A 9-cis-epoxycarotenoid dioxygenase inhibitor for use in the elucidation of abscisic acid action mechanisms

Palladium-catalysed selective oxidative amination of olefins with Lewis basic amines

Amines are prominent in natural products, pharmaceutical agents and agrochemicals. Moreover, they are synthetically valuable building blocks for the construction of complex organic molecules and functional materials. However, amines, especially aliphatic and aromatic amines with free N-H bonds, tend to coordinate with transition metals and deactivate the catalyst, posing a tremendous challenge to applying Lewis basic amines in the amination of olefins. Here we present an example of oxidative amination of simple olefins with various Lewis basic amines. The combination of a palladium catalyst, 2,6-dimethyl-1,4-benzoquinone and a phosphorous ligand leads to the efficient synthesis of alkyl and aryl allylamines. A series of allylamines were obtained with good yields and excellent regio- and stereoselectivities. Intramolecular amination to synthesize tetrahydropyrrole and piperidine derivatives was also realized. Mechanistic investigations reveal that the reaction undergoes allylic C(sp³)-H activation and subsequent functionalization.

Emerging technologies for the chemical control of root parasitic weeds

Parasitic plants in the Orobanchaceae family include devastating weed species, such as Striga, Orobanche, and Phelipanche, which parasitize major crops, drastically reduces crop yields and cause economic losses of over a billion US dollars worldwide. Advances in basic research on molecular and cellular processes responsible for parasitic relationships has now achieved steady progress through advances in genome analysis, biochemical analysis and structural biology. On the basis of these advances it is now possible to develop chemicals that control parasitism and reduce agricultural damage. In this review we summarized the recent development of chemicals that can control each step of parasitism from strigolactone biosynthesis in host plants to haustorium formation.

Strigolactone is involved in nitric oxide-enhanced the salt resistance in tomato seedlings

Both strigolactones (SLs) and nitric oxide (NO) are regulatory signals with diverse roles during stress responses. At present, the interaction and mechanism of SLs and NO in tomato salt tolerance remain unclear. In the current study, tomato 'Micro-Tom' was used to study the roles and interactions of SLs and NO in salinity stress tolerance. The results show that 15 μM SLs synthetic analogs GR24 and 10 μM NO donor S-nitrosoglutathione (GSNO) promoted seedling growth under salt stress. TIS108 (an inhibitor of strigolactone synthesis) suppressed the positive roles of NO in tomato growth under salt stress, indicating that endogenous SLs might be involved in NO-induced salt response in tomato seedlings. Meanwhile, under salt stress, GSNO or GR24 treatment induced the increase of endogenous SLs content in tomato seedlings. Moreover, GR24 or GSNO treatment effectively increased the content of chlorophyll, carotenoids and ascorbic acid (ASA), and enhanced the activities of antioxidant enzymes (superoxide dismutase, peroxidase, catalase, and ascorbate peroxidase), glutathione reductase (GR) and cleavage dioxygenase (CCD) enzyme. Additionally, GSNO or GR24 treatment also up-regulated the expression of SLs synthesis genes (SlCCD7, SlCCD8, SlD27 and SlMAX1) and its signal transduction genes (SlD14 and SlMAX2) in tomato seedlings under salt stress. While, a strigolactone synthesis inhibitor TIS108 blocked the increase of endogenous SLs, chlorophyll, carotenoids and ASA content, and antioxidant enzyme, GR, CCD enzyme activity and SLs-related gene expression levels induced by GSNO. Thus, SLs may play an important role in NO-enhanced salinity tolerance in tomato seedlings by increasing photosynthetic pigment content, enhancing antioxidant capacity and improving endogenous SLs synthesis.

Role of Basal ABA in Plant Growth and Development

Abscisic acid (ABA) regulates various aspects of plant physiology, including promoting seed dormancy and adaptive responses to abiotic and biotic stresses. In addition, ABA plays an im-portant role in growth and development under non-stressed conditions. This review summarizes phenotypes of ABA biosynthesis and signaling mutants to clarify the roles of basal ABA in growth and development. The promotive and inhibitive actions of ABA in growth are characterized by stunted and enhanced growth of ABA-deficient and insensitive mutants, respectively. Growth regulation by ABA is both promotive and inhibitive, depending on the context, such as concentrations, tissues, and environmental conditions. Basal ABA regulates local growth including hyponastic growth, skotomorphogenesis and lateral root growth. At the cellular level, basal ABA is essential for proper chloroplast biogenesis, central metabolism, and expression of cell-cycle genes. Basal ABA also regulates epidermis development in the shoot, by inhibiting stomatal development, and deposition of hydrophobic polymers like a cuticular wax layer covering the leaf surface. In the root, basal ABA is involved in xylem differentiation and suberization of the endodermis. Hormone crosstalk plays key roles in growth and developmental processes regulated by ABA. Phenotypes of ABA-deficient and insensitive mutants indicate prominent functions of basal ABA in plant growth and development.

