Evodiamine prevents dextran sulfate sodium-induced murine experimental colitis via the regulation of NF-κB and NLRP3 inflammasome

Investigating the therapeutic effects and potential mechanisms of Zuojin Pill in the treatment of gastroesophageal reflux disease

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Zuojin Pill (ZJP), a traditional Chinese medicinal formula, is widely recognized for its diverse pharmacological properties in the management of gastrointestinal disorders. However, the precise mechanisms underlying its therapeutic effects in gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) remain inadequately understood.

AIM OF THE STUDY

This study aims to investigate the therapeutic effects of ZJP in GERD and to elucidate the molecular mechanisms involved.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The chemical composition of ZJP was characterized using HPLC-Q-Exactive-MS. A rat model of GERD was established through esophagogastric anastomosis, and three different doses of ZJP were administered. Histological changes were assessed via hematoxylin-eosin (H&E) staining, while pro-inflammatory cytokines were quantified to evaluate the anti-inflammatory effects of ZJP. Network pharmacology combined with bioinformatics analysis was employed to predict potential therapeutic targets and signaling pathways of ZJP in GERD. Validation of the mechanisms was conducted through Western blotting, immunofluorescence (IF), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and immunohistochemistry (IHC).

RESULTS

The results demonstrated that ZJP effectively alleviated pathological alterations and reduced pro-inflammatory cytokine levels in esophageal tissues of GERD rats. Western blotting and IF analysis of E-cadherin and claudin-1 confirmed that ZJP enhanced the integrity of the esophageal mucosal barrier. TEM imaging revealed that ZJP restored intercellular space (DIS), increased desmosome density, thereby protecting esophageal tissues from the detrimental effects of GERD. Furthermore, ZJP modulated macrophage polarization in the GERD rat model. Mechanistic investigations indicated that ZJP exerted its therapeutic effects by inhibiting MAPK/NF-κB signaling pathway activation and downregulating the expression of prostaglandin-endoperoxide synthase 2 (PTGS2) and matrix metalloproteinase 2 (MMP2), consistent with predictions from network pharmacology analysis.

CONCLUSIONS

This study provides comprehensive evidence for the therapeutic efficacy of ZJP in GERD, acting through modulation of inflammation, mucosal barrier integrity, and macrophage polarization. Additionally, ZJP downregulated PTGS2 and MMP2 expression and suppressed the activation of MAPK/NF-κB signaling pathways, underscoring its potential as a therapeutic intervention for GERD.

Inflammasomes in Intestinal Disease: Mechanisms of Activation and Therapeutic Strategies

NOD-like receptors (NLRs) are a family of cytosolic pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) implicated in the innate immune sensing of pathogens and damage signals. NLRs act as sensors in multi-protein complexes called inflammasomes. Inflammasome activity is necessary for the maintenance of intestinal homeostasis, although their aberrant activation contributes to the pathogenesis of several gastrointestinal diseases. In this review, we summarize the main features of the predominant types of inflammasomes involved in gastrointestinal immune responses and their implications in intestinal disease, including Irritable Bowel Syndrome (IBS), Inflammatory Bowel Disease (IBD), celiac disease, and Colorectal Cancer (CRC). In addition, we report therapeutic discoveries that target the inflammasome pathway, highlighting promising novel therapeutic strategies in the treatment of intestinal diseases. Collectively, our understanding of the mechanisms of intestinal inflammasome activation and their interactions with other immune pathways appear to be not fully elucidated. Moreover, the clinical relevance of the efficacy of inflammasome inhibitors has not been evaluated. Despite these limitations, a greater understanding of the effectiveness, specificity, and reliability of pharmacological and natural inhibitors that target inflammasome components could be an opportunity to develop new therapeutic options for the treatment of intestinal disease.

The active ingredient of Evodia rutaecarpa reduces inflammation in knee osteoarthritis rats through blocking calcium influx and NF-κB pathway

Chronic inflammation significantly contributes to the progression of osteoarthritis (OA), and an anti-inflammatory small molecule derived from medicinal herbs could be a potential drug candidate for OA. Herein, we investigated the function and mechanism of Evodiamine (EAE), the active ingredient from Evodia rutaecarpa, in chondrocytes and macrophages in vitro and in vivo. The cytotoxicity of EAE was determined using an MTT assay. And the anti-inflammatory and anti-extracellular matrix (ECM) degradation effects of EAE were investigated using qRT-PCR, western blot (WB), immunofluorescence (IF). Inductively Coupled Plasma Atomic Emission Spectrometry (ICP-AES), Fluo-4 AM, IF and AutoDock were used to elucidate the molecular mechanisms and signalling pathways of the reducing-inflammatory properties of EAE on chondrocytes in vitro. Moreover, the effect of EAE on macrophage polarization was detected by IF and flow cytometry (FC). Ultimately, we explored the in vivo therapeutic efficacy of EAE in an anterior cruciate ligament transection (ACLT)-induced OA model. The finding demonstrated that EAE blocked the phosphorylation of IKBα and Ca2+ influx, thereby curbing inflammation and ECM degradation. Additionally, EAE can prevent the polarization towards the M1 phenotype. Thus, our findings suggest that EAE has great potential as a therapeutic drug for the treatment of OA.

Evodiamine: A Extremely Potential Drug Development Candidate of Alkaloids from Evodia rutaecarpa

Evodiamine (EVO) is a tryptamine indole alkaloid and the main active ingredient in Evodia rutaecarpa. In recent years, the antitumor, cardioprotective, anti-inflammatory, and anti-Alzheimer's disease effects of EVO have been reported. EVO exerts antitumor effects by inhibiting tumor cell activity and proliferation, blocking the cell cycle, promoting apoptosis and autophagy, and inhibiting the formation of the tumor microvasculature. However, EVO has poor solubility and low bioavailability. Several derivatives with high antitumor activity have been discovered through the structural optimization of EVO, and new drug delivery systems have been developed to improve the solubility and bioavailability of EVO. Current research found that EVO could have toxic effects, such as hepatotoxicity, nephrotoxicity, and cardiac toxicity. This article reviews the pharmacological activity, derivatives, drug delivery systems, toxicity, and pharmacokinetics of EVO and provides research ideas and references for its further in-depth development and clinical applications.

Progress on the effects and underlying mechanisms of evodiamine in digestive system diseases, and its toxicity: A systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Evodiamine (EVO) is one of the primary components of Evodia rutaecarpa and has been found to have a positive therapeutic effect on various digestive system diseases. However, no systematic review has been conducted on the research progress and mechanisms of EVO in relation to digestive system diseases, and its toxicity.

PURPOSE

This study aimed to provide a reference for future research in this field.

STUDY DESIGN

A systematic review and meta-analysis of the research progress, mechanisms, and toxicity of EVO in the treatment of digestive system diseases.

METHODS

Five electronic databases were utilized to search for relevant experiments. We conducted a comprehensive review and meta-analysis of the pertinent literature following the guidelines of Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta-analysis (PRISMA).

RESULTS

EVO's animal experiments in digestive system diseases primarily focus on colorectal cancer, gastric ulcers, liver cancer, liver fibrosis, ulcerative colitis, colitis-associated cancer, and functional gastrointestinal disorders. EVO also has positive effects on pancreatic cancer, radiation enteritis, gastric cancer, tongue squamous cancer, hepatitis B, oral cancer, and esophageal cancer in vivo. EVO's in cellular experiments primarily focus on SGC7901, HT29, HCT-116, and HepG2 cells. EVO also exhibits positive effects on SW480, LoVo, BGC-823, AGS, COLO-205, MKN45, SMMC-7721, Bel-7402, QGY7-701, PANC-1, SW1990, BxPC-3, HSC4, MC3, HONE1, and CNE1 cells in vitro. The potential common pathways include TGF-β, PI3K-AKT, Wnt, ErbB, mTOR, MAPK, HIF-1, NOD-like receptor, NF-κB, VEGF, JAK-STAT, AMPK, Toll-like receptor, EGFR, Ras, TNF, AGE-RAGE, Relaxin, FoxO, IL-17, Hippo, and cAMP. The mechanisms of EVO on ulcerative colitis, gastric cancer, and HCT116 cells are still controversial in vivo. EVO may have a bidirectional regulatory effect on functional gastrointestinal disorders through calcium signaling. The mechanisms of EVO on HCT116, HT29, SW480, AGS, COLO-205, and SW1990 cells are still controversial in vitro. The question of whether EVO has obvious toxicity is controversial.

CONCLUSION

In both cellular and animal experiments, EVO has demonstrated positive impacts on digestive system diseases. Nevertheless, additional in vivo and in vitro research is required to confirm the beneficial effects and mechanisms of EVO on digestive system diseases, as well as its potential toxicity.

Recent developments and new directions in the use of natural products for the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease

BACKGROUND

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) represents a significant global health challenge, and there is an urgent need to explore novel therapeutic interventions. Natural products have demonstrated highly promising effectiveness in the treatment of IBD.

PURPOSE

This study systematically reviews the latest research advancements in leveraging natural products for IBD treatment.

METHODS

This manuscript strictly adheres to the PRISMA guidelines. Relevant literature on the effects of natural products on IBD was retrieved from the PubMed, Web of Science and Cochrane Library databases using the search terms "natural product," "inflammatory bowel disease," "colitis," "metagenomics", "target identification", "drug delivery systems", "polyphenols," "alkaloids," "terpenoids," and so on. The retrieved data were then systematically summarized and reviewed.

RESULTS

This review assessed the different effects of various natural products, such as polyphenols, alkaloids, terpenoids, quinones, and others, in the treatment of IBD. While these natural products offer promising avenues for IBD management, they also face challenges in terms of clinical translation and drug discovery. The advent of metagenomics, single-cell sequencing, target identification techniques, drug delivery systems, and other cutting-edge technologies heralds a new era in overcoming these challenges.

CONCLUSION

This paper provides an overview of current research progress in utilizing natural products for the treatment of IBD, exploring how contemporary technological innovations can aid in discovering and harnessing bioactive natural products for the treatment of IBD.

