Genome-wide Association Study Shows That Executive Functioning Is Influenced by GABAergic Processes and Is a Neurocognitive Genetic Correlate of Psychiatric Disorders

De novo variants in GABRA4 are associated with a neurological phenotype including developmental delay, behavioral abnormalities and epilepsy

Nine out of 19 genes encoding GABAA receptor subunits have been linked to monogenic syndromes characterized by seizures and developmental disorders. Previously, we reported the de novo variant p.(Thr300Ile) in GABRA4 in a patient with epilepsy and neurodevelopmental abnormalities. However, no new cases have been reported since then. Through an international collaboration, we collected molecular and phenotype data of individuals carrying de novo variants in GABRA4. Patients and their parents were investigated either by exome or genome sequencing, followed by targeted Sanger sequencing in some cases. All variants within the transmembrane domain, including the previously reported p.(Thr300Ile) variant, were characterized in silico and analyzed by molecular dynamics (MD) simulation studies. We identified three novel de novo missense variants in GABRA4 (NM_000809.4): c.797 C > T, p.(Pro266Leu), c.899 C > A, p.(Thr300Asn), and c.634 G > A, p.(Val212Ile). The p.(Thr300Asn) variant impacts the same codon as the previously reported variant p.(Thr300Ile) and likely arose post-zygotically as evidenced by sequencing oral mucosal cells. Overlapping phenotypes among affected individuals included developmental delay (4/4), epileptiform EEG abnormalities (3/4), attention deficits (3/4), seizures (2/4), autistic features (2/4) and structural brain abnormalities (2/4). MD simulations of the three variants within the transmembrane domain of the receptor indicate that sub-microsecond scale dynamics differ between wild-type and mutated subunits. Taken together, our findings further corroborate an association between GABRA4 and a neurological phenotype including variable neurodevelopmental, behavioral and epileptic abnormalities.

Cross-ancestry genetic investigation of schizophrenia, cannabis use disorder, and tobacco smoking

Individuals with schizophrenia frequently experience co-occurring substance use, including tobacco smoking and heavy cannabis use, and substance use disorders. There is interest in understanding the extent to which these relationships are causal, and to what extent shared genetic factors play a role. We explored the relationships between schizophrenia (Scz; European ancestry N = 161,405; African ancestry N = 15,846), cannabis use disorder (CanUD; European ancestry N = 886,025; African ancestry N = 120,208), and ever-regular tobacco smoking (Smk; European ancestry N = 805,431; African ancestry N = 24,278) using the largest available genome-wide studies of these phenotypes in individuals of African and European ancestries. All three phenotypes were positively genetically correlated (rgs = 0.17-0.62). Genetic instrumental variable analyses suggested the presence of shared heritable factors, but evidence for bidirectional causal relationships was also found between all three phenotypes even after correcting for these shared genetic factors. We identified 327 pleiotropic loci with 439 lead SNPs in the European ancestry data, 150 of which were novel (i.e., not genome-wide significant in the original studies). Of these pleiotropic loci, 202 had lead variants which showed convergent effects (i.e., same direction of effect) on Scz, CanUD, and Smk. Genetic variants convergent across all three phenotypes showed strong genetic correlations with risk-taking, executive function, and several mental health conditions. Our results suggest that both shared genetic factors and causal mechanisms may play a role in the relationship between CanUD, Smk, and Scz, but longitudinal, prospective studies are needed to confirm a causal relationship.

Executive Function as an Underlying Mechanism of Alcohol Use, Aggression, and ADHD

Background

Executive functioning (EF) has been proposed as a transdiagnostic risk factor for externalizing disorders and behavior more broadly, including attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), aggression, and alcohol use. Previous research has demonstrated both phenotypic and genetic overlap among these behaviors, but has yet to examine EF as a common causal mechanism. The current study examined reciprocal causal associations between EF and several externalizing behaviors using a Mendelian randomization (MR) approach.

Methods

Two-sample MR was conducted to test causal associations between EF and externalizing behaviors. Summary statistics from several genome-wide association studies (GWASs) were used in these analyses, including GWASs of EF, ADHD diagnostic status, drinks per week, aggressive behavior, and alcohol use disorder (AUD) diagnostic status. Multiple estimation methods were employed to account for horizontal pleiotropy (e.g., inverse variance weighted, MR-PRESSO, MR-MIX).

