Anti-arthritic activity of standardised extract of Phyllanthus amarus in Freund's complete adjuvant induced arthritis

Role of Bioactive Compounds, Novel Drug Delivery Systems, and Polyherbal Formulations in the Management of Rheumatoid Arthritis

Rheumatoid Arthritis (RA) is an autoimmune disorder that generally causes joint synovial inflammation as well as gradual cartilage and degenerative changes, resulting in progressive immobility. Cartilage destruction induces synovial inflammation, including synovial cell hyperplasia, increased synovial fluid, and synovial pane development. This phenomenon causes articular cartilage damage and joint alkalosis. Traditional medicinal system exerts their effect through several cellular mechanisms, including inhibition of inflammatory mediators, oxidative stress suppression, cartilage degradation inhibition, increasing antioxidants and decreasing rheumatic biomarkers. The medicinal plants have yielded a variety of active constituents from various chemical categories, including alkaloids, triterpenoids, steroids, glycosides, volatile oils, flavonoids, lignans, coumarins, terpenes, sesquiterpene lactones, anthocyanins, and anthraquinones. This review sheds light on the utilization of medicinal plants in the treatment of RA. It explains various phytoconstituents present in medicinal plants and their mechanism of action against RA. It also briefs about the uses of polyherbal formulations (PHF), which are currently in the market and the toxicity associated with the use of medicinal plants and PHF, along with the limitations and research gaps in the field of PHF. This review paper is an attempt to understand various mechanistic approaches employed by several medicinal plants, their possible drug delivery systems and synergistic effects for curing RA with minimum side effects.

Chrysin Is Immunomodulatory and Anti-Inflammatory against Complete Freund's Adjuvant-Induced Arthritis in a Pre-Clinical Rodent Model

Chrysin (5,7-dihydroxyflavone) has many pharmacological properties including anti-inflammatory actions. The objective of this study was to evaluate the anti-arthritic activity of chrysin and to compare its effect with the non-steroidal anti-inflammatory agent, piroxicam, against complete Freund's adjuvant (CFA)-induced arthritis in a pre-clinical model in rats. Rheumatoid arthritis was induced by injecting CFA intra-dermally in the sub-plantar region of the left hind paw of rats. Chrysin (50 and 100 mg/kg) and piroxicam (10 mg/kg) were given to rats with established arthritis. The model of arthritis was characterized using an index of arthritis, with hematological, biological, molecular, and histopathological parameters. Treatment with chrysin significantly reduced the arthritis score, inflammatory cells, erythrocyte sedimentation rate, and rheumatoid factor. Chrysin also reduced the mRNA levels of tumor necrosis factor, nuclear factor kappa-B, and toll-like recepter-2 and increased anti-inflammatory cytokines interleukin-4 and -10, as well as the hemoglobin levels. Using histopathology and microscopy, chrysin reduced the severity of arthritis in joints, infiltration of inflammatory cells, subcutaneous inflammation, cartilage erosion, bone erosion, and pannus formation. Chrysin showed comparable effects to piroxicam, which is used for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis. The results showed that chrysin possesses anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory effects that make it a potential drug for the treatment of arthritis.

Nimbolide attenuates complete Freund's adjuvant induced arthritis through expression regulation of toll-like receptors signaling pathway

Nimbolide is an active constituent of Azadirachta indica and is known for its anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidant, immune-modulatory, and anti-cancer effects. Few studies suggest that nimbolide treatment influences the responses to rheumatoid arthritis, but the underlying molecular mechanisms involved are not yet well established. Therefore, the present study was designed to determine the effect of nimbolide on expression regulation of toll-like receptors to attenuate rheumatoid arthritis. The rheumatoid arthritis model was established by injecting complete Freund's adjuvant (CFA) intra-dermally into the sub-plantar region of the left hind paw of rats. Nimbolide (20 mg/kg) and piroxicam (10 mg/kg) were given to arthritic rats. Rats treated with nimbolide showed a significant reduction in inflammatory cells, rheumatoid factor, ESR, and improved the body weight. The results indicated that nimbolide possesses the capacity to attenuate rheumatoid arthritis by downregulating toll-like receptors, IL-17, IL-23, HSP70, and IFN-γ expression levels. Nimbolide treatment showed significant reduction in the severity of inflammation and destruction of joints and showed comparable effects to piroxicam, which is a standard non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug used for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis. It can be concluded that nimbolide can be considered as a potential candidate for therapeutic targeting of the toll-like receptors pathway in rheumatoid arthritis.