Harnessing nature's pharmacy: investigating natural compounds as novel therapeutics for ulcerative colitis

Backgrounds

Ulcerative colitis (UC) is a form of chronic inflammatory bowel disease, and UC diagnosis rates continue to rise throughout the globe. The research and development of new drugs for the treatment of UC are urgent, and natural compounds are an important source. However, there is a lack of systematic summarization of natural compounds and their mechanisms for the treatment of UC.

Methods

We reviewed the literature in the databases below from their inception until July 2023: Web of Science, PubMed, China National Knowledge Infrastructure, and Wanfang Data, to obtain information on the relationship between natural compounds and UC.

Results

The results showed that 279 natural compounds treat UC through four main mechanisms, including regulating gut microbiota and metabolites (Mechanism I), protecting the intestinal mucosal barrier (Mechanism II), regulating intestinal mucosal immune response (Mechanism III), as well as regulating other mechanisms (Mechanism Ⅳ) such as cellular autophagy modulation and ferroptosis inhibition. Of these, Mechanism III is regulated by all natural compounds. The 279 natural compounds, including 62 terpenoids, 57 alkaloids, 52 flavonoids, 26 phenols, 19 phenylpropanoids, 9 steroids, 9 saponins, 8 quinonoids, 6 vitamins, and 31 others, can effectively ameliorate UC. Of these, terpenoids, alkaloids, and flavonoids have the greatest potential for treating UC. It is noteworthy to highlight that a total of 54 natural compounds exhibit their therapeutic effects by modulating Mechanisms I, II, and III.

Conclusion

This review serves as a comprehensive resource for the pharmaceutical industry, researchers, and clinicians seeking novel therapeutic approaches to combat UC. Harnessing the therapeutic potential of these natural compounds may significantly contribute to the improvement of the quality of life of patients with UC and promotion of disease-modifying therapies in the future.

Autophagy: A potential target for natural products in the treatment of ulcerative colitis

Ulcerative colitis (UC) is a chronic inflammatory bowel disease primarily affecting the mucosa of the colon and rectum. UC is characterized by recurrent episodes, often necessitating lifelong medication use, imposing a significant burden on patients. Current conventional and advanced treatments for UC have the disadvantages of insufficient efficiency, susceptibility to drug resistance, and notable adverse effects. Therefore, developing effective and safe drugs has become an urgent need. Autophagy is an intracellular degradation process that plays an important role in intestinal homeostasis. Emerging evidence suggests that aberrant autophagy is involved in the development of UC, and modulating autophagy can effectively alleviate experimental colitis. A growing number of studies have established that autophagy can interplay with endoplasmic reticulum stress, gut microbiota, apoptosis, and the NLRP3 inflammasome, all of which contribute to the pathogenesis of UC. In addition, a variety of intestinal epithelial cells, including absorptive cells, goblet cells, and Paneth cells, as well as other cell types like neutrophils, antigen-presenting cells, and stem cells in the gut, mediate the development of UC through autophagy. To date, many studies have found that natural products hold the potential to exert therapeutic effects on UC by regulating autophagy. This review focuses on the possible effects and pharmacological mechanisms of natural products to alleviate UC with autophagy as a potential target in recent years, aiming to provide a basis for new drug development.

Inhibition of ferroptosis: A new direction in the treatment of ulcerative colitis by traditional Chinese medicine

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Ulcerative colitis (UC) is a chronic idiopathic intestinal disease of unknown cause and has been classified as one of the modern intractable diseases by the World Health Organization (WHO). Ferroptosis, as an iron-ion-dependent mode of programmed cell death, is closely related to iron metabolism, lipid peroxidation, and imbalance of the antioxidant system, and plays an important role in the development of UC. In this paper, we will review the regulatory pathways of ferroptosis, the relationship between ferroptosis and the pathogenesis of UC, and the treatment of UC by TCM from the perspective of ferroptosis inhibition, and summarize the mechanism of action of the active ingredients of TCM and TCM compounds to improve UC through ferroptosis inhibition, and look forward to the prospect of the application of ferroptosis inhibition by TCM in the treatment of UC.

AIM OF THIS REVIEW

This paper aims to elucidate the mechanism of action of TCM active ingredients and TCM combinations in the treatment of UC by inhibiting ferroptosis. The active ingredients of TCM have the significant advantages of multi-targets and multi-pathways, and ferroptosis is the current research hotspot in the prevention and treatment of UC, so the inhibition of ferroptosis by TCM is a key direction for future research.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The keywords "ferroptosis", "ulcerative colitis" and "TCM" were searched in Pubmed, CNKI, and Wed of Science databases. Papers related to clinical trials and pharmacological research up to August 2023 were screened for inclusion. Combined with the theory of TCM, we systematically summarized the effects of TCM active ingredients and TCM combinations in inhibiting ferroptosis and thus preventing UC.

RESULTS

A large number of studies have shown that TCM active ingredients and TCM combinations inhibit the inflammatory response and oxidative stress in the course of UC mainly by interfering with iron metabolism, correcting lipid metabolism and peroxidative accumulation, and regulating the processes of glutathione (GSH) and glutathione peroxidase 4 (GPX4), to improve colonic mucosal damage and promote the repair of colonic mucosal tissue.

CONCLUSION

Since the study of ferroptosis in UC is still in the exploratory stage, many issues still deserve attention in the future. This paper reviews the mechanism of ferroptosis inhibition by TCM active ingredients and TCM combinations to prevent and treat UC. In the future, we should also further increase the number of clinical experimental studies to explore whether more TCM medicines can play a therapeutic role in UC by inhibiting ferroptosis, and explore more pathways and genes targeting the inhibition of ferroptosis, to seek more TCM therapies for UC. We believe that the use of TCM active ingredients and TCM combinations to regulate ferroptosis is an important direction for future UC prevention and treatment.

Anti-inflammatory and uric acid lowering effects of Euodiae fructus on hyperuricemia and gout mice

The metabolic disease hyperuricemia (HUA) is caused by presence of excessive serum uric acid (UA), which leads to an increased risk of chronic kidney disease and gout. As a widely used traditional Chinese medicine, Euodiae fructus (ER) has strong anti-inflammatory and analgesic effects, however, its therapeutic effects on HUA and gout have not been investigated. To investigate the potential effects and underlying mechanisms, the effect of ER on proinflammatory cytokines and NLRP3 inflammasome activation was studied in mouse bone marrow macrophages. Moreover, a mouse model of HUA and gouty arthritis was established by coadministration of potassium oxonate (PO) and monosodium urate crystals to mice fed a high-fat diet (HFD) for 37 consecutive days. Oral administration of ER aqueous extract was given 1 hour later after the injection of PO for 10 days. Our study showed that ER is a powerful NLRP3 inhibitor in mouse macrophages. Most importantly, ER (0.75 g/kg) treatment substantially decreased the ankle joint thickness ratio, serum UA, creatinine and blood urea nitrogen levels (p < 0.05). Additionally, ER (0.75 g/kg) dramatically reversed the increases in renal urate transporter 1 (URAT1) and glucose transporter 9 (GLUT9) as well as the decreases in organic anion transporter 1 (OAT1) and ATP binding cassette subfamily G member 2 (ABCG2) levels (p < 0.05). Moreover, ER (0.75 g/kg) markedly ameliorated the production of the serum inflammatory cytokines IL-1β and TNF-α (p < 0.01), and improved the activation of NLRP3 inflammasome signaling in the kidneys. Taken together, these data indicate that ER, a powerful and specific NLRP3 inhibitor, has multiple anti-HUA, anti-gout and anti-inflammatory effects. Our investigation is designed to experimentally support the conventional use of ER-containing classical herbal formulas in the treatment of HUA-related disorders and may add a new dimension to the clinical application of ER.

Sishen Pill and its active phytochemicals in treating inflammatory bowel disease and colon cancer: an overview

The incidence of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and the associated risk of colon cancer are increasing globally. Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) treatment has unique advantages. The Sishen Pill, a common Chinese patented drug used to treat abdominal pain and diarrhea, consists mainly of Psoraleae Fructus, Myristicae Semen, Euodiae Fructus, and Schisandra Chinensis. Modern research has confirmed that Sishen Pill and its active secondary metabolites, such as psoralen, myristicin, evodiamine, and schisandrin, can improve intestinal inflammation and exert antitumor pharmacological effects. Common mechanisms in treating IBD and colon cancer mainly include regulating inflammation-related signaling pathways such as nuclear factor-kappa B, mitogen-activated protein kinase, phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase, NOD-like receptor heat protein domain-related protein 3, and wingless-type MMTV integration site family; NF-E2-related factor 2 and hypoxia-inducible factor 1α to inhibit oxidative stress; mitochondrial autophagy and endoplasmic reticulum stress; intestinal immune cell differentiation and function through the Janus kinase/signal transducer and activator of transcription pathway; and improving the gut microbiota and intestinal barrier. Overall, existing evidence suggests the potential of the Sishen pill to improve IBD and suppress inflammation-to-cancer transformation. However, large-scale randomized controlled clinical studies and research on the safety of these clinical applications are urgently required.

Plants with Anti-Ulcer Activity and Mechanism: A Review of Preclinical and Clinical Studies

Ulcer disorders including the oral mucosa, large intestine, and stomach mucosa, cause significant global health burdens. Conventional treatments such as non-steroid anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), proton pump inhibitors (PPIs), histamine H2 receptor antagonists (H2RAs), and cytoprotective agents have drawbacks like mucosal injury, diminish gastric acid secretion, and interact with concurrent medications. Therefore, alternative therapeutic approaches are needed to tackle this health concern. Plants are rich in active metabolites in the bark, roots, leaves, fruits, and seeds, and have been utilized for medicinal purposes since ancient times. The use of herbal therapy is crucial, and regulations are necessary to ensure the quality of products, particularly in randomized studies, to assess their efficacy and safety in treating ulcer disorders. This study aims to explore the anti-ulcer activity of medicinal plants in treating peptic ulcer disease, ulcerative colitis, and aphthous ulcers. Articles were searched in Scopus and PubMed, and filtered for publication from 2013 to 2023, resulting in a total of 460 from Scopus and 239 from PubMed. The articles were further screened by title and abstract and resulted in 55 articles. Natural products, rich in active metabolites, were described to manage ulcer disease by protecting the mucosa, reducing ulcer effects, inhibiting pro-inflammatory factors, and reducing bacterial load, thus improving patients' quality of life. Natural extracts have proven effective in managing other health problems, including ulcers by reducing pain and decreasing lesions. This review provides an overview of preclinical and clinical studies on medicinal plants, focusing on their effectiveness in treating conditions like peptic ulcers, ulcerative colitis, and aphthous ulcers.