Results

EF demonstrated significant causal relationships with ADHD (P < 0.01), AUD (P < 0.03), and alcohol consumption (P < 0.01) across several estimation methods. Reciprocally, ADHD showed a significant causal influence on EF (P < 0.03). Nonetheless, caution should be used when interpreting these findings as there was some evidence for horizontal pleiotropy in the effect of EF on ADHD and significant heterogeneity in variant effects in the other relations tested. There were no significant findings for aggression.

Conclusions

Findings suggest that EF may be a causal mechanism underlying some externalizing behaviors, including ADHD and alcohol use, and that ADHD may also lead to lower performance on EF tasks.

Characterizing Genetic Pathways Unique to Autism Spectrum Disorder at Multiple Levels of Biological Analysis

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a neurodevelopmental condition characterized by atypical patterns of social functioning and repetitive/restricted behaviors. ASD commonly co-occurs with ADHD and, despite their clinical distinctiveness, the two share considerable genetic overlap. Given their shared genetic liability, it is unclear which genetic pathways confer unique risk for ASD independent of ADHD. We applied Genomic Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) to GWAS summary statistics for ASD and ADHD, decomposing the genetic signal for ASD into that which is unique to ASD (uASD) and that which is shared with ADHD. We computed genetic correlations between uASD and 75 external traits to estimate genetic overlap between uASD and other clinically relevant phenotypes. We went on to apply Stratified Genomic SEM to identify classes of genes enriched for uASD. Finally, we implemented Transcriptome-Wide SEM (T-SEM) to explore patterns of gene-expression associated with uASD. We observed positive genetic correlations between uASD and several external traits, most notably those relating to cognitive/educational outcomes and internalizing psychiatric traits. Stratified Genomic SEM showed that heritability for uASD was significantly enriched in genes involved in evolutionarily conserved processes, as well as for a histone mark in the germinal matrix. T-SEM revealed 83 unique genes with expression associated with uASD, many of which were novel. These findings delineate the unique biological underpinnings of ASD which exist independent of ADHD and demonstrate the utility of Genomic SEM and its extensions for disambiguating shared and unique risk pathways for genetically overlapping traits.

Cortical gene expression architecture links healthy neurodevelopment to the imaging, transcriptomics and genetics of autism and schizophrenia

Human brain organization involves the coordinated expression of thousands of genes. For example, the first principal component (C1) of cortical transcription identifies a hierarchy from sensorimotor to association regions. In this study, optimized processing of the Allen Human Brain Atlas revealed two new components of cortical gene expression architecture, C2 and C3, which are distinctively enriched for neuronal, metabolic and immune processes, specific cell types and cytoarchitectonics, and genetic variants associated with intelligence. Using additional datasets (PsychENCODE, Allen Cell Atlas and BrainSpan), we found that C1-C3 represent generalizable transcriptional programs that are coordinated within cells and differentially phased during fetal and postnatal development. Autism spectrum disorder and schizophrenia were specifically associated with C1/C2 and C3, respectively, across neuroimaging, differential expression and genome-wide association studies. Evidence converged especially in support of C3 as a normative transcriptional program for adolescent brain development, which can lead to atypical supragranular cortical connectivity in people at high genetic risk for schizophrenia.

Association between executive functions and COMT Val108/158Met polymorphism among healthy younger and older adults: A preliminary study

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

Genetic variability in the dopaminergic system could contribute to age-related impairments in executive control. In this study, we examined whether genetic polymorphism for catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT Val158Met) is related to performance on updating, shifting and inhibition tasks.

METHODS

We administered a battery of executive tasks assessing updating, shifting and inhibition functions to 45 older and 55 younger healthy participants, and created composite z-scores associated to each function. Six groups were created based on genetic alleles (Val/Val, Val/Met, Met/Met) derived from the COMT gene and age (younger, older). Age and genotype effects were assessed with t-test and ANOVA (p<0.05).

RESULTS

A lower performance was observed in the older group for the three executive processes, and more particularly for inhibition. Moreover, older participants homozygous for the Val allele have a lower performance on the inhibition composite in comparison to younger Val/Val.

CONCLUSIONS

These results confirm presence of executive performance decrease in healthy aging. With regard to genetic effect, older participants seem particularly disadvantaged when they have a lower baseline dopamine level (i.e., Val/Val homozygous) that is magnified by aging, and when the executive measure emphasize the need of stable representations (as in inhibition task requiring to maintain active the instruction to not perform an automated process).

