmented manually basing on the structural image of each patient, then registered to a standard brain atlas. Voxel-based regression analysis was subsequently performed to identify the specific brain regions that were associated with MMP-9 expression levels.

RESULTS

A significantly larger lesion volume of T2-hyperintensity was demonstrated in tumours with low MMP-9 expression compared to those with high MMP-9 expression (p=0.010). No significant difference was found in the lesion volumes of the contrast enhancement areas between the two groups (p=0.452). The major correlated cluster with high MMP-9 expression was identified in the right frontal lobe, while a cluster located at the posterior region of the right lateral ventricle was correlated with low MMP-9 expression.

CONCLUSION

Voxel-based statistical analysis revealed the anatomical specificity of MMP-9 expression levels in glioblastoma. The identified correlation between molecular biomarkers and anatomical distribution may increase our understanding of the biological characteristics of glioblastoma and provide new insight into the molecular subtypes of glioblastoma.

The Sample Type used Affects the Levels of Gelatinases (MMP-2 and -9) and their Inhibitors (TIMP-1 and -2) in Circulating Blood of Healthy Controls and Breast Cancer Patients

New potential tumor markers such as matrix metalloproteinases and their inhibitors have been extensively studied during the last decades. The aim is to find prognostic markers that are measurable in easily available samples, such as serum or plasma. The proper sample type to use when measuring the levels of gelatinases and their inhibitors from blood samples is currently under critical evaluation. In this study, the effect of sample type is studied in 26 healthy controls, and the result is confirmed in a series of 80 breast carcinoma patients.

Sample type had the most evident effect on the levels of TIMP-1 and MMP-9. Serum samples gave about two-fold levels of TIMP-1 compared to plasma samples (p < 0.001), with a strong linear correlation between these two (r = 0.79). Pro-MMP-9 levels were significantly affected by the presence of a blood coagulation activator in the serum sample, or a different anticoagulant in the plasma sample. The serum and plasma values had only a weak correlation (r = 0.37).

In conclusion, sample type should be carefully considered, especially when measuring proMMP-9, and plasma should be preferred for this measurement. For TIMP-1 the correlation of serum and plasma values is good; the use of serum samples can therefore be justified as long as the generally higher levels in the serum are acknowledged.

Methotrexate and beta-carotene loaded-lipid polymer hybrid nanoparticles: a preclinical study for breast cancer

Aim: This work was intended to investigate the targeting potential of fructose-tethered lipid-polymeric hybrid nanoparticles (F-BC-MTX-LPHNPs) co-loaded with beta carotene (BC) and methotrexate (MTX) in breast cancer therapeutics and find out the possible protective role of BC on MTX-induced toxicity. Materials & methods: F-BC-MTX-LPHNPs were fabricated using self-assembled nano-precipitation technique. Fructose was conjugated on the surface of the particles. The in vitro cytotoxicity, sub-cellular localization and apoptotic activity of F-BC-MTX-LPHNPs were evaluated against MCF-7 breast cancer cells. The antitumor potential of F-BC-MTX-LPHNPs was further studied. Results & conclusion: Outcomes suggested that F-BC-MTX-LPHNPs induced the highest apoptosis index (0.89) against MCF-7 cells. Following 30 days of treatment, the residual tumor progression was assessed to be approximately 32%, in animals treated with F-BC-MTX-LPHNPs. F-BC-MTX-LPHNPs are competent to selectively convey the chemotherapeutic agent to the breast cancers. Beta carotene ameliorated MTX-induced hepatic and renal toxicity.

Centrosomal protein 55 activates NF-κB signalling and promotes pancreatic cancer cells aggressiveness

Centrosomal protein 55 (CEP55) is a microtubule-bundling protein that participants in cell mitosis. It is overexpressed in several solid tumours and promotes the growth and invasion of cancer cells. However, the role of CEP55 in pancreatic cancer (PANC) remains unclear. Herein, upregulated expression of CEP55 (associated with poor prognosis) was detected in PANC using quantitative real-time reverse transcription PCR, western blotting, and immunohistochemistry. Cell migration, colony formation, wound-healing, and Transwell matrix penetration assays, revealed that upregulation of CEP55 promoted PANC cells proliferation, migration, and invasion in vitro, whereas knockdown of CEP55 attenuated it. In an in vivo murine model, CEP55 overexpression accelerated PANC cells tumourigenicity, together with upregulation of the protein levels of invasion-related proteins matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)2, MMP9, and proliferation-related protein Cyclin D1. Downregulation of CEP55 had the reverse effect. Moreover, the nuclear factor κB (NF-κB)/IκBα signalling pathway, which was activated in CEP55-transduced PANC cells and inhibited in CEP55-silenced PANC cells, contributed to CEP55-mediated PANC cell aggressiveness. This study provided new insights into the oncogenic roles of CEP55 and the mechanism by which the NF-κB pathway is hyperactivated in patients with PANC, indicating that CEP55 is a valuable prognostic factor and a potential therapeutic target in PANC.