Traditional herbs: mechanisms to combat cellular senescence

Cellular senescence plays a very important role in the ageing of organisms and age-related diseases that increase with age, a process that involves physiological, structural, biochemical and molecular changes in cells. In recent years, it has been found that the active ingredients of herbs and their natural products can prevent and control cellular senescence by affecting telomerase activity, oxidative stress response, autophagy, mitochondrial disorders, DNA damage, inflammatory response, metabolism, intestinal flora, and other factors. In this paper, we review the research information on the prevention and control of cellular senescence in Chinese herbal medicine through computer searches of PubMed, Web of Science, Science Direct and CNKI databases.

NLRP3 inhibitors: Unleashing their therapeutic potential against inflammatory diseases

The NOD-like receptor pyrin domain-containing protein 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome has been linked to the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines and is essential for innate defence against infection and danger signals. These secreted cytokines improve the inflammatory response caused by tissue damage and associated inflammation. Consequently, the development of NLRP3 inflammasome inhibitors are viable option for the treatment of diverse inflammatory disorders. The significant anti-inflammatory effects of the NLRP3 inhibitors have severe side effects. Hence, the application of NLRP3 inhibitors against inflammatory disease has not yet been understood and most of the developed inhibitors are unsuccessful in clinical trials. The processes behind the NLRP3 complex, priming, and activation are the main emphasis of this review, which also covers therapeutical inhibitors of the NLRP3 inflammasome and potential therapeutic strategies for directing the NLRP3 inflammasome towards clinical development.

Major Indole Alkaloids in Evodia Rutaecarpa: The Latest Insights and Review of Their Impact on Gastrointestinal Diseases

Evodia rutaecarpa, the near-ripe fruit of Euodia rutaecarpa (Juss.) Benth, Euodia rutaecarpa (Juss.) Benth. var. officinalis (Dode) Huang, or Euodia rutaecarpa (Juss.) Benth. var. bodinieri (Dode) Huang, is a famous herbal medicine with several biological activities and therapeutic values, which has been applied for abdominalgia, abdominal distension, vomiting, and diarrhea as a complementary and alternative therapy in clinic. Indole alkaloids, particularly evodiamine (EVO), rutaecarpine (RUT), and dedhydroevodiamine (DHE), are received rising attention as the major bioactivity compounds in Evodia rutaecarpa. Therefore, this review summarizes the physicochemical properties, pharmacological activities, pharmacokinetics, and therapeutic effects on gastrointestinal diseases of these three indole alkaloids with original literature collected by PubMed, Web of Science Core Collection, and CNKI up to June 2023. Despite sharing the same parent nucleus, EVO, RUT, and DHE have different structural and chemical properties, which result in different advantages of biological effects. In their wide range of pharmacological activities, the anti-migratory activity of RUT is less effective than that of EVO, and the neuroprotection of DHE is significant. Additionally, although DHE has a higher bioavailability, EVO and RUT display better permeabilities within blood-brain barrier. These three indole alkaloids can alleviate gastrointestinal inflammatory in particular, and EVO also has outstanding anti-cancer effect, although clinical trials are still required to further support their therapeutic potential.

NOD-like receptors mediate homeostatic intestinal epithelial barrier function: promising therapeutic targets for inflammatory bowel disease

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is a chronic gastrointestinal inflammatory disease that involves host genetics, the microbiome, and inflammatory responses. The current consensus is that the disruption of the intestinal mucosal barrier is the core pathogenesis of IBD, including intestinal microbial factors, abnormal immune responses, and impaired intestinal mucosal barrier. Cumulative data show that nucleotide-binding and oligomerization domain (NOD)-like receptors (NLRs) are dominant mediators in maintaining the homeostasis of the intestinal mucosal barrier, which play critical roles in sensing the commensal microbiota, maintaining homeostasis, and regulating intestinal inflammation. Blocking NLRs inflammasome activation by botanicals may be a promising way to prevent IBD progression. In this review, we systematically introduce the multiple roles of NLRs in regulating intestinal mucosal barrier homeostasis and focus on summarizing the activities and potential mechanisms of natural products against IBD. Aiming to propose new directions on the pathogenesis and precise treatment of IBD.

Effect and mechanism of total ginsenosides repairing SDS‑induced Drosophila enteritis model based on MAPK pathway

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is a chronic recurrent gastrointestinal disease that seriously endangers human and animal health. Although the etiology of IBD is complex and the pathogenesis is not well understood, studies have found that genetic predisposition, diet and intestinal flora disorders are the main risk factors for IBD. The potential biological mechanism of total ginsenosides (TGGR) in the treatment of IBD remains to be elucidated. Surgery is still the main strategy for the treatment of IBD, due to the relatively high side effects of related drugs and the easy development of drug resistance. The purpose of the present study was to evaluate the efficacy of TGGR and explore the effect of TGGR on the intestinal inflammation induced by sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) in Drosophila and to initially explain the improvement effect and mechanism of TGGR on Drosophila enteritis by analyzing the levels of Drosophila-related proteins. During the experiment, the survival rate, climb index and abdominal characteristics of the Drosophila was recorded. Intestinal samples of Drosophila were collected for analysis of intestinal melanoma. The oxidative stress related indexes of catalase, superoxide dismutase and malondialdehyde were determined by spectrophotometry. Western blotting detected the expression of signal pathway-related factors. The effects of TGGR on growth indices, tissue indices, biochemical indices, signal pathway transduction and related mechanisms of SDS-induced Drosophila enteritis model were studied. The results showed that TGGR could repair SDS-induced enteritis of Drosophila through MAPK signaling pathway, improve survival rate and climbing ability and repair intestinal damage and oxidative stress damage. The results suggested that TGGR has potential application value in the treatment of IBD and its mechanism is related to the downregulation of phosphorylated (p)-JNK/p-ERK levels, which provides a basis for drug research in the treatment of IBD.

Future Modulation of Gut Microbiota: From Eubiotics to FMT, Engineered Bacteria, and Phage Therapy

The human gut is inhabited by a multitude of bacteria, yeasts, and viruses. A dynamic balance among these microorganisms is associated with the well-being of the human being, and a large body of evidence supports a role of dysbiosis in the pathogenesis of several diseases. Given the importance of the gut microbiota in the preservation of human health, probiotics, prebiotics, synbiotics, and postbiotics have been classically used as strategies to modulate the gut microbiota and achieve beneficial effects for the host. Nonetheless, several molecules not typically included in these categories have demonstrated a role in restoring the equilibrium among the components of the gut microbiota. Among these, rifaximin, as well as other antimicrobial drugs, such as triclosan, or natural compounds (including evodiamine and polyphenols) have common pleiotropic characteristics. On one hand, they suppress the growth of dangerous bacteria while promoting beneficial bacteria in the gut microbiota. On the other hand, they contribute to the regulation of the immune response in the case of dysbiosis by directly influencing the immune system and epithelial cells or by inducing the gut bacteria to produce immune-modulatory compounds, such as short-chain fatty acids. Fecal microbiota transplantation (FMT) has also been investigated as a procedure to restore the equilibrium of the gut microbiota and has shown benefits in many diseases, including inflammatory bowel disease, chronic liver disorders, and extraintestinal autoimmune conditions. One of the most significant limits of the current techniques used to modulate the gut microbiota is the lack of tools that can precisely modulate specific members of complex microbial communities. Novel approaches, including the use of engineered probiotic bacteria or bacteriophage-based therapy, have recently appeared as promising strategies to provide targeted and tailored therapeutic modulation of the gut microbiota, but their role in clinical practice has yet to be clarified. The aim of this review is to discuss the most recently introduced innovations in the field of therapeutic microbiome modulation.

Progress on Regulation of NLRP3 Inflammasome by Chinese Medicine in Treatment of Ulcerative Colitis

Ulcerative colitis (UC) is a chronic, non-specific intestinal disease that not only affects the quality of life of patients and their families but also increases the risk of colorectal cancer. The nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain-like receptor family pyrin domain-containing protein 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome is an important component of inflammatory response system, and its activation induces an inflammatory cascade response that is involved in the development and progression of UC by releasing inflammatory cytokines, damaging intestinal epithelial cells, and disrupting the intestinal mucosal barrier. Chinese medicine (CM) plays a vital role in the prevention and treatment of UC and is able to regulate NLRP3 inflammasome. Many experimental studies on the regulation of NLRP3 inflammasome mediated by CM have been carried out, demonstrating that CM formulae with main effects of clearing heat, detoxifying toxicity, drying dampness, and activating blood circulation. Flavonoids and phenylpropanoids can effectively regulate NLRP3 inflammasome. Other active components of CM can interfere with the process of NLRP3 inflammasome assembly and activation, leading to a reduction in inflammation and UC symptoms. However, the reports are relatively scattered and lack systematic reviews. This paper reviews the latest findings regarding the NLRP3 inflammasome activation-related pathways associated with UC and the potential of CM in treating UC through modulation of NLRP3 inflammasome. The purpose of this review is to explore the possible pathological mechanisms of UC and suggest new directions for development of therapeutic tools.

Intestinal Escherichia coli and related dysfunction as potential targets of Traditional Chinese Medicine for respiratory infectious diseases

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) has saved countless lives and maintained human health over its long history, especially in respiratory infectious diseases. The relationship between the intestinal flora and the respiratory system has been a popular research topic in recent years. According to the theory of the "gut-lung axis" in modern medicine and the idea that "the lung stands in an interior-exterior relationship with the large intestine" in TCM, gut microbiota dysbiosis is a contributing factor to respiratory infectious diseases, and there is potential means for manipulation of the gut microbiota in the treatment of lung diseases. Emerging studies have indicated intestinal Escherichia coli (E. coli) overgrowth in multiple respiratory infectious diseases, which could exacerbate respiratory infectious diseases by disrupting immune homeostasis, the gut barrier and metabolic balance. TCM is an effective microecological regulator, that can regulate the intestinal flora including E. coli, and restore the balance of the immune system, gut barrier, and metabolism.