Pharmacological activities and mechanisms of action of hypophyllanthin: A review

Hypophyllanthin is a major lignan present in various Phyllanthus species and has been used as one of the bioactive chemical markers for quality control purposes as it contributes to their diverse pharmacological activities. The objective of this study is to compile up-to-date data on the pharmacological actions and mechanisms of hypophyllanthin. This review also includes the extracts of Phyllanthus species whose pharmacological actions have been partially attributed to hypophyllanthin. The scientific findings on the compound are critically analyzed and its potential as a lead molecule for the discovery of drug candidates for the development of therapeutics to treat diverse diseases is highlighted. Data collection was mainly through the exploration of Ovid-MEDLINE, Scopus, Science Direct, and Elsevier databases. Studies conducted in vitro and in vivo showed that hypophyllanthin had potent immunomodulating properties as well as a variety of other pharmacological properties, including anti-inflammatory, hepatoprotective, anti-tumor, anti-allergic, anti-hypertensive, and phytoestrogenic properties. Several mechanisms of action on the effects of hypophyllanthin on the immune system, in cancer and other disease states, were presented to provide some insights into its pharmacological effects. Before being submitted to clinical investigations, additional animal studies utilising different animal models are necessary to analyse its bioavailability, pharmacokinetics, and pharmacodynamic properties, as well as its toxicity, to determine its efficacy and safety. Understanding its potential as a lead molecule for the discovery of therapeutic candidates, particularly for the development of therapies for inflammatory and immune-related disorders, requires an understanding of its pharmacological activities and mechanisms of action. An insight into its pharmacological activities and mechanisms of action will provide an understanding of its potential as a lead compound for the discovery of drug candidates, especially for the development of therapies for inflammatory and immune related diseases.

Screening of Phyllanthus niruri Leaves Phytoconstituents for Antiviral and Antibacterial Activity by Molecular Docking Studies

The genus Phyllanthus belongs to one of the largest plant families, the Phyllantaceae (L.). Phyllanthus niruri is an annual perennial herb that grows in tropical Asia, America, China, and the islands of the Indian Ocean. Numerous alkaloids, steroids, flavonoids, lignans, coumarins, polyphenols, and lipids are present in Phyllanthus. The effects of plants have been studied for a variety of purposes, including their antioxidant (Giribabu et al., Evid Based Complement Alternat Med, 2014), anti-inflammatory (Porto et al., Revista Brasileira de Pharmacognosy, 2013), antinociceptive (Sathisha et al., Indian Drugs, 2009), analgesic (Mostofa et al., BMC Complement Altern Med, 2017), antiulcer (Mali et al., Biomed Aging Pathol, 2011), antiarthritic (Obidike and Salawu, Planta Medica, 2010), antiplasmodial (Shilpa et al., Environ Dis, 2018), immunomodulatory (Manikkoth et al., Anticonvulsant activity of Phyllanthus amarus in experimental animal models), anticonvulsant (Wasnik et al., Int J Pharm Sci Rev Res, 2014), antidepressant (Venkateswaran et al., Effects of an extract from Phyllanthus niruri on hepatitis B and woodchuck hepatitis viruses: In vitro and in vivo studies (antiviral agent/Marmota monax/DNA polymerase/hepatitis B surface antigen/woodchuck hepatitis surface antigen). In Hepatitis B and The Prevention of Primary Cancer of The Liver: Selected Publications of Baruch S Blumberg, pp 535-539), antiviral (Venkateswaran et al., Effects of an extract from Phyllanthus niruri on hepatitis B and woodchuck hepatitis viruses: In vitro and in vivo studies (antiviral agent/Marmota monax/DNA polymerase/hepatitis B surface antigen/woodchuck hepatitis surface antigen). In Hepatitis B and The Prevention of Primary Cancer of The Liver: Selected Publications of Baruch S Blumberg, pp 535-539), antitumor (Sharma et al., Asian Pac J Cancer Prev, 2009), hyperlipidemia (Khanna et al., J Ethnopharmacol, 2002), and antifertility (Ezeonwu, Inquiries J, 2011). For additional docking investigations with distinct proteins, the leaf chemicals are assessed, that is, the crystal structure of serine protease hepsin in complex with inhibitor [PDB ID:5 CE1] for antiviral activity human topoisomerase II beta in complex with DNA and etoposide [PDB ID:3QX3] and crystal structure of E. coli GyraseB 24 kDa in complex with 4-(4-bromo-1H-pyrazol-1-yl)-6-[(ethylcarbamoyl)amino]-N-(pyridin-3-yl) pyridine-3-carboxamide [PDB ID: 6F86] for antibacterial activity and have been selected. To evaluate the in silico results and grading of virtual screening, or molecular docking, ritonavir antiviral activity and ampicillin for antibacterial activity were used as a benchmark.