Alcohol milestones and internalizing, externalizing, and executive function: longitudinal and polygenic score associations

BACKGROUND

Although the link between alcohol involvement and behavioral phenotypes (e.g. impulsivity, negative affect, executive function [EF]) is well-established, the directionality of these associations, specificity to stages of alcohol involvement, and extent of shared genetic liability remain unclear. We estimate longitudinal associations between transitions among alcohol milestones, behavioral phenotypes, and indices of genetic risk.

METHODS

Data came from the Collaborative Study on the Genetics of Alcoholism (n = 3681; ages 11-36). Alcohol transitions (first: drink, intoxication, alcohol use disorder [AUD] symptom, AUD diagnosis), internalizing, and externalizing phenotypes came from the Semi-Structured Assessment for the Genetics of Alcoholism. EF was measured with the Tower of London and Visual Span Tasks. Polygenic scores (PGS) were computed for alcohol-related and behavioral phenotypes. Cox models estimated associations among PGS, behavior, and alcohol milestones.

RESULTS

Externalizing phenotypes (e.g. conduct disorder symptoms) were associated with future initiation and drinking problems (hazard ratio (HR)⩾1.16). Internalizing (e.g. social anxiety) was associated with hazards for progression from first drink to severe AUD (HR⩾1.55). Initiation and AUD were associated with increased hazards for later depressive symptoms and suicidal ideation (HR⩾1.38), and initiation was associated with increased hazards for future conduct symptoms (HR = 1.60). EF was not associated with alcohol transitions. Drinks per week PGS was linked with increased hazards for alcohol transitions (HR⩾1.06). Problematic alcohol use PGS increased hazards for suicidal ideation (HR = 1.20).

CONCLUSIONS

Behavioral markers of addiction vulnerability precede and follow alcohol transitions, highlighting dynamic, bidirectional relationships between behavior and emerging addiction.

A Genome-Wide Interaction Study of Erythrocyte ω-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acid Species and Memory in the Framingham Heart Study Offspring Cohort

BACKGROUND

Cognitive decline, and more specifically Alzheimer's disease, continues to increase in prevalence globally, with few, if any, adequate preventative approaches. Several tests of cognition are utilized in the diagnosis of cognitive decline that assess executive function, short- and long-term memory, cognitive flexibility, and speech and motor control. Recent studies have separately investigated the genetic component of both cognitive health, using these measures, and circulating fatty acids.

OBJECTIVES

We aimed to examine the potential moderating effect of main species of ω-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) on an individual's genetically conferred risk of cognitive decline.

METHODS

The Offspring cohort from the Framingham Heart Study was cross-sectionally analyzed in this genome-wide interaction study (GWIS). Our sample included all individuals with red blood cell ω-3 PUFA, genetic, cognitive testing (via Trail Making Tests [TMTs]), and covariate data (N = 1620). We used linear mixed effects models to predict each of the 3 cognitive measures (TMT A, TMT B, and TMT D) by each ω-3 PUFA, single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) (0, 1, or 2 minor alleles), ω-3 PUFA by SNP interaction term, and adjusting for sex, age, education, APOE ε4 genotype status, and kinship (relatedness).

RESULTS

Our analysis identified 31 unique SNPs from 24 genes reaching an exploratory significance threshold of 1×10-5. Fourteen of the 24 genes have been previously associated with the brain/cognition, and 5 genes have been previously associated with circulating lipids. Importantly, 8 of the genes we identified, DAB1, SORCS2, SERINC5, OSBPL3, CPA6, DLG2, MUC19, and RGMA, have been associated with both cognition and circulating lipids. We identified 22 unique SNPs for which individuals with the minor alleles benefit substantially from increased ω-3 fatty acid concentrations and 9 unique SNPs for which the common homozygote benefits.

CONCLUSIONS

In this GWIS of ω-3 PUFA species on cognitive outcomes, we identified 8 unique genes with plausible biology suggesting individuals with specific polymorphisms may have greater potential to benefit from increased ω-3 PUFA intake. Additional replication in prospective settings with more diverse samples is needed.

No gene by stressful life events interaction on individual differences in adults' self-control

Background

Difficulty with self-control, or the ability to alter impulses and behavior in a goal-directed way, predicts interpersonal conflict, lower socioeconomic attainments, and more adverse health outcomes. Etiological understanding, and intervention for low self-control is, therefore, a public health goal. A prominent developmental theory proposes that individuals with high genetic propensity for low self-control that are also exposed to stressful environments may be most at-risk of low levels of self-control. Here we examine if polygenic measures associated with behaviors marked by low self-control interact with stressful life events in predicting self-control.