AIM OF THE REVIEW

This review discusses the changes and effects of intestinal E. coli in respiratory infection, as well as the role of TCM in the intestinal flora, E. coli and related immunity, the gut barrier and the metabolism, thereby suggesting the possibility of TCM therapy regulating intestinal E. coli and related immunity, the gut barrier and the metabolism to alleviate respiratory infectious diseases. We aimed to make a modest contribution to the research and development of new therapies for intestinal flora in respiratory infectious diseases and the full utilization of TCM resources. Relevant information about the therapeutic potential of TCM to regulate intestinal E. coli against diseases was collected from PubMed, China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI), and so on. The Plants of the World Online (https://wcsp.science.kew.org) and the Plant List (www.theplantlist.org) databases were used to provide the scientific names and species of plants.

RESULTS

Intestinal E. coli is a very important bacterium in respiratory infectious diseases that affects the respiratory system through immunity, the gut barrier and the metabolism. Many TCMs can inhibit the abundance of E. coli and regulate related immunity, the gut barrier and the metabolism to promote lung health.

CONCLUSION

TCM targeting intestinal E. coli and related immune, gut barrier, and metabolic dysfunction could be a potential therapy to promote the treatment and prognosis of respiratory infectious diseases.

Traditional Chinese medicine Euodiae Fructus: botany, traditional use, phytochemistry, pharmacology, toxicity and quality control

Euodiae Fructus, referred to as "Wuzhuyu" in Chinese, has been used as local and traditional herbal medicines in many regions, especially in China, Japan and Korea, for the treatment of gastrointestinal disorders, headache, emesis, aphtha, dermatophytosis, dysentery, etc. Substantial investigations into their chemical and pharmacological properties have been performed. Recently, interest in this plant has been focused on the different structural types of alkaloids like evodiamine, rutaecarpine, dehydroevodiamine and 1-methyl-2-undecyl-4(1H)-quinolone, which exhibit a wide range of pharmacological activities in preclinical models, such as anticancer, antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, anti-cardiovascular disease, etc. This review summarizes the up-to-date and comprehensive information concerning the botany, traditional uses, phytochemistry, pharmacology of Euodiae Fructus together with the toxicology and quality control, and discusses the possible direction and scope for future research on this plant.

Therapeutic interventions target the NLRP3 inflammasome in ulcerative colitis: Comprehensive study

One of the significant health issues in the world is the prevalence of ulcerative colitis (UC). UC is a chronic disorder that mainly affects the colon, beginning with the rectum, and can progress from asymptomatic mild inflammation to extensive inflammation of the entire colon. Understanding the underlying molecular mechanisms of UC pathogenesis emphasizes the need for innovative therapeutic approaches based on identifying molecular targets. Interestingly, in response to cellular injury, the NLR family pyrin domain containing 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome is a crucial part of the inflammation and immunological reaction by promoting caspase-1 activation and the release of interleukin-1β. This review discusses the mechanisms of NLRP3 inflammasome activation by various signals and its regulation and impact on UC.

Tea (Camellia sinensis) ameliorates DSS-induced colitis and liver injury by inhibiting TLR4/NF-κB/NLRP3 inflammasome in mice

The gut-liver axis is a bidirectional relationship between the gut with its microbiota and the hepatic. Ulcerative colitis (UC) disrupts the intestinal barrier and influx of intestinal microorganisms and their products into the liver, which trigger liver injury. Tea consumption is associated with a low incidence of UC in Asian countries. In this study, we revealed the mechanisms of six types of tea water extracts (TWEs) obtained from the leaves of Camellia sinensis on the dextran sodium sulfate (DSS)-induced colitis and liver injury in mice. The TWEs significantly restored mucin production and increased the expression levels of tight junction (TJ) proteins such as zonula occludens-1 (ZO-1), occluding, and claudin-1. In addition, TWEs also reduced the levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines in the colon and liver tissue by inactivating the NF-κB/NLRP3. Moreover, TEWs treatment promoted the integrity of the intestinal barrier to reduce serum lipopolysaccharide (LPS) levels, thereby reducing liver injury caused by intestinal microbial translocation and LPS induction. Analysis of 16 S rRNA microbial sequencing revealed that tea water extracts (TWEs) restored the DSS-induced gut dysbiosis. Interestingly, our results showed that the degree of fermentation of tea leaves was negatively associated with the alleviation of DSS-induced colitis effects, and there was also an overall negative trend with colitis-induced liver injury, except for black tea. Taken together, tea consumption mitigated DSS-induced colitis and liver injury in mice via inhibiting the TLR4/NF-κB/NLRP3 inflammasome pathway.

Phytochemicals and Regulation of NF-kB in Inflammatory Bowel Diseases: An Overview of In Vitro and In Vivo Effects

Inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD) are chronic relapsing idiopathic inflammatory conditions affecting the gastrointestinal tract. They are mainly represented by two forms, ulcerative colitis (UC) and Crohn's disease (CD). IBD can be associated with the activation of nuclear factors, such as nuclear factor-kB (NF-kB), leading to increased transcription of pro-inflammatory mediators that result in diarrhea, abdominal pain, bleeding, and many extra-intestinal manifestations. Phytochemicals can interfere with many inflammation targets, including NF-kB pathways. Thus, this review aimed to investigate the effects of different phytochemicals in the NF-kB pathways in vitro and in vivo models of IBD. Fifty-six phytochemicals were included in this study, such as curcumin, resveratrol, kaempferol, sesamol, pinocembrin, astragalin, oxyberberine, berberine hydrochloride, botulin, taxifolin, naringin, thymol, isobavachalcone, lancemaside A, aesculin, tetrandrine, Ginsenoside Rk3, mangiferin, diosgenin, theanine, tryptanthrin, lycopene, gyngerol, alantolactone, mangostin, ophiopogonin D, fisetin, sinomenine, piperine, oxymatrine, euphol, artesunate, galangin, and nobiletin. The main observed effects related to NF-kB pathways were reductions in tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-6, interferon-gamma (IFN-γ), and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), and augmented occludin, claudin-1, zonula occludens-1, and IL-10 expression levels. Moreover, phytochemicals can improve weight loss, stool consistency, and rectal bleeding in IBD. Therefore, phytochemicals can constitute a powerful treatment option for IBD in humans.

Chromatographic and mass spectrometric technologies for chemical analysis of Euodiae fructus: A review

INTRODUCTION

Euodiae fructus, also known as Evodiae fructus, is a popular Chinese herbal medicine derived from the dried, nearly ripe fruits of Tetradium ruticarpum (A. Juss.) T. G. Hartley. The main bioactive constituents of Euodiae fructus are alkaloids, limonoids, flavonoids, and anthraquinones. The contents of these compounds vary greatly between different plant species, geographic locations, and harvest times, which thus affect the therapeutic effects.

OBJECTIVES

We aimed to summarize the chromatographic and mass spectrometric technologies applied for chemical analysis and quality evaluation of Euodiae fructus. Moreover, we aimed to emphasize the diverse soft ionization techniques and mass analyzers of LC-MS methods for assessment of Euodiae fructus.

METHODOLOGY

A literature study was carried out by retrieving articles published between January 1988 and December 2021 from well-known databases, including PubMed, ASC, Elsevier, ScienceDirect, J·STAGE, Thieme, Taylor & Francis, Springer Link, Wiley Online Library, and CNKI. The chemical analysis methods were described in several categories in accordance with the used analytical techniques, including thin-layer chromatography (TLC), high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), high-performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS), gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), capillary electrophoresis (CE), and counter-current chromatography (CCC).

RESULTS

This review systematically summarizes the achievements in chemical analysis and quality evaluation of Euodiae fructus published in over three decades, covering the various chromatographic and mass spectrometric technologies applied for identification and quantification of phytochemical constituents.

CONCLUSION

The summary serves as an important basis for future phytochemical research and implementation of quality control methods in order to ensure the efficacy and safety of Euodiae fructus.

Sishen Wan Treats Ulcerative Colitis in Rats by Regulating Gut Microbiota and Restoring the Treg/Th17 Balance

Objective

This study was aimed to explore the mechanism of Sishen Wan (SSW) in treating ulcerative colitis (UC) in a rat model of spleen-kidney yang deficiency pattern by regulating gut microbiota and the content of butyric acid in short-chain fatty acid (SCFAs) and restoring regulatory T (Treg)/T helper type 17 (Th17) balance from the perspective of the correlation between gut microbiota and immune function.

Methods

The UC rat model of spleen-kidney yang deficiency pattern was established by the method of combining disease and syndrome (intragastric administration of senna leaf, subcutaneous injection of hydrocortisone, and enema with 2,4-dinitrobenzenesulfonic acid (DNBS)/ethanol solution). After successful modeling, rats were randomly divided into six groups: the blank group, model group, low-, middle-, and high-dose Sishen Wan groups, and mesalazine group. Samples were taken after continuous administration for 3 weeks. The general conditions and body weight of the rats were observed and recorded, and the disease activity index (DAI) score was calculated. Colonic mucosal injury was observed, and a colonic mucosal damage index (CMDI) score was calculated. Histopathological changes in colon tissues were determined by hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) staining, and the histopathological score (HS) was calculated. The serum levels of transforming growth factor-β1 (TGF-β1), interleukin (IL)-6, IL-10, and IL-17 were determined by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) assays. The expression of TGF-β1, signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3), and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ (PPARγ) was determined by Western blot analysis. The proportion of Th17 and Treg cells in colon tissue was determined by flow cytometry. The relative abundance of gut microbiota was determined by 16S rDNA sequencing, and the concentration of butyric acid of SCFAs was determined by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS).