Screening of Phyllanthus niruri Root Phytoconstituents for Antibacterial, Antifungal, Anticancer, and Antiviral Activities by Molecular Docking Studies

The systematic exploitation of the structural variety of natural products is made possible by docking studies, which have been shown to be a crucial technique. This study's goal was to evaluate various activities for the chemicals in the root portion of Phyllanthus niruri. This plant's constituents are active in a variety of ways. In order to develop drugs, molecules with such a framework have been utilized as the lead. Schrodinger Maestro (v13.0) software was used to conduct a molecular docking analysis of root components with certain proteins linked to the illnesses. In comparison to commercially available conventional medications, molecular docking data also demonstrated greater scores. For additional docking investigations with distinct proteins, the root chemicals are assessed, that is, crystal structure of serine protease hepsin in complex with inhibitor [PDB ID:5 CE1] for antiviral activity, human topoisomerase II beta in complex with DNA and etoposide [PDB ID:3QX3], and crystal structure of E. coli GyraseB 24 kDa in complex with 4-(4-bromo-1H-pyrazol-1-yl)-6-[(ethylcarbamoyl)amino]-N-(pyridin-3-yl) pyridine-3-carboxamide [PDB ID: 6F86] for antibacterial activity, Cytochrome P450 14 alpha-sterol demethylase (CYP51) from Mycobacterium tuberculosis in complex with fluconazole [PDB ID:1EA1], and structure of yeast Sec14p with a picolinamide compound [PDB ID:6F0E] for antifungal activity and synthesis and biological evaluation of novel selective androgen receptor modulators (SARMs). Part II: Optimization of 4-(pyrrolidin-1-yl) benzonitrile derivatives [PDB ID: 5T8E] and Human Cytochrome P450 CYP17A1 in complex with Abiraterone [PD B ID:3RUK] for anticancer activity have been selected. Ritonavir's antiviral activity, ampicillin's ability to treat bacterial infections, fluconazole's ability to treat fungi, and dacarbazine's ability to treat cancer were utilized as benchmarks to assess the in silico outcomes and grading of virtual screening or molecular docking.

Screening of Phyllanthus niruri Plant Active Constituents for Anticancer and Antifungal Activity by Insilico Methods

A large genus of shrubs, trees, and rare plants belonging to the Euphorbiaceae family, Phyllanthus contains 600-700 species. The Phyllanthus niruri (L.) species is a tiny, erect annual herb that can reach heights of 30-40 cm. Its 7-12 cm long, sessile, alternating leaves are native to the Amazon rainforest, but they can also be found in other tropical regions such as South East Asia, Southern India, America, China, and the islands of the Indian Ocean. Phyllanthus contains many classes of alkaloids, steroids, flavonoids, lignin, polyphenols, and lipids. Numerous activities of the plant have been studied, including antidepressant (Wasnik et al., Int J Pharm Sci Rev Res, 6:26-29, 2014), anticancer (Sayuti et al. Studies, 10:17, 2020), anti-inflammatory, antinociceptive (Porto et al., Revista Brasileira de Farmacognosia, 23:138-144, 2013), analgesic (Bhat et al., Pharm Res, 7:378, 2015), antiarthritic (Mali et al., Biomed Aging Pathol, 1:185-190, 2011), immunomodulatory, antibacterial, antifungal (Shilpa et al., Environm Dis, 3:63, 2018), antidiabetic (Kumar et al., Biomed Pharm J, 12:57-63, 2019), antiulcer (Mostofa et al., BMC Complement Altern Med, 17:1-10, 2017), antiviral (Wahyuni et al., Malays Appl Biol, 48:105-111, 2019), antiplasmodial (Ifeoma et al., Asian Pacific J Trop Med, 6:169-175, 2013), anticonvulsant (Amaechina and Omogbai, Nig J Nat Prod Med, 17:61-65, 2013), and hepato human cytochrome P450 CYP17A1 in association with abiraterone [PDB ID: 3RUK] plant extracts. New selective androgen receptor modulators were synthesized, and they were biologically evaluated (SARMs) (Micah et al., J Veter Med Anim Health 5(1):8-15, 2013, Rusmana et al., Indonesian Biomed J 9(2):84-90, 2017, Al Zarzour et al., Nutrients 10(8):1057, 2018, Khanna J Ethnopharmacol 82(1):19-22, 2002). In the present study [PDB ID: 3RUK,5T8E] with anticancer and [PDB ID: 6F0E,1EA1] with antifungal activities were used for docking study. In this study fluconazole's antifungal activity and dacarbazine's anticancer activity were used as benchmarks for molecular docking with Schrodinger 13.0 to compare the activity of Phyllanthus niruri's active constituents.