Integration of transcriptome and targeted metabolome profiling reveals hormone related genes involved in the growth of Bletilla striata

Bletilla striata (Thunb.) Reichb.f. (BS) is a traditional Chinese medicine with numerous beneficial effects. In our previous study, Aspergillus flavus was isolated from B. striata. To explore the physiological and molecular mechanisms of Aspergillus flavus elicitor (1-G4) that promoted Bletilla striata growth, in this study, we performed the determination of growth indexes and transcriptomics and metabolomics analysis under 5% and 10% 1-G4 conditions. Results showed that 1-G4 elicitor could significantly promote the growth and development of B. striata. With the increasing concentration of 1-G4 elicitor, the contents of SA, ICAld, and ME-IAA significantly increased while the IP and ACC contents decreased dramatically. A total of 1657 DEGs (763 up-regulated and 894 down-regulated) between the control (CK) and 5% elicitor (CK vs G5) and 2415 DEGs (1208 up-regulated and 1207 down-regulated) between the control and 10% elicitor (CK vs G10) were identified. Further, we found that 22, 38, and 2 unigenes were involved in ME-IAA, IP, and ACC, respectively. It was indicated that these unigenes might be involved in B. striata growth. Overall, the current study laid a theoretical foundation for the effective utilization of endophytic fungi and the optimization of germplasm resources of B. striata.

Chemical Manipulation of Abscisic Acid Signaling: A New Approach to Abiotic and Biotic Stress Management in Agriculture

The phytohormone abscisic acid (ABA) is the best-known stress signaling molecule in plants. ABA protects sessile land plants from biotic and abiotic stresses. The conserved pyrabactin resistance/pyrabactin resistance-like/regulatory component of ABA receptors (PYR/PYL/RCAR) perceives ABA and triggers a cascade of signaling events. A thorough knowledge of the sequential steps of ABA signaling will be necessary for the development of chemicals that control plant stress responses. The core components of the ABA signaling pathway have been identified with adequate characterization. The information available concerning ABA biosynthesis, transport, perception, and metabolism has enabled detailed functional studies on how the protective ability of ABA in plants might be modified to increase plant resistance to stress. Some of the significant contributions to chemical manipulation include ABA biosynthesis inhibitors, and ABA receptor agonists and antagonists. Chemical manipulation of key control points in ABA signaling is important for abiotic and biotic stress management in agriculture. However, a comprehensive review of the current knowledge of chemical manipulation of ABA signaling is lacking. Here, a thorough analysis of recent reports on small-molecule modulation of ABA signaling is provided. The challenges and prospects in the chemical manipulation of ABA signaling for the development of ABA-based agrochemicals are also discussed.

Rapid Detection of Hormonal Involvement in Light Responses

Many aspects of light-controlled metabolism and development of plants depend on hormonal pathways. Here, a method is described to identify such hormonal dependence in light-regulated processes. A number of compounds-hormones and chemicals which interfere with hormonal pathways-are listed because of their usefulness in pharmacological treatment experiments. As an example for practical use of such compounds, elongation growth is discussed. An experimental setup is described in which plants are grown so that their structures develop predominantly in a two-dimensional plane. Time-lapse imaging is used to follow the plants in time, and image analysis reveals changes in plant morphology.

Chemical regulators of plant hormones and their applications in basic research and agriculture*

Plant hormones are small molecules that play versatile roles in regulating plant growth, development, and responses to the environment. Classic methodologies, including genetics, analytic chemistry, biochemistry, and molecular biology, have contributed to the progress in plant hormone studies. In addition, chemical regulators of plant hormone functions have been important in such studies. Today, synthetic chemicals, including plant growth regulators, are used to study and manipulate biological systems, collectively referred to as chemical biology. Here, we summarize the available chemical regulators and their contributions to plant hormone studies. We also pose questions that remain to be addressed in plant hormone studies and that might be solved with the help of chemical regulators.