Results

Administration of SSW significantly improved the pathological changes of colon tissue in UC rats and could attenuate the DAI and CMDI scores, and the HS. SSW significantly decreased the serum levels of IL-6 and IL-17 and increased the serum levels of TGF-β1 and IL-10. In addition, SSW increased the expression of TGF-β1 and PPARγ and decreased the expression of STAT3 in colon tissue in a dose-dependent manner. Furthermore, SSW significantly decreased the proportion of Th17 cells and increased the proportion of Treg cells in colon tissue. Additionally, SSW altered the gut microbiota, including an increase in the relative abundance of Firmicutes and a decrease in Bacteroidota at the phylum level and an increase in the relative abundance of Lactobacillus at the genus level. Moreover, SSW significantly increased the concentration of butyric acid.

Conclusions

Combined, these data suggested that SSW increased the relative abundance of firmicutes and the level of butyric acid and restored the balance of Treg/Th17 immune axis and gut homeostasis, thus delaying the progress of UC.

NLRP3 inflammasome in digestive diseases: From mechanism to therapy

Digestive system diseases remain a formidable challenge to human health. NOD-like receptor family pyrin domain containing 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome is the most characteristic multimeric protein complex and is involved in a wide range of digestive diseases as intracellular innate immune sensors. It has emerged as a research hotspot in recent years. In this context, we provide a comprehensive review of NLRP3 inflammasome priming and activation in the pathogenesis of digestive diseases, including clinical and preclinical studies. Moreover, the scientific evidence of small-molecule chemical drugs, biologics, and phytochemicals, which acts on different steps of the NLRP3 inflammasome, is reviewed. Above all, deep interrogation of the NLRP3 inflammasome is a better insight of the pathomechanism of digestive diseases. We believe that the NLRP3 inflammasome will hold promise as a novel valuable target and research direction for treating digestive disorders.

Inflammasome-targeting natural compounds in inflammatory bowel disease: Mechanisms and therapeutic potential

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), mainly including Crohn’s disease and ulcerative colitis, seriously affects human health and causes substantial social and economic burden. The pathogenesis of IBD is still not fully elucidated, whereas recent studies have demonstrated that its development is associated with the dysfunction of intestinal immune system. Accumulating evidence have proven that inflammasomes such as NLRP3 and NLRP6 play a prominent role in the pathogenesis of IBD. Thus, regulating the activation of inflammasomes have been considered to be a promising strategy in IBD treatment. A number of recent studies have provided evidence that blocking inflammasome related cytokine IL-1β can benefit a group of IBD patients with overactivation of NLRP3 inflammasome. However, therapies for targeting inflammasomes with high efficacy and safety are rare. Traditional medical practice provides numerous medical compounds that may have a role in treatment of various human diseases including IBD. Recent studies demonstrated that numerous medicinal herb derived compounds can efficiently prevent colon inflammation in animal models by targeting inflammasomes. Herein, we summarize the main findings of these studies focusing on the effects of traditional medicine derived compounds on colitis treatment and the underlying mechanisms in regulating the inflammasomes. On this basis, we provide a perspective for future studies regarding strategies to improve the efficacy, specificity and safety of available herbal compounds, and to discover new compounds using the emerging new technologies, which will improve our understanding about the roles and mechanisms of herbal compounds in the regulation of inflammasomes and treatment of IBD.

Kui Jie Tong Ameliorates Ulcerative Colitis by Regulating Gut Microbiota and NLRP3/Caspase-1 Classical Pyroptosis Signaling Pathway

Ulcerative colitis (UC) is one of the most refractory digestive diseases in the world. Kui jie tong (KJT) is an effective traditional Chinese medicine used clinically to treat UC. This study observed the regulatory effects of KJT on NIMA-related kinase 7- (NEK7-) activated nod-like receptor protein-3 (NLRP3)/caspase-1 classical pyroptosis pathway and intestinal flora in UC model rats. KJT components were analyzed using an ultraperformance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometer (UPLC-MS/MS). A UC Sprague Dawley (SD) rat model was established using sodium dextran sulfate (DSS). Rats were randomly divided into four groups: control group (CG), UC model group (UG), KJT group (KG), and sulfasalazine (SASP) group (SG). After seven days of intervention, each group's body weight, disease activity index (DAI) scores, and colon length were recorded. Intestinal mucosal injury to each group was observed using hematoxylin-eosin staining. Additionally, we investigated the expression levels of NEK7, NLRP3, ASC, caspase-1, and GSDMD in intestinal mucosa, as well as serum interleukin- (IL-) 1β, IL-18, and IL-33 proinflammatory factors. Intestinal microflora was analyzed using 16s rRNA sequencing. KJT controlled weight loss; decreased DAI scores; restored colon length; improved pathological injury in the colon; inhibited NEK7, NLRP3, ASC, caspase-1, cleaved-caspase-1, GSDMD, and GSDMD-N expression; and decreased IL-1β, IL-18, and IL-33 contents in UG rats' serum and colon tissue (P <0.001 or P <0.05). KJT also increased Ruminococcaceae, unclassified_f_Ruminococcaceae, and unclassified_g_Ruminococcus_1 levels and decreased Erysipelotrichia, Erysipelotrichales, Erysipelotrichaceae, Turicibacter, and uncultured_bacterium_g_Turicibacter levels. KJT alleviated UC immune-inflammatory responses to NLRP3/caspase-1 by inhibiting the NEK-7-activated classic pyroptosis pathway and improving intestinal microflora.

8-Oxypalmatine, a novel oxidative metabolite of palmatine, exhibits superior anti-colitis effect via regulating Nrf2 and NLRP3 inflammasome

Palmatine (PAL) is an isoquinoline alkaloid derived from Fibraureae caulis Pierre that has been used to relieve inflammatory diseases like ulcerative colitis (UC). The metabolites of PAL were believed to contribute significantly to its outstanding biological activities. 8-Oxypalmatine (OPAL), a liver-mediated oxidative metabolite of PAL, has been firstly identified in the present work. We aimed to comparatively investigate the potential effect and mechanism of OPAL and PAL on dextran sodium sulfate (DSS)-induced colitis in Balb/c mice. Results indicated that OPAL and PAL effectively mitigated clinical manifestations, DAI scores and pathological damage compared with the model group. Moreover, treatment with OPAL and PAL effectively mitigated oxidative stress markers and inflammatory mediators in colon. Additionally, OPAL and PAL significantly activated the Nrf2 pathway, while substantially suppressed the activation of NLRP3 inflammasome. Furthermore, OPAL showed superior anti-colitis effect to PAL, which was similar to the positive drug mesalazine with much smaller dosage. These findings suggested that OPAL exerted appreciable protective effect on DSS-induced colitis, at least in part, via activating Nrf2 pathway and inhibiting NLRP3 inflammasome. OPAL might have the potential to be further developed into a promising candidate for the treatment of UC.

Discovery of evodiamine derivatives as potential lead antifungal agents for the treatment of superficial fungal infections

Mycosis, especially superficial fungal infections (SFIs), has been a serious threat to humans in recent years. Evodiamine (EVO), as an effective component of the Traditional Chinese Medicine Evodia rutaecarpa, has good antibacterial effects and low toxicity. In order to find out the potential therapeutic agents against SFIs, a series of EVO derivatives were synthesized and systematic evaluations of antifungal activity were carried out. Among them, compound A7 exhibited great antifungal activity with the values of MIC₁₀₀ were 38, 38 and 2 μg/mL, respectively, against T. rubrum, T. mentagrophytes and C. albicans, and even stronger than that of ketoconazole (KCZ) with the values of MIC₁₀₀ were 106, 106 and 3 μg/mL, respectively. Further antifungal evaluations in vitro verified that compound A7 indeed had favorable antifungal activity. Moreover, compound A7 could exert excellent antifungal effect on T. rubrum-infected guinea pigs, suggesting that A7 was an attractive molecule and could be a potential lead compound for the development of anti-fungal agents, and providing a great promising therapeutic strategy for fungal disease.

The Protective Effect of Evodiamine in Osteoarthritis: An In Vitro and In Vivo Study in Mice Model

Osteoarthritis (OA) is a chronic disease with high economic burden characterized by cartilage degradation and joint inflammation. Evodiamine (EV), which can be extracted from Evodia rutaecarpa (Rutaceae), is a traditional Chinese medicine to treat inflammation, cardiovascular disorders, infection, and obesity. Studies have shown that EV can suppress the activation of immune cells and restrain the secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines. However, it is still not well known about its role in the treatment of OA. In this study, we utilized interleukin-1β (IL-1β)–stimulated mouse chondrocytes in vitro and the destabilization of the medial meniscus (DMM) model in vivo to demonstrate the anti-inflammatory properties of EV in OA. The results suggested that EV decreased the generation of NO, IL-6, TNF-α, and PGE2. Meanwhile, the increased expression of iNOS, COX-2, and MMP-13 and the degradation of aggrecan and Col-II were significantly alleviated by EV in IL-1β–activated mouse chondrocytes. Moreover, EV can inhibit the considerable IL-1β–stimulated phosphorylation of the NF-κB signaling pathway and nuclear translocation of p65, compared with the control group. Furthermore, EV alleviated cartilage degeneration and reversed the increased Osteoarthritis Research Society International (OARSI) scores in the OA model in vivo. Our study demonstrates that EV can suppress inflammation in vitro and cartilage degeneration in vivo in OA, which implies that EV may be a potential candidate for the treatment of OA.