An insight into the potent medicinal plant Phyllanthus amarus Schum. and Thonn

Phyllanthus amarus Schum. and Thonn., a globally distributed herb is known for its several therapeutic potentials. P. amarus has a long history of use in the traditional system of medicine for over 2000 years owing to its wide array of secondary metabolites that confer significant medicinal attributes. Research on various aspects including ethnobotany, phytochemistry to bioactivity, or pharmacological studies has been conducted over the past several decades on this potent herb. P. amarus extracts have shown a broad range of pharmacological activities like hepatoprotective, antioxidant, antiviral, antimicrobial, antidiabetic, anti-inflammatory, anticancer, antimalarial, nephroprotective, diuretic, and several other properties. The present review compiles and covers literature and research of several groups across past decades to date and focuses on how the therapeutic significance of this plant can be further explored for future research either as herbal formulations, alternative medicine, or in the pharmaceutical industry.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s13237-022-00409-z.

Sarcococca saligna Hydroalcoholic Extract Ameliorates Arthritis in Complete Freund's Adjuvant-Induced Arthritic Rats via Modulation of Inflammatory Biomarkers and Suppression of Oxidative Stress Markers

Traditionally, Sarcococca saligna has been used for the treatment of arthritis and many other inflammatory disorders. The current study was planned to give scientific evidence to this traditional use of S. saligna. Phytochemical profiling of SSME was carried out by using electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (ESI-MS/MS). Complete Freund's adjuvant (CFA), 150 μL was injected in the subplantar region of the left hind paw to induce arthritis in rats. Aqueous methanolic extract of S. saligna (SSME) was administered orally at 250, 500, or 1000 mg/kg dose from the 7th day to the 28th day of the study to explore its anti-arthritic potential. Histopathological and radiographic assessment of joints and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and real-time polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) analyses were performed. Determination of oxidative stress biomarkers in the serum was also carried out. ESI-MS/MS identified ten such phytoconstituents which have reported strong anti-inflammatory and anti-arthritic activity. The SSME extract considerably reduced paw inflammation and arthritic index, subdued cachexia, and significantly improved biochemical and hematological changes. Oxidative stress decreased in SSME administered rats dose-dependently. Histopathological and radiographic evaluations also showed the anti-arthritic activity of SSME, which was associated with the downregulation of tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, nuclear factor (NF)-kB, COX-2, interleukin (IL)-6, and IL-1β and upregulation of I-kB, IL-4, and IL-10, in contrast to disease group rats. The outcomes of the study proposed that S. saligna have anti-arthritic potential, supporting its traditional use for rheumatoid arthritis treatment.

The Role of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants against Obesity and Arthritis: A Review

Obesity is a significant health concern, as it causes a massive cascade of chronic inflammations and multiple morbidities. Rheumatoid arthritis and osteoarthritis are chronic inflammatory conditions and often manifest as comorbidities of obesity. Adipose tissues serve as a reservoir of energy as well as releasing several inflammatory cytokines (including IL-6, IFN-γ, and TNF-α) that stimulate low-grade chronic inflammatory conditions such as rheumatoid arthritis, osteoarthritis, diabetes, hypertension, cardiovascular disorders, fatty liver disease, oxidative stress, and chronic kidney diseases. Dietary intake, low physical activity, unhealthy lifestyle, smoking, alcohol consumption, and genetic and environmental factors can influence obesity and arthritis. Current arthritis management using modern medicines produces various adverse reactions. Medicinal plants have been a significant part of traditional medicine, and various plants and phytochemicals have shown effectiveness against arthritis and obesity; however, scientifically, this traditional plant-based treatment option needs validation through proper clinical trials and toxicity tests. In addition, essential oils obtained from aromatic plants are being widely used as for complementary therapy (e.g., aromatherapy, smelling, spicing, and consumption with food) against arthritis and obesity; scientific evidence is necessary to support their effectiveness. This review is an attempt to understand the pathophysiological connections between obesity and arthritis, and describes treatment options derived from medicinal, spice, and aromatic plants.