Methods

Leveraging molecular data from a large population-based Dutch sample (N = 7,090, Mage = 41.2) to test for effects of genetics (i.e., polygenic scores for ADHD and aggression), stressful life events (e.g., traffic accident, violent assault, financial problems), and a gene-by-stress interaction on self-control (measured with the ASEBA Self-Control Scale).

Results

Both genetics (β =.03 -.04, p <.001) and stressful life events (β = .11 -.14, p <.001) were associated with individual differences in self-control. We find no evidence of a gene-by-stressful life events interaction on individual differences in adults' self-control.

Conclusion

Our findings are consistent with the notion that genetic influences and stressful life events exert largely independent effects on adult self-control. However, the small effect sizes of polygenic scores increases the likelihood of null results. Genetically-informed longitudinal research in large samples can further inform the etiology of individual differences in self-control from early childhood into later adulthood and its downstream implications for public health.

GABA in the anterior cingulate cortex mediates the association of white matter hyperintensities with executive function: a magnetic resonance spectroscopy study

White matter hyperintensities (WMH) and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) are associated with executive function. Multiple studies suggested cortical alterations mediate WMH-related cognitive decline. The aim of this study was to investigate the crucial role of cortical GABA in the WMH patients. In the 87 WMH patients (46 mild and 41 moderate to severe) examined in this study, GABA levels in the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) and posterior cingulate cortex (PCC) assessed by the Meshcher-Garwood point resolved spectroscopy (MEGA-PRESS) sequence, WMH volume and executive function were compared between the two groups. Partial correlation and mediation analyses were carried out to examine the GABA levels in mediating the association between WMH volume and executive function. Patients with moderate to severe WMH had lower GABA+/Cr in the ACC (p = 0.034) and worse executive function (p = 0.004) than mild WMH patients. In all WMH cases, the GABA+/Cr levels in the ACC mediated the negative correlation between WMH and executive function (ab: effect = -0.020, BootSE = 0.010, 95% CI: -0.042 to -0.004). This finding suggested GABA+/Cr levels in the ACC might serve as a protective factor or potential target for preventing the occurrence and progression of executive function decline in WMH people.

Investigation of genetic determinants of cognitive change in later life

Cognitive decline is a major health concern and identification of genes that may serve as drug targets to slow decline is important to adequately support an aging population. Whilst genetic studies of cross-sectional cognition have been carried out, cognitive change is less well-understood. Here, using data from the TOMMORROW trial, we investigate genetic associations with cognitive change in a cognitively normal older cohort. We conducted a genome-wide association study of trajectories of repeated cognitive measures (using generalised estimating equation (GEE) modelling) and tested associations with polygenic risk scores (PRS) of potential risk factors. We identified two genetic variants associated with change in attention domain scores, rs534221751 (p = 1 × 10-8 with slope 1) and rs34743896 (p = 5 × 10-10 with slope 2), implicating NCAM2 and CRIPT/ATP6V1E2 genes, respectively. We also found evidence for the association between an education PRS and baseline cognition (at >65 years of age), particularly in the language domain. We demonstrate the feasibility of conducting GWAS of cognitive change using GEE modelling and our results suggest that there may be novel genetic associations for cognitive change that have not previously been associated with cross-sectional cognition. We also show the importance of the education PRS on cognition much later in life. These findings warrant further investigation and demonstrate the potential value of using trial data and trajectory modelling to identify genetic variants associated with cognitive change.

Cross-ancestry genetic investigation of schizophrenia, cannabis use disorder, and tobacco smoking

Individuals with schizophrenia frequently experience co-occurring substance use, including tobacco smoking and heavy cannabis use, and substance use disorders. There is interest in understanding the extent to which these relationships are causal, and to what extent shared genetic factors play a role. We explored the relationships between schizophrenia (Scz), cannabis use disorder (CanUD), and ever-regular tobacco smoking (Smk) using the largest available genome-wide studies of these phenotypes in individuals of African and European ancestries. All three phenotypes were positively genetically correlated (rgs = 0.17 - 0.62). Causal inference analyses suggested the presence of horizontal pleiotropy, but evidence for bidirectional causal relationships was also found between all three phenotypes even after correcting for horizontal pleiotropy. We identified 439 pleiotropic loci in the European ancestry data, 150 of which were novel (i.e., not genome-wide significant in the original studies). Of these pleiotropic loci, 202 had lead variants which showed convergent effects (i.e., same direction of effect) on Scz, CanUD, and Smk. Genetic variants convergent across all three phenotypes showed strong genetic correlations with risk-taking, executive function, and several mental health conditions. Our results suggest that both horizontal pleiotropy and causal mechanisms may play a role in the relationship between CanUD, Smk, and Scz, but longitudinal, prospective studies are needed to confirm a causal relationship.