Protection against ulcerative colitis and colorectal cancer by evodiamine via anti‑inflammatory effects

Evodiamine (Evo) is an alkaloid that can be extracted from the berry fruit Evodia rutaecarpa and has been reported to exert various pharmacological effects, such as antidiarrheal, antiemetic and antiulcer effects. In vivo, the potential effects of Evo were investigated in a mouse model of dextran sodium sulfate (DSS)‑induced ulcerative colitis (UC) and in adenomatous polyposis coli (Apc)MinC/Gpt C57BL/6 mice with colorectal cancer (CRC), where the latter harbours a point‑mutation in the Apc gene. Evo suppressed the degree of weight loss and colon shortening induced by DSS, decreased the disease activity index value and ameliorated the pathological alterations in the colon of mice with UC as examined via H&E staining of colon tissues. In addition, Evo decreased the number and size of colonic tumors in ApcMinC/Gpt mice. Proteomics (colon tissues), ELISA (colon tissues and serum) and western blotting (colon tissues) results revealed that Evo inhibited NF‑κB to mediate the levels of various cytokines, including, in the DSS‑induced UC model, IL‑1β, IL‑2, IL‑6, IL‑8, TNF‑α, IFN‑γ (ELISA of colon tissues and serum), NF‑κB, IKKα+β, IκBα, S100a9, TLR4 and MyD88 (western blotting of colon tissues), and, in the colorectal cancer model, IL‑1β, IL‑2, IL‑6, IL‑15, IL‑17, IL‑22, TNF‑α (ELISA of colon tissues and serum), NF‑κB, IKKα+β, IκBα and S100a9 (western blotting of colon tissues), to achieve its anti‑inflammatory and antitumor effects. In vitro, Evo also reduced the viability of the colon cancer cell line SW480, inhibited mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP detection), caused G2/M‑phase arrest (cell cycle detection) and suppressed the translocation of phosphorylated‑NF‑κB from the cytoplasm into the nucleus (immunofluorescence of p‑NF‑κB). Theoretical evidence (MD simulations) suggest that Evo may bind to the ordered domain (α‑helix) of NF‑κB to influence this protein. The protein secondary structure changes were analyzed by the cpptraj module in Amber. In addition, these data provide experimental evidence that Evo may be an effective agent for treating UC and CRC.

Polyphenol Rich Forsythia suspensa Extract Alleviates DSS-Induced Ulcerative Colitis in Mice through the Nrf2-NLRP3 Pathway

This study systematically evaluated the effect of Forsythia suspensa extract on dextran sodium sulfate (DSS)-induced ulcerative colitis (UC) and determined its mechanism of action. The results showed that Forsythia suspensa extract significantly inhibited DSS-induced UC in mice. In vivo mechanistic studies revealed that Forsythia suspensa extract relieved the symptoms of colitis by enhancing antioxidant activity and inhibiting pyroptosis. Further in vitro experiments on the mechanism of Forsythia suspensa showed that it reduced the level of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in J774A.1 cells. We found that Forsythia suspensa extract enhanced cellular antioxidation activity and inhibited pyroptosis. After silencing NLRP3, it was found to play an important role in pyroptosis. In addition, after Nrf2 was silenced, the inhibitory effect of Forsythia suspensa extract on cell pyroptosis was eliminated, indicating an interaction between Nrf2 and NLRP3. Metabonomics revealed that Forsythia suspensa extract significantly improved metabolic function in colitis mice by reversing the abnormal changes in the levels of 9 metabolites. The main metabolic pathways involved were glutathione metabolism, aminoacyl-tRNA biosynthesis and linoleic acid metabolism. In conclusion, we found that Forsythia suspensa extract significantly alleviated DSS-induced UC injury through the Nrf2-NLRP3 pathway and relieved metabolic dysfunction.

Design, synthesis and biological evaluation of novel evodiamine and rutaecarpine derivatives against phytopathogenic fungi

Evodiamine and rutaecarpine are two alkaloids isolated from traditional Chinese herbal medicine Evodia rutaecarpa, which have been reported to have various biological activities in past decades. To explore the potential applications for evodiamine and rutaecarpine alkaloids and their derivatives, various kinds of evodiamine and rutaecarpine derivatives were designed and synthesized. Their antifungal profile against six phytopathogenic fungi Rhizoctonia solani, Botrytis cinerea, Fusarium graminearum, Fusarium oxysporum, Sclerotinia sclerotiorum, and Magnaporthe oryzae were evaluated for the first time. Furthermore, a series of modified imidazole derivatives of rutaecarpine were synthesized to investigate the structure-activity relationship. The results of antifungal activities in vitro showed that imidazole derivative of rutaecarpine A1 exhibited broad-spectrum inhibitory activities against R. solani, B. cinerea, F. oxysporum, S. sclerotiorum, M. oryzae and F. graminearum with EC₅₀ values of 1.97, 5.97, 12.72, 2.87 and 16.58 μg/mL, respectively. Preliminary mechanistic studies showed that compound A1 might cause mycelial abnormalities of S. sclerotiorum, mitochondrial distortion and swelling, and inhibition of sclerotia formation and germination. Moreover, the curative effects of compound A1 were 94.7%, 81.5%, 80.8%, 65.0% at 400, 200, 100, 50 μg/mL in vivo experiments, which was far more effective than the positive control azoxystrobin. Significantly, no phytotoxicity of compound A1 on oilseed rape leaves was observed obviously even at a high concentration of 400 μg/mL. Therefore, compound A1 is expected to be a novel leading structure for the development of new antifungal agents.

Sishen Pill Maintained Colonic Mucosal Barrier Integrity to Treat Ulcerative Colitis via Rho/ROCK Signaling Pathway

Sishen Pill (SSP) is a classical prescription of traditional Chinese medicine and often used to treat gastrointestinal diseases, including ulcerative colitis (UC). However, its mechanism is still unclear. We aimed to determine the mechanism of SSP in the treatment of UC by investigating if it maintains the integrity of the intestinal mucosal barrier via the Rho A/Rho kinase (ROCK) signaling pathway. Administration of 2,4,6-trinitrobenzene sulfonic acid (TNBS) successfully induced chronic UC in rats, while the treatment effect of SSP was evaluated by body weight change, colonic length, colonic weight, colonic weight index, histological injury score, and pathological injury score after colitis rats were treated for 7 days. TNF-α and IL-1β levels were analyzed by ELISA, and the proteins of PI3K/Akt and RhoA/ROCK signaling pathway and junction proteins expression were measured by western blotting assay, and the distribution of Claudin 5 was shown by immunofluorescence. SSP significantly improved the clinical symptoms of colitis in rats and reduced the expression of p-RhoA, ROCK1, PI3K, and Akt in the colon mucosa, while it increased the expression of p-Rac and related proteins (Claudin-5, JAM1, VE-cadherin, and Connexin 43). In addition, SSP increased p-AMPKα and PTEN proteins expression, decreased Notch1 level, and hinted that activation of the PI3K/Akt signaling pathway was inhibited. In conclusion, SSP effectively treated chronic colitis induced by TNBS, which may have been achieved by inhibiting PI3K/Akt signal to suppress activation of the Rho/ROCK signaling pathway to finally maintain the integrity of the intestinal mucosal barrier.

Evodiamine protects against airway remodelling and inflammation in asthmatic rats by modulating the HMGB1/NF-κB/TLR-4 signalling pathway

CONTEXT

Evodiamine, which is isolated from Evodia rutaecarpa (Rutaceae), possess strong anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory, and antibacterial properties.

OBJECTIVE

The protective effects of evodiamine in asthma were evaluated.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Thirty-two Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats were used, asthma was induced by injecting intraperitoneally with a mixture of Al(OH)₃ (100 mg) and ovalbumin (OA; 1 mg/kg), further exposing them to a 2% OA aerosol for 1 week. All animals were divided into four groups: control, asthma, and evodiamine 40 and 80 mg/kg p.o. treated group. Serum levels of inflammatory cytokines, interferon gamma (IFN-γ), and immunoglobulin E (IgE) and infiltrations of inflammatory cells in the bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) of the animals were determined. The thickness of the smooth muscle layer and airway wall in the intact small bronchioles of asthmatic rats was examined as well.

RESULTS

Cytokine levels in the serum and BALF were lower in the evodiamine-treated group than in the asthma group. Evodiamine treatment reduced IgE and IFN-γ levels as well as the inflammatory cell infiltrate in the lung tissue of asthmatic rats. The thickness of the smooth muscle layer and airway wall of intact small bronchioles was less in the evodiamine-treated group than in the asthma group. Lower levels of TLR-4, MyD88, NF-κB, and HMGB1 mRNA in lung tissue were measured in the evodiamine-treated group than in the asthma group.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

The effect of evodiamine treatment protects the asthma, as evodiamine reduces airway inflammation and remodelling in the lung tissue by downregulating the HMGB1/NF-κB/TLR-4 pathway in asthma.

Natural-derived alkaloids exhibit great potential in the treatment of ulcerative colitis

Ulcerative colitis (UC) is a chronic nonspecific inflammatory disease of colon and rectum with unknown etiology, and the lesions are mainly confined to the mucosa and submucosa of large intestine. The main clinical features of UC include diarrhea, abdominal pain, bloody purulent stool and tenesmus, which seriously affect patients' quality of life. Most of UC patients would receive drug therapy with the exception of surgery for some severe cases. However, current drugs for the treatment of UC have certain limitations including difficulty of radical treatment, adverse reactions and drug resistance after long-term use and exorbitant price of some drugs. The research and development of new drugs for the treatment of UC is urgent, and natural alkaloids are an important source. This research paid close attention to the progress of natural alkaloids from diverse medicinal plants for treating UC in the last twenty years. The potential mechanisms for the natural alkaloids in the treatment of UC was closely related to its modulation of oxidative stress, immune response, intestinal flora and improvement of the gut barrier function. Remarkable effectiveness and safety of natural-derived alkaloids make them potential candidates of UC therapy.

miR-142-5p regulates lipopolysaccharide-induced bovine epithelial cell proliferation and apoptosis via targeting BAG5

Bovine mastitis is a threat to the health of the dairy cow. MicroRNAs (miRs) serve an important role in the progression of bovine mastitis, regulating immune and defense responses. The present study aimed to investigate the possible effects and mechanisms of bovine mastitis underlying miR-142-5p and Bcl-2 associated athanogene 5 (BAG5) in in vitro lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced models. Reverse transcription-quantitative PCR and western blotting were performed to determine mRNA and protein expression levels, respectively. ELISAs were conducted to assess the levels of cytokines and an immunofluorescence assay was performed to determine the expression of BAG5. Cell Counting Kit-8, clone formation and 5-ethynyl-2'-deoxyuridine assays were conducted to determine cell viability and proliferation of bovine mammary epithelial MAC-T cells, respectively. Flow cytometry was performed to measure MAC-T cell cycle distribution and apoptosis, and a luciferase assay was conducted to verify whether BAG5 was a target of miR-142-5p. The results indicated that miR-142-5p was upregulated in MAC-T cells treated with LPS compared with the control group. miR-142-5p mimics transfection significantly activated the cytokines TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6 and IL-8, and significantly increased the expression levels of NF-κB signaling pathway-related proteins in LPS-treated cells. The luciferase activity of MAC-T cells treated with miR-142-5p mimics and BAG5 3'untranslated region wild type decreased, compared with mutant type. By contrast, BAG5 overexpression significantly downregulated the levels of cytokines, including TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6 and IL-8, in LPS-treated cells. BAG5 overexpression significantly promoted cell proliferation and viability, decreased apoptosis, and regulated Caspase-3, Caspase-9, Bcl-2 and Bax expression in LPS-treated MAC-T cells, which was significantly reversed by transfection with miR-142-5p mimics. In conclusion, the results of the present study suggested that miR-142-5p may promote the progression of bovine mastitis via targeting BAG5. Therefore, the present study provided the foundations for future investigations.