Small Molecule Probes of ABA Biosynthesis and Signaling

The phytohormone ABA mediates many physiological and developmental responses, and its key role in plant water relations has fueled efforts to improve crop water productivity by manipulating ABA responses. ABA's core signaling components are encoded by large gene families, which has hampered functional studies using classical genetic approaches due to redundancy. Chemical approaches can complement genetic approaches and have the advantage of delivering both biological probes and potential agrochemical leads; these benefits have spawned the discovery and design of new chemical modulators of ABA signaling and biosynthesis, which have contributed to the identification of ABA receptors and helped to define PYR1 and related subfamily III receptors as key cellular targets for chemically manipulating water productivity. In this review, we provide an overview of small molecules that have helped dissect both ABA signaling and metabolic pathways. We further discuss how the insights gleaned using ABA probe molecules might be translated to improvements in crop water productivity and future opportunities for development of small molecules that affect ABA metabolism and signaling.

Small Molecule Toolbox for Strigolactone Biology

Strigolactones (SLs) are plant hormones associated with diverse developmental processes including plant architecture and stress responses. SLs are exuded to the soil as an ecological signal to attract symbiotic arbuscular-mycorrhizal fungi. This ecological mechanism is also used by parasitic plants to detect the presence of host plants and initiate germination. The functional diversity of SLs makes SL biology so extensive that a single methodology is not sufficient to comprehend it. This review describes the theoretical and practical aspects of the design of small molecule probes that have been used to elucidate the functions of SLs. The lessons from the development of small molecules to tackle the unique questions in SL biology might be instructive in the extending field of chemical biology in plants.

Design of Two Alternative Routes for the Synthesis of Naftifine and Analogues as Potential Antifungal Agents

Two practical and efficient approaches have been implemented as alternative procedures for the synthesis of naftifine and novel diversely substituted analogues 16 and 20 in good to excellent yields, mediated by Mannich-type reactions as the key step of the processes. In these approaches, the γ-aminoalcohols 15 and 19 were obtained as the key intermediates and their subsequent dehydration catalyzed either by Brønsted acids like H₂SO₄ and HCl or Lewis acid like AlCl₃, respectively, led to naftifine, along with the target allylamines 16 and 20. The antifungal assay results showed that intermediates 18 (bearing both a β-aminoketo- and N-methyl functionalities in their structures) and products 20 were the most active. Particularly, structures 18b, 18c, and the allylamine 20c showed the lowest MIC values, in the 0.5-7.8 µg/mL range, against the dermatophytes Trichophyton rubrum and Trichophyton mentagrophytes. Interesting enough, compound 18b bearing a 4-Br as the substituent of the phenyl ring, also displayed high activity against Candida albicans and Cryptococcus neoformans with MIC₈₀ = 7.8 µg/mL, being fungicide rather than fungistatic with a relevant MFC value = 15.6 µg/mL against C. neoformans.

Promotion of Germination Using Hydroxamic Acid Inhibitors of 9-cis-Epoxycarotenoid Dioxygenase

Abscisic acid (ABA) inhibits seed germination and the regulation of ABA biosynthesis has a role in maintenance of seed dormancy. The key rate-limiting step in ABA biosynthesis is catalyzed by 9-cis-epoxycarotenoid dioxygenase (NCED). Two hydroxamic acid inhibitors of carotenoid cleavage dioxygenase (CCD), D4 and D7, previously found to inhibit CCD and NCED in vitro, are shown to have the novel property of decreasing mean germination time of tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) seeds constitutively overexpressing LeNCED1. Post-germination, D4 exhibited no negative effects on tomato seedling growth in terms of height, dry weight, and fresh weight. Tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum L.) seeds containing a tetracycline-inducible LeNCED1 transgene were used to show that germination could be negatively and positively controlled through the chemical induction of gene expression and the chemical inhibition of the NCED protein: application of tetracycline increased mean germination time and delayed hypocotyl emergence in a similar manner to that observed when exogenous ABA was applied and this was reversed by D4 when NCED expression was induced at intermediate levels. D4 also improved germination in lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.) seeds under thermoinhibitory temperatures and in tomato seeds imbibed in high osmolarity solutions of polyethylene glycol. D4 reduced ABA and dihydrophaseic acid accumulation in tomato seeds overexpressing LeNCED1 and reduced ABA accumulation in wild type tomato seeds imbibed on polyethylene glycol. The evidence supports a mode of action of D4 through NCED inhibition, and this molecule provides a lead compound for the design of NCED inhibitors with greater specificity and potency.