Antiarthritic Potential of Calotropis procera Leaf Fractions in FCA-Induced Arthritic Rats: Involvement of Cellular Inflammatory Mediators and Other Biomarkers

Calotropis procera (commonly known as Swallow wort) is described in the Ayurvedic literature for the treatment of inflammation and arthritic disorders. Therefore, in the present work, the antiarthritic activity of potential fractions of Swallow wort leaf was evaluated and compared with standards (indomethacin and ibuprofen). This study was designed in Wistar rats for the investigation of antiarthritic activity and acute toxicity of Swallow wort. Arthritis was induced in Wistar rats by injecting 0.1 mL of Freund’s complete adjuvant (FCA) on the 1st and 7th days subcutaneously into the subplantar region of the left hind paw. Evaluation of our experimental findings suggested that antiarthritic activity of methanol fraction of Swallow wort (MFCP) was greater than ethyl acetate fraction of Swallow wort (EAFCP), equal to standard ibuprofen, and slightly lower than standard indomethacin. MFCP significantly reduced paw edema on the 17th, 21st, 24th, and 28th days. It also showed significant effect (p < 0.01) on arthritic score, paw withdrawal latency, and body weight. The inhibition of serum lysosomal enzymes and proinflammatory cytokines along with improvement of radiographic features of hind legs was also recorded with MFCP. Finally, it was concluded that MFCP can be a feasible therapeutic candidate for the treatment of inflammatory arthritis.

Antiarthritic Potential of Comprehensively Standardized Extract of Alternanthera bettzickiana: In Vitro and In Vivo Studies

Alternanthera bettzickiana is being used as a folk remedy for treating arthritis by conventional healers in Thailand. The current research was undertaken to explore the antiarthritic potential of A. bettzickiana ethanolic extract (ABEE). Plant characterization, molecular docking, and in vitro and in vivo (ABEE at 250, 500, and 1000 mg/kg was administered orally to rats once daily for 28 days) studies to explore the antiarthritic effect and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and real-time polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) analyses were performed. Oxidative stress biomarkers (superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), malondialdehyde (MDA)) in the serum and histopathological and radiographic assessment of joints were also carried out. Gallic acid, catechin, chlorogenic acid, sinapic acid, quercetin, and γ- and α-tocopherol were identified in high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). Molecular docking revealed a strong interaction between these compounds and cyclooxygenase (COX) enzymes. The extract significantly subdued paw swelling and arthritic scoring, inhibited cachexia, and considerably improved biochemical and hematological modifications. SOD and CAT levels increased and the MDA level decreased in ABEE-treated rats dose-dependently. Radiographic and histopathological analyses also supported the antiarthritic effect of ABEE, which was linked with the downregulation of nuclear factor (NF)-kB, COX-2, interleukin (IL)-6, tumour necrosis factor (TNF)-α, and IL-1β and upregulation of IL-10, I-kB, and IL-4 as compared to disease control rats. Results suggested that A. bettzickiana possessed antiarthritic potential, supporting its folkloric use for treating rheumatoid arthritis.

An Insight Into the Anxiolytic Effects of Lignans (Phyllanthin and Hypophyllanthin) and Tannin (Corilagin) Rich Extracts of Phyllanthus amarus : An In-Silico and In-vivo approaches

The extracts and the compounds isolated from Phyllanthus amarus Schumm and Thonn (Family: Euphorbiaceae) have shown a wide spectrum of pharmacological activities including antiviral, antibacterial, antiplasmodial, antimalarial, antimicrobial, anticancer, antidiabetic, hypolipidemic, antioxidant, hepatoprotective, nephroprotective and diurectic properties.

BACKGROUND

This investigation was aimed at exploring the anxiolytic potential of Phyllanthus amarus standardized extracts and predict probable role of marker phyto constitutents.

OBJECTIVE AND METHODS

Three standardized extracts of Phyllanthus amarus plant viz. standardized aqueous extract of Phyllanthus amarus whole plant (PAAE), standardized methanolic extract of P. amarus leaf (PAME) and the standardized hydro-methanolic extract of P. amarus leaf (PAHME) were tested in the classical animal models of anxiety: Elevated plus-maze model and Light & Dark Exploration test.

RESULTS

The lower doses of the tannin rich extract (PAHME) of the P. amarus possess significant anxiolytic activity compared to lignin rich (PAME) and aqueous extracts (PAAE), while at a higher dose (400mg/kg) the results of all three extracts appears to be potentially sedative. While the molecular docking studies support these probable anxiolytic, the sedative effects of the Phyllanthus amarus extracts could be due to the interaction of tannins and lignans with the GABAbenzodiazepine receptor complex.