Decreased GABA levels of the anterior and posterior cingulate cortex are associated with executive dysfunction in mild cognitive impairment

Background and purpose

Executive function impairment, a slight but noticeable cognitive deficit in mild cognitive impairment (MCI) patients, is influenced by gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) levels. Reduced cognitive function is accompanied by thinning of the cerebral cortex, which has higher GABA levels than white matter. However, the relationships among GABA levels, cortical thickness, and executive function in MCI patients have not yet been elucidated. We investigated the relationships among GABA levels, cortical thickness, and executive function in MCI patients.

Methods

In this study, a total of 36 MCI patients and 36 sex-, age-, and education-matched healthy controls (HC) were recruited. But 33 MCI patients and 35 HC were included because of head motion or poor data quality for three MCI patients and one HC. The levels of gamma-aminobutyric acid plus relative to creatine (GABA+/Cr) and glutamate-glutamine relative to creatine (Glx/Cr) in the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) and posterior cingulate cortex (PCC) were measured using the Meshcher-Garwood point resolved spectroscopy (MEGA-PRESS) sequence. Metabolite ratios, cortical thickness, and executive function and their interrelationships were determined in the MCI and HC groups.

Results

Patients with MCI showed lower GABA+/Cr levels in the ACC and PCC. Combined levels of GABA+ and Glx in the ACC and GABA+ in the PCC showed good diagnostic efficacy for MCI (AUC: 0.82). But no differences in cortical thickness were found between the two groups. In the MCI group, lower GABA+/Cr level was correlated to worse performance on the digit span test backward, and the shape trail test-B. The cortical thickness was not associated with GABA+ levels and executive function in patients.

Conclusion

These results implied that decreased GABA levels in the ACC and PCC had a critical role in the early diagnosis of impaired executive function of MCI. Therefore, GABA in the ACC and PCC could be a potential diagnostic marker of the executive function decline of MCI.

Exome-wide analysis reveals role of LRP1 and additional novel loci in cognition

Cognitive functioning is heritable, with metabolic risk factors known to accelerate age-associated cognitive decline. Identifying genetic underpinnings of cognition is thus crucial. Here, we undertake single-variant and gene-based association analyses upon 6 neurocognitive phenotypes across 6 cognition domains in whole-exome sequencing data from 157,160 individuals of the UK Biobank cohort to expound the genetic architecture of human cognition. We report 20 independent loci associated with 5 cognitive domains while controlling for APOE isoform-carrier status and metabolic risk factors; 18 of which were not previously reported, and implicated genes relating to oxidative stress, synaptic plasticity and connectivity, and neuroinflammation. A subset of significant hits for cognition indicates mediating effects via metabolic traits. Some of these variants also exhibit pleiotropic effects on metabolic traits. We further identify previously unknown interactions of APOE variants with LRP1 (rs34949484 and others, suggestively significant), AMIGO1 (rs146766120; pAla25Thr, significant), and ITPR3 (rs111522866, significant), controlling for lipid and glycemic risks. Our gene-based analysis also suggests that APOC1 and LRP1 have plausible roles along shared pathways of amyloid beta (Aβ) and lipid and/or glucose metabolism in affecting complex processing speed and visual attention. In addition, we report pairwise suggestive interactions of variants harbored in these genes with APOE affecting visual attention. Our report based on this large-scale exome-wide study highlights the effects of neuronal genes, such as LRP1, AMIGO1, and other genomic loci, thus providing further evidence of the genetic underpinnings for cognition during aging.

CARE as a wearable derived feature linking circadian amplitude to human cognitive functions