Grafting cucumber onto luffa improves drought tolerance by increasing ABA biosynthesis and sensitivity

Balancing stomata-dependent CO₂ assimilation and transpiration is a key challenge for increasing crop productivity and water use efficiency under drought stress for sustainable crop production worldwide. Here, we show that cucumber and luffa plants with luffa as rootstock have intrinsically increased water use efficiency, decreased transpiration rate and less affected CO₂ assimilation capacity following drought stress over those with cucumber as rootstock. Drought accelerated abscisic acid (ABA) accumulation in roots, xylem sap and leaves, and induced the transcript of ABA signaling genes, leading to a decreased stomatal aperture and transpiration in the plants grafted onto luffa roots as compared to plants grafted onto cucumber roots. Furthermore, stomatal movement in the plants grafted onto luffa roots had an increased sensitivity to ABA. Inhibition of ABA biosynthesis in luffa roots decreased the drought tolerance in cucumber and luffa plants. Our study demonstrates that the roots of luffa have developed an enhanced ability to sense the changes in root-zone moisture and could eventually deliver modest level of ABA from roots to shoots that enhances water use efficiency under drought stress. Such a mechanism could be greatly exploited to benefit the agricultural production especially in arid and semi-arid areas.

Copper-catalyzed hydroboration of propargyl-functionalized alkynes in water

The Cu-catalyzed hydroboration of alkynes in operationally simple and environmentally friendly conditions is reported.

Positive feedback regulation of a Lycium chinense-derived VDE gene by drought-induced endogenous ABA, and over-expression of this VDE gene improve drought-induced photo-damage in Arabidopsis

Violaxanthin de-epoxidase (VDE) plays an important role in protecting the photosynthetic apparatus from photo-damage by dissipating excessively absorbed light energy as heat, via the conversion of violaxanthin (V) to intermediate product antheraxanthin (A) and final product zeaxanthin (Z) under light stress. We have cloned a VDE gene (LcVDE) from Lycium chinense, a deciduous woody perennial halophyte, which can grow in a large variety of soil types. The amino acid sequence of LcVDE has high homology with VDEs in other plants. Under drought stress, relative expression of LcVDE and the de-epoxidation ratio (Z+0.5A)/(V+A+Z) increased rapidly, and non-photochemical quenching (NPQ) also rose. Interestingly, these elevations induced by drought stress were reduced by the topical administration of abamine SG, a potent ABA inhibitor via inhibition of NCED in the ABA synthesis pathway. Until now, little has been done to explore the relationship between endogenous ABA and the expression of VDE genes. Since V serves as a common precursor for ABA, these data support the possible involvement of endogenous ABA in the positive feedback regulation of LcVDE gene expression in L. chinense under drought stress. Moreover, the LcVDE may be involved in modulating the level of photosynthesis damage caused by drought stress. Furthermore, the ratio of (Z+0.5A)/(V+A+Z) and NPQ increased more in transgenic Arabidopsis over-expressing LcVDE gene than the wild types under drought stress. The maximum quantum yield of primary photochemistry of PSII (Fv/Fm) in transgenic Arabidopsis decreased more slowly during the stressed period than that in wild types under the same conditions. Furthermore, transgenic Arabidopsis over-expressing LcVDE showed increased tolerance to drought stress.

Additive-free decarboxylative coupling of cinnamic acid derivatives in water: synthesis of allyl amines

The first example of an additive-free decarboxylative coupling of cinnamic acid derivatives with formaldehyde and amines to afford the corresponding allyl amines is reported. This reaction is highly environmentally friendly because it was conducted in H2O and without any additives, releasing only CO2 and H2O as byproducts. This reaction showed a broad substrate scope including cyclic and acyclic amines and high functional group tolerance. Moreover, phenyl dienoic acid participated in this type of decarboxylative coupling reaction.

Palladium-catalyzed regio- and stereoselective γ-arylation of tertiary allylic amines: identification of potent adenylyl cyclase inhibitors

Substituted allylic amines and their derivatives are key structural motifs of many drug molecules and natural products. A general, mild, and practical palladium-catalyzed γ-arylation of tertiary allylic amines, one of the most challenging Heck arylation substrates, has been developed. The γ-arylation products were obtained in excellent regio- and stereoselectivity. Moreover, novel and potent adenylyl cyclase inhibitors with the potential for treating neuropathic and inflammatory pain have been identified from the γ-arylation products.