CONCLUSION

The results of the present study indicate that the tannin-rich extract of the P. amarus may have potential clinical applications in the management of anxiety. It can be further studied for optimum dosage to be used as a future of anti-anxiety drug development or as a standardized Phytomedicine.

Inhibition of neutrophil migration and reduction of oxidative stress by ethyl p-coumarate in acute and chronic inflammatory models

BACKGROUND

It is well known that medicinal plants and their products are relevant candidates for the treatment of inflammatory conditions. Ethyl p-coumarate is a phenylpropanoid that has similar structure to others anti-inflammatory and antioxidant substances. However, these activities have never been tested.

PURPOSE

The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of ethyl p-coumarate on inflammatory and oxidative stress parameters.

STUDY DESIGN

This is an experimental study to evaluate the anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activities of ethyl p-coumarate in acute and chronic models of inflammation.

METHODS

The anti-inflammatory effect of ethyl p-coumarate was evaluated in Swiss mice by carrageenan-induced paw edema model (1%, 50 μl), followed by histological analysis, and edema induced by compound 48/80 (12 µg/paw), histamine (100  µg/paw), serotonin (100 µg/paw) and prostaglandin E2 (3 nmol/paw) in comparison to indomethacin treatment (10 mg/kg, p.o.). In addition, peritonitis was induced by carrageenan (500 μg/cavity) to neutrophil and total leukocytes counting, myeloperoxidase (MPO), interleukin 6 (IL-6) and 8 (IL-8), nitrite (NO₂^-), glutathione (GSH) and malondialdehyde (MDA) measurements. The arthritis model was induced with Freund's complete adjuvant (id. 0.1 ml) in female Wistar rats, with measurement of joint diameter and X-ray. Changes in gastric tissue of Swiss mice were analyzed in comparison to indomethacin (20  mg/kg, p.o.).

RESULTS

After treatment with ethyl p-coumarate, the animals had no apparent toxic effects, and significantly inhibited paw edema induced by edematogenic agents, neutrophil (p < 0.001) and total leukocyte (p < 0.001) migration, MPO (p < 0.01), IL-6 (p < 0.05) and IL-8 (p < 0.5), MDA (p < 0.5), GSH (p < 0.5), NO₂^- (p < 0.001), joint thickness and bones changes. Furthermore, were not observed significant formation of gastric lesions.

CONCLUSION

Taken together, these results suggest that ethyl p-coumarate exhibits anti-inflammatory activity through the inhibition of inflammatory mediators and leukocyte migration without causing gastric lesions.

Therapeutic effect of Parmotrema tinctorum against complete Freund's adjuvant-induced arthritis in rats and identification of novel Isophthalic ester derivative

The present study reveals the anti-arthritic potential of traditionally used Parmotrema tinctorum (Pt) on experimental rats and purification of novel Isophthalic ester derivative. Arthritis was induced in rats using Freund's complete adjuvant (CFA) and subsequently treated with Pt extract (100 & 200 mg/kg.b.w). Assessment of antiarthritic activity was carried out using paw volume, arthritic score, haematological, biochemical, tissue antioxidant, histopathology and radiological analyses of ankle joints. The results revealed that continuous administration of Pt reduces the complication associated with arthritis by inhibiting the edema formation and arthritic score significantly (P < 0.05). The altered changes in biochemical parameters were brought back with an improvement in free radical scavenging ability after treatment with Pt significantly. Further purification of Pt using conventional column chromatography led to the isolation of four compounds and the structure of these isolated compounds were elucidated on the basis of spectral data's FT-IR, ¹H NMR, ¹³C NMR, DEPT-NMR spectroscopy, COSY & HSQC-NMR spectroscopy and LC-MS. The spectral data revealed that the three compounds were found to be Methyl-γ-Orsellinate, Atranorin, and usnic acid (CI-III) along with a novel secondary metabolite, (C-IV)4-Hydroxy-5-methyl-isophthalicacid3-(3,4-dihydroxy-5-methyl-phenyl)ester (C₁₆H₁₄O₇,318.1amu). The present study reveals that Parmotrema tinctorum reduces complications associated with arthritis and the compounds were isolated for the first time.