Circulating tumor cells and serum levels of MMP-2, MMP-9 and VEGF as markers of the metastatic process in patients with high risk of metastatic progression

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Metastases are a severe complication in cancer patients and biomarkers predicting their progression are still lacking for specific groups of patients. HER2 positive breast cancer (HER2 BC) patients on trastuzumab therapy are at risk of the development of unpredictable and often fatal central nervous system (CNS) metastases and castration resistant prostate cancer (CRPC) patients urgently need a marker of disease progression during therapy. Proposed metastatic markers: circulating tumor cells (CTC), serum levels of matrix metalloproteinase 2 (MMP-2), 9 (MMP-9) and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) were prospectively studied to confirm their utility in these two narrowly defined groups of cancer patients.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

The groups comprised 44 advanced HER2 BC, 24 CRPC patients and 42 healthy controls. An immunomagnetic separation method followed by PCR and electrophoretic detection (AdnaGen, Germany) were used for CTC determination. Serum marker levels were determined by the ELISAs (R&D System, USA).

RESULTS

MMP-2 serum level was significantly higher in HER2 BC patients who developed CNS metastases, especially if there were also bone metastases. CTCs were a negative predictive marker for overall survival in HER2 BC patients. MMP-9 serum level was significantly higher in CRPC patients in whom disease progression occurred. CTC vanished from the blood of most of the CRPC patients (from 88% to 37%) during chemotherapy.

CONCLUSION

MMP-2 serum level and CTCs show the potential to predict CNS metastases and overall survival in BC patients. CTCs and MMP-9 serum level could be a promising therapy response marker in CRPC patients.

Overexpression of SMC4 activates TGFβ/Smad signaling and promotes aggressive phenotype in glioma cells

Overexpression of structural maintenance of chromosomes 4 (SMC4) has been reported to be involved in tumor cell growth, migration and invasion, and to be correlated with poor prognosis of cancer patient. However, its clinical significance and biological role in glioma remain unknown. Herein, we found that SMC4 expression at both mRNA and protein level was markedly increased in glioma cells and clinical tissues and that it correlated with poor prognosis. SMC4 overexpression markedly promoted the glioma cell proliferation rate and migration and invasive capability in vitro and in vivo, whereas SMC4 downregulation reduced it. Moreover, the transforming growth factor β (TGFβ)/Smad signaling pathway, which was activated in SMC4-transduced glioma cells and inhibited in SMC4-silenced glioma cells, contributed to SMC4-mediated glioma cell aggressiveness. Our results provide new insight into the oncofunction of SMC4 and the mechanism by which the TGFβ/Smad pathway is hyperactivated in gliomas, indicating that SMC4 is a valuable prognostic factor and a potential therapeutic target in gliomas.

Role of Proteases in Lung Disease: A Brief Overview

Proteases play an important role in health and disease of the lung. In the normal lungs, proteases maintain their homeostatic functions that regulate processes like its regeneration and repair. Dysregulation of proteases–antiproteases balance is crucial in the manifestation of different types of lung diseases. Chronic inflammatory lung pathologies are associated with a marked increase in protease activities. Thus, in addition to protease activities, inhibition of anti-proteolytic control mechanisms are also important for effective microbial infection and inflammation in the lung. Herein, we briefly summarize the role of different proteases and to some extent antiproteases in regulating a variety of lung diseases.

Substrate-zymography: a still worthwhile method for gelatinases analysis in biological samples

Matrix metallo-proteinases (MMPs) are a family of zinc-dependent endopeptidases, capable of degrading all the molecular components of extracellular matrix. A class of MMPs is gelatinases which includes gelatinase A or MMP-2 (72 kDa) and gelatinase B or MMP-9 (92 kDa), which have been shown to play critical roles in pathophysiology of many human disease and, in particular, cancer progression. For these reasons they obtained a great interest as potential non-invasive biomarker in providing useful clinical information in cancer diagnosis and therapy. A sensitive and unexpensive method for analysis of gelatinases is the gelatine zymography, which allows to measure the relative amounts of active and inactive enzymes in body fluids and tissue extracts. The procedure involves the electrophoretic separation of proteins under denaturing but non reducing conditions through a polyacrylamide gel containing a synthetic substrate (gelatin). The aim of this mini-review has been to describe the general principles of gelatine zymography technique, underling the main advantages and disadvantages. Even though an improvement of this method is necessary for a better applicability in laboratory medicine, gelatine zymography represents the most convenient method to detect the activity of the different gelatinases from a wide range of biological samples.