Identification of evodiamine and rutecarpine as novel TMEM16A inhibitors and their inhibitory effects on peristalsis in isolated Guinea-pig ileum

The transmembrane member 16A (TMEM16A)-encoded Ca2+-activated Cl- channel (CaCC) is expressed in interstitial cells of Cajal (ICCs) and involved in the generation of the slow-wave currents of gastrointestinal (GI) smooth muscles. TMEM16A modulators have been shown to positively or negatively regulate the contraction of gastrointestinal smooth muscle. Therefore, targeting the pharmacological modulation of TMEM16A may represent a novel treatment approach for gastrointestinal dysfunctions such as constipation and diarrhoea. In this study, evodiamine and rutecarpine were extracted from the traditional Chinese medicine Evodia rutaecarpa and identified as novel TMEM16A inhibitors with comparable inhibitory effects. Their effects on intestinal peristalsis were examined. Whole-cell patch clamp results show that evodiamine and rutecarpine inhibited TMEM16A Cl- currents in CHO cells. The half-maximal inhibition values (IC50) of evodiamine and rutecarpine on TMEM16A Cl- currents were 11.8 ± 1.3 μΜ and 9.2 ± 0.4 μM, and the maximal effect values (Emax) were 95.8 ± 5.1% and 99.1 ± 1.6%, respectively. The Lys384, Thr385, and Met524 in TMEM16A are critical for evodiamine and rutecarpine's inhibitory effects. Further functional studies show that both evodiamine and rutecarpine can significantly suppress the peristalsis in isolated guinea-pig ileum. These findings demonstrate that evodiamine and rutecarpine are new TMEM16A inhibitors and support the regulation effect of TMEM16A modulators on gastrointestinal motility.

Evodiamine Relieve LPS-Induced Mastitis by Inhibiting AKT/NF-κB p65 and MAPK Signaling Pathways

Evodiamine, an alkaloid component in the fruit of Evodia, has been shown to have biological functions such as antioxidant and anti-inflammatory. But whether evodiamine plays an improvement role on mastitis has not been studied. To investigate the effect and mechanism of evodiamine on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced mastitis was the purpose of this study. In animal experiments, the mouse mastitis model was established by injecting LPS into the canals of the mammary gland. The results showed that evodiamine could significantly relieve the pathological injury of breast tissue and the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines and inhibit the activation of inflammation-related pathways such as AKT, NF-κB p65, ERK1/2, p38, and JNK. In cell experiments, the mouse mammary epithelial cells (mMECs) were incubated with evodiamine for 1 h and then stimulated with LPS. Next, pro-inflammatory mediators and inflammation-related signal pathways were detected. As expected, our results showed that evodiamine notably ameliorated the inflammatory reaction and inhibit the activation of related signaling pathways of mMECs. All the results suggested that evodiamine inhibited inflammation by inhibiting the phosphorylation of AKT, NF-κBp65, ERK1/2, p38, and JNK thus the LPS-induced mastitis was ameliorated. These findings suggest that evodiamine maybe a potential drug for mastitis because of its anti-inflammatory effects.

Exogenous H2S Protects Colon Cells in Ulcerative Colitis by Inhibiting NLRP3 and Activating Autophagy

Hydrogen sulfide (H₂S) has been reported to participate in intestinal mucosal defense and repair. However, the precise regulatory mechanisms of H₂S in ulcerative colitis (UC) remain unclear. We explored the effects of sodium hydrosulfide (NaHS), a donor of H₂S, in dextran sulfate sodium (DSS)-induced colitis in rats. The pathologic features were determined by analyzing the hematoxylin and eosin-stained samples. Interleukin-1β (IL-1β), IL-6, tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), and myeloperoxidase (MPO) levels were determined using ELISA. The presence of cystathionine-γ-lyase (CSE) and light chain 3B (LC3B) were determined using immunohistochemical and immunofluorescence (IF) approaches, respectively. Next, we investigated the effects of NaHS in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated human colonic smooth muscle cells (H2940). The level of reactive oxygen species (ROS) was determined using IF. NOD-like receptor 3 (NLRP3) and CSE were detected using western blot and quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction. Autophagy was determined using western blot, IF, and electron microscopy. NaHS treatment considerably diminished colitis-induced histological injury and proinflammatory cytokine expressions. MPO, CSE, and H₂S were downregulated, whereas LC3B was upregulated after NaHS administration in colitic rats. NaHS remarkably attenuated the levels of ROS, CSE, and NLRP3 in LPS-stimulated cells and enhanced autophagy, as was revealed by increased LC3-II-to-LC3-I ratio, elevated LC3, and decreased p62. Importantly, NaHS promoted autophagosome formation in LPS-treated cells. Exogenous H₂S ameliorates intestinal injury by downregulating inflammation and activation of autophagy, suggesting the potential of NaHS as a therapeutic agent for UC.

Gut Microbiota-Mediated Transformation of Coptisine Into a Novel Metabolite 8-Oxocoptisine: Insight Into Its Superior Anti-Colitis Effect

Coptisine (COP) is a bioactive isoquinoline alkaloid derived from Coptis Chinemsis Franch, which is traditionally applied for the management of colitis. However, the blood concentration of COP was extremely low, and its gut microbiota-mediated metabolites were thought to contribute to its prominent bioactivities. To comparatively elucidate the protective effect and underlying mechanism of COP and its novel gut microbiota metabolite (8-oxocoptisine, OCOP) against colitis, we used dextran sulfate sodium (DSS) to induce colitis in mice. Clinical symptoms, microscopic alternation, immune-inflammatory parameters for colitis were estimated. The results indicated that OCOP dramatically ameliorated disease activity index (DAI), the shortening of colon length and colonic histopathological deteriorations. OCOP treatment also suppressed the mRNA expression and release of inflammatory mediators (TGF-β, TNF-α, IL-6, IL-18, IL-1β and IFN-γ) and elevated the transcriptional and translational levels of anti-inflammatory cytokine (IL-10) as well as the mRNA expression levels of adhesion molecules (ICAM-1 and VCAM-1). Besides, the activation of NF-κB pathway and NLRP3 inflammasome was markedly inhibited by OCOP. Furthermore, OCOP displayed superior anti-colitis effect to COP, and was similar to MSZ with much smaller dosage. Taken together, the protective effect of OCOP against DSS-induced colitis might be intimately related to inhibition of NF-κB pathway and NLRP3 inflammasome. And the findings indicated that OCOP might have greater potential than COP to be further exploited as a promising candidate in the treatment of colitis.

Inflammasome Regulation: Therapeutic Potential for Inflammatory Bowel Disease

Inflammasomes are multiprotein complexes formed to regulate the maturation of pro-inflammatory caspases, in response to intracellular or extracellular stimulants. Accumulating studies showed that the inflammasomes are implicated in the pathogenesis of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), although their activation is not a decisive factor for the development of IBD. Inflammasomes and related cytokines play an important role in the maintenance of gut immune homeostasis, while its overactivation might induce excess immune responses and consequently cause tissue damage in the gut. Emerging studies provide evidence that some genetic abnormalities might induce enhanced NLRP3 inflammasome activation and cause colitis. In these cases, the colonic inflammation can be ameliorated by blocking NLRP3 activation or its downstream cytokine IL-1β. A number of natural products were shown to play a role in preventing colon inflammation in various experimental colitis models. On the other hand, lack of inflammasome function also causes intestinal abnormalities. Thus, an appropriate regulation of inflammasomes might be a promising therapeutic strategy for IBD intervention. This review aims at summarizing the main findings in these studies and provide an outline for further studies that might contribute to our understanding of the role of inflammasomes in the pathogenesis and therapeutic treatment of IBD.

Evodiamine alleviates lipopolysaccharide-induced pulmonary inflammation and fibrosis by activating apelin pathway

Inflammation can cause a series of inflammatory lung disease, which seriously endangers human health. Pulmonary fibrosis is a kind of inflammatory disease with end-stage lung pathological changes. It has complicated and unknown pathogenesis and is still lack of effective therapeutic drugs. LPS-induced inflammation is a common feature of many infectious inflammations such as pneumonia, bacteremia, glomerulonephritis, etc. Evodiamine, one of the main components of Evodia rutaecarpa, is an alkaloid with excellent antiinflammatory effects. In this study, we evaluated the protective capacities of evodiamine on LPS-induced inflammatory damages in vitro and in vivo. MTT method, flow cytometry, immunofluorescence, and other methods were used for in vitro study to determine the protective capacities of evodiamine. The results suggest that evodiamine can protect murine macrophages from the LPS-nigericin-induced damages by (a) inhibiting cellular apoptosis, (b) inhibiting inflammatory cytokines releasing, and (c) activating the apelin pathway. We also used the exogenous apelin-13 peptide co-cultured with LPS-nigericin in RAW264.7 cells and found that apelin-13 contributes to protecting the effects of evodiamine. In vivo, the ELISA method and immunohistochemistry were used to examine inflammatory cytokines, apelin, and histological changes. BALB/c mice were exposed to LPS and subsequent administration of evodiamine （p.o.）for some time, the results of the alveolar lavage fluid and the tissue slices showed that evodiamine treatment alleviated the pulmonary inflammation and fibrosis, stimulated apelin expression and inhibited the inflammatory cytokines. These results provide a basis for the protective effect and mechanism of evodiamine in LPS-induced inflammation and suggest that it might be potential therapeutics in human pulmonary infections.