Herb-drug interaction of Andrographis paniculata (Nees) extract and andrographolide on pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic of naproxen in rats

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Andrographis paniculata Nees (Acanthacae) have broad range of pharmacological effects such as hepatoprotective, antifertility, antimalarial, antidiabetic, suppression of various cancer cells and anti-inflammatory properties and is widely used medicinal plant in the traditional Unani and Ayurvedic medicinal systems. Andrographolide (AN) is one of the active constituent of the A. paniculata Nees extract (APE). They have been found in many traditional herbal formulations in India and proven to be effective as anti-inflammatory drug.

AIM OF THE STUDY

To evaluate the pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic (anti arthritic) herb-drug interactions of A. paniculata Nees extract (APE) and pure andrographolide (AN) with naproxen (NP) after oral co-administration in wistar rats.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

After oral co-administration of APE (200mg/Kg) and AN (60mg/kg) with NP (7.5mg/kg) in rats, drug concentrations in plasma were determined using HPLC method. The main pharmacokinetic parameters of C_max, t_max, t_1/2, MRT, Vd, CL, and AUC were calculated by non-compartment model. Change in paw volume, mechanical nociceptive threshold, mechanical hyperalgesia, histopathology and hematological parameters were evaluated to study antiarthritic activity.

RESULTS

Co-administration of NP with APE and pure AN decreased systemic exposure level of NP in vivo. The C_max, t_max, AUC_0-t of NP was decreased. In pharmacodynamic study, NP (10mg/kg) alone and NP+AN (10+60mg/kg) groups exhibited significant synergistic anti-arthritic activity as compared to groups NP+APE, APE and AN alone.

CONCLUSION

The results obtained from this study suggested that NP, APE and pure AN existed pharmacokinetic herb-drug interactions in rat which is correlated with anti-arthritic study. The knowledge regarding possible herb-drug interaction of NP might be helpful for physicians as well as patients using AP. So further studies should be done to understand the effect of other herbal ingredients of APE on NP as well as to predict the herb-drug interaction in humans.

Pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic herb-drug interaction of Andrographis paniculata (Nees) extract and andrographolide with etoricoxib after oral administration in rats

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Andrographis paniculata Nees (Acanthacae) is commonly used medicinal plant in the traditional. Unani and Ayurvedic medicinal systems. It has broad range of pharmacological effects such as hepatoprotective, antioxidant, antivenom, antifertility, inhibition of replication of the HIV virus, antimalarial, antifungal, antibacterial, antidiabetic, suppression of various cancer cells and anti-inflammatory properties. Andrographolide (AN) is one of the active constituent of the A. paniculata Nees extract (APE). They have been found in many traditional herbal formulations in India and proven to be effective as anti-inflammatory drug

AIM OF THE STUDY

To evaluate the pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic (anti-arthritic) herb-drug interactions of A. paniculata Nees extract (APE) and pure andrographolide (AN) with etoricoxib (ETO) after oral co-administration in wistar rats.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

After oral co-administration of APE (200mg/Kg) and AN (60mg/kg) with ETO (10mg/kg) in rats, drug concentrations in plasma were determined using HPLC method. The main pharmacokinetic parameters of Cmax, tmax, t1/2, MRT, Vd, CL, and AUC were calculated by non-compartment model. Change in paw volume, mechanical nociceptive threshold, mechanical hyperalgesia, histopathology and hematological parameters were evaluated to study antiarthritic activity.

RESULTS

Co-administration of ETO with APE and pure AN decreased systemic exposure level of each compound in vivo. The Cmax, AUC, t1/2 of ETO was decreased whereas Vd and CL of ETO was increased significantly after co-administration of ETO with pure AN and APE. In pharmacodynamic study, ETO alone and ETO+APE (10+200mg/kg) groups exhibited significant synergistic anti-arthritic activity as compared to groups ETO+AN, APE and AN alone.

CONCLUSION

The results obtained from this study suggested that ETO, APE and pure AN existed pharmacokinetic herb-drug interactions in rat which is correlated with anti-arthritic study. Physicians and patients using A. paniculata should have the knowledge about its possible herb-drug interaction with ETO.

The Genus Phyllanthus: An Ethnopharmacological, Phytochemical, and Pharmacological Review

The plants of the genus Phyllanthus (Euphorbiaceae) have been used as traditional medicinal materials for a long time in China, India, Brazil, and the Southeast Asian countries. They can be used for the treatment of digestive disease, jaundice, and renal calculus. This review discusses the ethnopharmacological, phytochemical, and pharmacological studies of Phyllanthus over the past few decades. More than 510 compounds have been isolated, the majority of which are lignins, triterpenoids, flavonoids, and tannins. The researches of their remarkable antiviral, antioxidant, antidiabetic, and anticancer activities have become hot topics. More pharmacological screenings and phytochemical investigations are required to support the traditional uses and develop leading compounds.