Circadian rhythms are crucial for regulating physiological and behavioral processes. Pineal hormone melatonin is often used to measure circadian amplitude but its collection is costly and time-consuming. Wearable activity data are promising alternative, but the most commonly used measure, relative amplitude, is subject to behavioral masking. In this study, we firstly derive a feature named circadian activity rhythm energy (CARE) to better characterize circadian amplitude and validate CARE by correlating it with melatonin amplitude (Pearson's r = 0.46, P = 0.007) among 33 healthy participants. Then we investigate its association with cognitive functions in an adolescent dataset (Chinese SCHEDULE-A, n = 1703) and an adult dataset (UK Biobank, n = 92,202), and find that CARE is significantly associated with Global Executive Composite (β = 30.86, P = 0.016) in adolescents, and reasoning ability, short-term memory, and prospective memory (OR = 0.01, 3.42, and 11.47 respectively, all P < 0.001) in adults. Finally, we identify one genetic locus with 126 CARE-associated SNPs using the genome-wide association study, of which 109 variants are used as instrumental variables in the Mendelian Randomization analysis, and the results show a significant causal effect of CARE on reasoning ability, short-term memory, and prospective memory (β = -59.91, 7.94, and 16.85 respectively, all P < 0.0001). The present study suggests that CARE is an effective wearable-based metric of circadian amplitude with a strong genetic basis and clinical significance, and its adoption can facilitate future circadian studies and potential intervention strategies to improve circadian rhythms and cognitive functions.

Multivariate genome-wide association meta-analysis of over 1 million subjects identifies loci underlying multiple substance use disorders

Genetic liability to substance use disorders can be parsed into loci that confer general or substance-specific addiction risk. We report a multivariate genome-wide association meta-analysis that disaggregates general and substance-specific loci for published summary statistics of problematic alcohol use, problematic tobacco use, cannabis use disorder, and opioid use disorder in a sample of 1,025,550 individuals of European descent and 92,630 individuals of African descent. Nineteen independent SNPs were genome-wide significant (P < 5e-8) for the general addiction risk factor (addiction-rf), which showed high polygenicity. Across ancestries, PDE4B was significant (among other genes), suggesting dopamine regulation as a cross-substance vulnerability. An addiction-rf polygenic risk score was associated with substance use disorders, psychopathologies, somatic conditions, and environments associated with the onset of addictions. Substance-specific loci (9 for alcohol, 32 for tobacco, 5 for cannabis, 1 for opioids) included metabolic and receptor genes. These findings provide insight into genetic risk loci for substance use disorders that could be leveraged as treatment targets.

Is there a causal relationship between executive function and liability to mental health and substance use? A Mendelian randomization approach

Poorer performance in tasks testing executive function (EF) is associated with a range of psychopathologies such as schizophrenia, major depressive disorder (MDD) and anxiety, as well as smoking and alcohol consumption. We used two-sample bidirectional Mendelian randomization to examine whether these may reflect causal relationships and the direction of causation. We used genome-wide association study summary data (N = 17 310 to 848 460) for a common EF factor score (cEF), schizophrenia, MDD, anxiety, smoking initiation, alcohol consumption, alcohol dependence and cannabis use disorder (CUD). We found evidence of increased cEF on reduced schizophrenia liability (OR = 0.10; CI: 0.05 to 0.19; p-value = 3.43 × 10^-12), MDD liability (OR = 0.52; CI: 0.38 to 0.72; p-value = 5.23 × 10^-05), drinks per week (β = -0.06; CI: -0.10 to -0.02; p-value = 0.003) and CUD liability (OR = 0.27; CI: 0.12 to 0.61; p-value = 1.58 × 10^-03). We also found evidence of increased schizophrenia liability (β = -0.04; CI: -0.04 to -0.03; p-value = 3.25 × 10^-27) and smoking initiation on decreased cEF (β = -0.06; CI: -0.09 to -0.03; p-value = 6.11 × 10^-05). Our results indicate potential causal relationships between cEF and mental health and substance use. Further studies are required to improve our understanding of the underlying mechanisms of these effects, but our results suggest that EF may be a promising intervention target for mental health and substance use.

Collective genomic segments with differential pleiotropic patterns between cognitive dimensions and psychopathology

Cognitive deficits are known to be related to most forms of psychopathology. Here, we perform local genetic correlation analysis as a means of identifying independent segments of the genome that show biologically interpretable pleiotropic associations between cognitive dimensions and psychopathology. We identify collective segments of the genome, which we call "meta-loci", showing differential pleiotropic patterns for psychopathology relative to either cognitive task performance (CTP) or performance on a non-cognitive factor (NCF) derived from educational attainment. We observe that neurodevelopmental gene sets expressed during the prenatal-early childhood period predominate in CTP-relevant meta-loci, while post-natal gene sets are more involved in NCF-relevant meta-loci. Further, we demonstrate that neurodevelopmental gene sets are dissociable across CTP meta-loci with respect to their spatial distribution across the brain. Additionally, we find that GABA-ergic, cholinergic, and glutamatergic genes drive pleiotropic relationships within dissociable meta-loci.