Xianglian Pill ameliorates antibiotic-associated diarrhea by restoring intestinal microbiota and attenuating mucosal damage

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Xianglian Pill (XLP), a traditional Chinese pharmaceutical preparation for the treatment of gastrointestinal disease, possessing anti-inflammatory, anti-microbial and analgesic activities, may represent a promising candidate for the treatment of antibiotic-associated diarrhea (AAD).

AIM OF THE STUDY

This study aimed to unravel the underlying mechanism of XLP on the amelioration of AAD.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

AAD was induced by intragastric administration of a mixture of cefuroxime and levofoxacin (300 mg/kg. bw + 200 mg/kg. bw) for five consecutive days. Then AAD mice were treated with XLP at the dose of 500, 1000 and 2000 mg/kg. bw, respectively for 5 days. The physical manifestations, diarrhea status were monitored during the drug delivery. Histopathology of colon, intestinal microbiota, inflammatory cytokines, tight junction protein and short chain fat acids (SCFAs) were determined.

RESULTS

Mice received cefuroxime and levofoxacin for 5 days developed medium to severe diarrhea. XLP treatment, however, mitigated the diarrhea status. Further evaluation revealed that XLP promoted the recovery of mucosa, maintained the integrity of tight junction, attenuated the inflammatory disorders, restored intestinal microbiota and increased SCFAs level in feces.

CONCLUSION

XLP ameliorates AAD by restoring intestinal microbiota and attenuating mucosal damage.

Changes in serum inflammatory cytokine levels and intestinal flora in a self-healing dextran sodium sulfate-induced ulcerative colitis murine model

AIMS

Whether dextran sodium sulfate (DSS)-induced ulcerative colitis (UC) animal models undergo self-healing remains unclear. Therefore, the study aim was to determine if these models have self-healing ability.

MAIN METHODS

UC was induced using 4% DSS in male KM mice. Histopathological and inflammatory cytokine were evaluated. Fecal samples were analyzed by 16S rDNA gene sequencing.

KEY FINDINGS

Physiological and inflammatory cytokine changed obviously on days 4-14 of establishment and returned to normal levels by day 21. The degrees of inflammation and injury in pathological sections decreased within 14 days compared with those on day 7. Interleukin (IL)-17A, IL-6, and C-reactive protein (CRP) levels fluctuated daily and were highest at 10 AM, 11 AM, and 8 PM, respectively. Intestinal flora disturbance was most obvious on days 7 and 14. The abundances of Lactobacillus and Alistipes decreased, whereas those of Streptococcus, Escherichia-Shigella, and Oscillibacter increased and mostly recovered by day 21. Lactobacillus and serum CRP level were negatively correlated with inflammation, whereas Streptococcus and Escherichia-Shigella were positively correlated with serum IL-6 level.

SIGNIFICANCE

The DSS-induced UC murine model was shown to undergo self-healing. Intestinal flora disturbance in the model were obvious from days 4 to 14 and had mostly recovered by day 21.

Traditional uses, phytochemistry, pharmacology, pharmacokinetics and toxicology of the fruit of Tetradium ruticarpum: A review

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

The fruit of Tetradium ruticarpum (FTR) known as Tetradii fructus or Evodiae fructus (Wu-Zhu-Yu in Chinese) is a versatile herbal medicine which has been prescribed in Chinese herbal formulas and recognized in Japanese Kampo. FTR has been clinically used to treat various diseases such as headache, vomit, diarrhea, abdominal pain, dysmenorrhea and pelvic inflammation for thousands of years.

AIM OF THE REVIEW

The present paper aimed to provide comprehensive information on the ethnopharmacology, phytochemistry, pharmacology, pharmacokinetics, drug interaction and toxicology of FTR in order to build up a foundation on the mechanism of ethnopharmacological uses as well as to explore the trends and perspectives for further studies.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

This review collected the literatures published prior to July 2020 on the phytochemistry, pharmacology, pharmacokinetics and toxicity of FTR. All relevant information on FTR was gathered from worldwide accepted scientific search engines and databases, including Web of Science, PubMed, Elsevier, ACS, ResearchGate, Google Scholar, and Chinese National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI). Information was also obtained from local books, PhD. and MSc. Dissertations as well as from Pharmacopeias.

RESULTS

FTR has been used as an herbal medicine for centuries in East Asia. A total of 165 chemical compounds have been isolated so far and the main chemical compounds of FTR include alkaloids, terpenoids, flavonoids, phenolic acids, steroids, and phenylpropanoids. Crude extracts, processed products (medicinal slices) and pure components of FTR exhibit a wide range of pharmacological activities such as antitumor, anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, anti-obesity, antioxidant, insecticide, regulating central nervous system (CNS) homeostasis, cardiovascular protection. Furthermore, bioactive components isolated from FTR can induce drug interaction and hepatic injury.

CONCLUSIONS

Therapeutic potential of FTR has been demonstrated with the pharmacological effects on cancer, inflammation, cardiovascular diseases, CNS, bacterial infection and obesity. Pharmacological and pharmacokinetic studies of FTR mostly focus on its main active alkaloids. Further in-depth studies on combined medication and processing approaches mechanisms, pharmacological and toxic effects not limited to the alkaloids, and toxic components of FTR should be designed.

Evodiamine suppresses non-small cell lung cancer by elevating CD8+ T cells and downregulating the MUC1-C/PD-L1 axis

Background

Accumulating evidence showed that regulating tumor microenvironment plays a vital role in improving antitumor efficiency. Programmed Death Ligand 1 (PD-L1) is expressed in many cancer cell types, while its binding partner Programmed Death 1 (PD1) is expressed in activated T cells and antigen-presenting cells. Whereas, its dysregulation in the microenvironment is poorly understood. In the present study, we confirmed that evodiamine downregulates MUC1-C, resulting in modulating PD-L1 expression in non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC).

Methods

Cell viability was measured by MTT assays. Apoptosis, cell cycle and surface PD-L1 expression on NSCLC cells were analyzed by flow cytometry. The expression of MUC1-C and PD-L1 mRNA was measured by real time RT-PCR methods. Protein expression was examined in evodiamine-treated NSCLC cells using immunoblotting or immunofluorescence assays. The effects of evodiamine treatment on NSCLC sensitivity towards T cells were investigated using human peripheral blood mononuclear cells and Jurkat, apoptosis and IL-2 secretion assays. Female H1975 xenograft nude mice were used to assess the effect of evodiamine on tumorigenesis in vivo. Lewis lung carcinoma model was used to investigate the therapeutic effects of combination evodiamine and anti-PD-1 treatment.

Results

We showed that evodiamine significantly inhibited growth, induced apoptosis and cell cycle arrest at G2 phase of NSCLC cells. Evodiamine suppressed IFN-γ-induced PD-L1 expression in H1975 and H1650. MUC1-C mRNA and protein expression were decreased by evodiamine in NSCLC cells as well. Evodiamine could downregulate the PD-L1 expression and diminish the apoptosis of T cells. It inhibited MUC1-C expression and potentiated CD8⁺ T cell effector function. Meanwhile, evodiamine showed good anti-tumor activity in H1975 tumor xenograft, which reduced tumor size. Evodiamine exhibited anti-tumor activity by elevation of CD8⁺ T cells in vivo in Lewis lung carcinoma model. Combination evodiamine and anti-PD-1 mAb treatment enhanced tumor growth control and survival of mice.

Conclusions

Evodiamine can suppress NSCLC by elevating of CD8⁺ T cells and downregulating of the MUC1-C/PD-L1 axis. Our findings uncover a novel mechanism of action of evodiamine and indicate that evodiamine represents a potential targeted agent suitable to be combined with immunotherapeutic approaches to treat NSCLC cancer patients. MUC1-C overexpression is common in female, non-smoker, patients with advanced-stage adenocarcinoma.

Supplementary Information

Supplementary information accompanies this paper at 10.1186/s13046-020-01741-5.

Evodiamine: A review of its pharmacology, toxicity, pharmacokinetics and preparation researches

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Evodia rutaecarpa, a well-known herb medicine in China, is extensively applied in traditional Chinese medicine (TCM). The plant has the effects of dispersing cold and relieving pain, arresting vomiting, and helping Yang and stopping diarrhea. Modern research demonstrates that evodiamine, the main component of Evodia rutaecarpa, is the material basis for its efficacy.

AIMS OF THE REVIEW

This paper is primarily addressed to summarize the current studies on evodiamine. The progress in research on the pharmacology, toxicology, pharmacokinetics, preparation researches and clinical application are reviewed. Moreover, outlooks and directions for possible future studies concerning it are also discussed.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The information of this systematic review was conducted with resources of multiple literature databases including PubMed, Google scholar, Web of Science and Wiley Online Library and so on, with employing a combination of keywords including "pharmacology", "toxicology", "pharmacokinetics" and "clinical application", etc. RESULTS: As the main component of Evodia rutaecarpa, evodiamine shows considerable pharmacological activities, such as analgesic, anti-inflammatory, anti-tumor, anti-microbial, heart protection and metabolic disease regulation. However, it is also found that it has significant hepatotoxicity and cardiotoxicity, thereby it should be monitored in clinical. In addition, available data demonstrate that the evodiamine has a needy solubility in aqueous medium. Scientific and reasonable pharmaceutical strategies should be introduced to improve the above defects. Meanwhile, more efforts should be made to develop novel efficient and low toxic derivatives.

CONCLUSIONS

This review summarizes the results from current studies of evodiamine, which is one of the valuable medicinal ingredients from Evodia rutaecarpa. With the assistance of relevant pharmacological investigation, some conventional application and problems in pharmaceutical field have been researched in recent years. In addition, unresolved issues include toxic mechanisms, pharmacokinetics, novel pharmaceutical researches and relationship between residues and intestinal environment, which are still being explored and excavate before achieving integration into clinical practice.