A pH-triggered delayed-release chronotherapeutic drug delivery system of aceclofenac for effective management of early morning symptoms of rheumatoid arthritis

CONTEXT

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is differentiated as an early morning exacerbation of the core arthritis condition associated with increase in pain and stiffness in joints and necessitate for medication.

OBJECTIVE

The aim of the present work was to develop and optimise a pH-triggered delayed-release colon-specific aceclofenac microspheres and to accomplish chronotherapy of RA.

METHODS

A 3-factor, 3-level Box-Behnken design (BBD) was used to optimise selected variables. Developed formulation was evaluated for in vivo delayed response and anti-arthritis activity in rats.

RESULTS

The particle size and encapsulation efficacy of these microspheres were 117.36 ± 10.54 µm and 85.06 ± 5.85%, respectively. Optimised formulation was analysed by SEM, DSC, X-RPD and FTIR. The in vivo evaluation revealed delayed anti-inflammatory activity in carrageenan-induced rats and anti-arthritic activity in freund's adjuvant-induced arthritis rats.

CONCLUSION

The optimised aceclofenac microspheres formulation is potential for the chronotherapy of early morning symptoms of RA.

Anti-arthritic activity of a classical Ayurvedic formulation Vatari Guggulu in rats

In India, Vatari Guggulu has been traditionally used in the Ayurvedic system of medicine to treat rheumatoid arthritis (RA). The current study was undertaken to evaluate anti-arthritic activity of alcoholic extract of Vatari Guggulu in rats. Arthritis was induced by administration of formaldehyde (2%v/v) or Complete Freund's Adjuvant (CFA) into the sub-plantar surface of left hind paw of the animals. The extract was administered to the rats by oral gavages in different doses. Joint swelling was measured in formaldehyde induced arthritis. Various physical, biochemical and histopathological parameters were determined in CFA induced arthritis. Vatari Guggulu extract (VGE) produced significant (P < 0.05) inhibition of joint swelling in both formaldehyde and CFA induced arthritis. The treatment also brought to normalcy the increased white blood cell (WBC) count, rheumatoid factor (RF), erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR), cholesterol, triglycerides and LDL with an enhancement of haemoglobin (Hb) levels and red blood cell (RBC) count. These effects were found to be dose dependent. These effects were comparable with standard drug indomethacin. Histo-pathological studies of the ankles of VGE treated animals exhibited significant improvements. VGE did not show any toxic symptoms even at a dose of 2000 mg/kg in acute toxicity studies on rats. Thus, Vatari Guggulu, a classical Ayurvedic formulation of the Indian System of Medicine, exhibited significant anti-arthritic activity in formaldehyde and CFA induced arthritis in rats. This study corroborates the claims of Ayurveda on Vatari Guggulu.

Chondroprotective potential of Phyllanthus amarus Schum. & Thonn. in experimentally induced cartilage degradation in the explants culture model

Phyllanthus amarus Schum. & Thonn. (P. amarus) has been reported to exhibit anti-inflammation and antiarthritis properties leading to our interest to examine its beneficial effect in osteoarthritis. Thus, this study aimed to explore the chondroprotective potential of P. amarus extract (PAE) and its major compounds, phyllanthin and hypophyllanthin, in a cartilage explant model. Various concentrations of P. amarus extract, phyllanthin and hypophyllanthin, were treated on porcine articular cartilage explants induced with 25 ng/ml of interleukin-1 beta (IL-1β). After 4 days of incubation, the culture medium was measured for the release of sulfate glycosaminoglycans (s-GAGs) and matrix metalloproteinase-2 (MMP-2) activity by DMMB binding assay and zymography, respectively. The explant tissues were analyzed for the remaining of uronic acid content by colorimetric assay and stained with safranin-O for investigation of proteoglycan content. Cell viability of this model was evaluated by lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) assay. Chondroprotective potential of PAE and the major components against IL-1β-induced cartilage explant degradation were revealed by the decreased s-GAGs level and MMP-2 activity in culture medium consistent with an increase in uronic acid and proteoglycan contents in the explants when compared to the IL-1β treatment. These results agreed with those of diacerein and sesamin which used as positive controls. In addition, better chondroprotective activities of P. amarus crude extracts than those of the purified components were disclosed in this study. Hence, this is a pioneering study presenting the chondroprotective potential of PAE which may augment its application for therapeutic use as an antiarthritic agent.