Target sites for chemical regulation of strigolactone signaling

Demands for plant growth regulators (PGRs; chemicals that control plant growth) are increasing globally, especially in developing countries. Both positive and negative PGRs are widely used to enhance crop production and to suppress unwanted shoot growth, respectively. Strigolactones (SLs) are multifunctional molecules that function as phytohormones, inhibiting shoot branching and also functioning in the rhizospheric communication with symbiotic fungi and parasitic weeds. Therefore, it is anticipated that chemicals that regulate the functions of SLs will be widely used in agricultural applications. Although the SL biosynthetic pathway is not fully understood, it has been demonstrated that β-carotene isomerases, carotenoid cleavage dioxygenases (CCDs), and a cytochrome P450 monooxygenase are involved in strigolactone biosynthesis. A CCD inhibitor, abamine, which is also an inhibitor of abscisic acid biosynthesis, reduces the levels of SL in several plant species and reduces the germination rate of Orobanche minor seeds grown with tobacco. On the basis of the structure of abamine, several chemicals have been designed to specifically inhibit CCDs during SL synthesis. Cytochrome P450 monooxygenase is another target enzyme in the development of SL biosynthesis inhibitors, and the triazole-derived TIS series of chemicals is known to include SL biosynthesis inhibitors, although their target enzyme has not been identified. Recently, DWARF14 (D14) has been shown to be a receptor for SLs, and the D-ring moiety of SL is essential for its recognition by D14. A variety of SL agonists are currently under development and most agonists commonly contain the D-ring or a D-ring-like moiety. Several research groups have also resolved the crystal structure of D14 in the last two years. It is expected that this information on the D14 structure will be invaluable not only for developing SL agonists with novel structures but also in the design of inhibitors of SL receptors.

Selective mimics of strigolactone actions and their potential use for controlling damage caused by root parasitic weeds

Strigolactones (SLs) are a novel class of plant hormones and rhizosphere communication signals, although the molecular mechanisms underlying their activities have not yet been fully determined. Nor is their application in agriculture well developed. The importance of plant hormone agonists has been demonstrated in both basic and applied research, and chemicals that mimic strigolactone functions should greatly facilitate strigolactone research. Here, we report our discovery of a new phenoxyfuranone compound, 4-Br debranone (4BD), that shows similar activity to that of the major strigolactone (SL) analog GR24 in many aspects of a biological assay on plants. 4BD strongly inhibited tiller bud outgrowth in the SL-deficient rice mutant d10 at the same concentration as GR24, with no adverse effects, even during prolonged cultivation. This result was also observed in the Arabidopsis thaliana SL-deficient mutants max1, max3, and max4. However, the application of 4BD to the Arabidopsis SL-insensitive mutant max2 induced no morphological changes in it. The expression of SL biosynthetic genes was also reduced by 4BD treatment, probably via negative feedback regulation. However, in a seed germination assay on Striga hermonthica, a root parasitic plant, 4BD showed far less activity than GR24. These results suggest that 4BD is the first plant-specific strigolactone mimic.

Root hydrotropism: an update

While water shortage remains the single-most important factor influencing world agriculture, there are very few studies on how plants grow in response to water potential, i.e., hydrotropism. Terrestrial plant roots dwell in the soil, and their ability to grow and explore underground requires many sensors for stimuli such as gravity, humidity gradients, light, mechanical stimulations, temperature, and oxygen. To date, extremely limited information is available on the components of such sensors; however, all of these stimuli are sensed in the root cap. Directional growth of roots is controlled by gravity, which is fixed in direction and intensity. However, other environmental factors, such as water potential gradients, which fluctuate in time, space, direction, and intensity, can act as a signal for modifying the direction of root growth accordingly. Hydrotropism may help roots to obtain water from the soil and at the same time may participate in the establishment of the root system. Current genetic analysis of hydrotropism in Arabidopsis has offered new players, mainly AHR1, NHR1, MIZ1, and MIZ2, which seem to modulate how root caps sense and choose to respond hydrotropically as opposed to other tropic responses. Here we review the mechanism(s) by which these genes and the plant hormones abscisic acid and cytokinins coordinate hydrotropism to counteract the tropic responses to gravitational field, light or touch stimuli. The biological consequence of hydrotropism is also discussed in relation to water stress avoidance.

Recent advances in strigolactone research: chemical and biological aspects

Strigolactones (SLs) are a group of terpenoid lactones that were discovered in the 1960s. They were initially characterized as allelochemicals secreted from roots to the rhizosphere, and have functions in parasitic and symbiotic interactions with root parasitic plants and arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi, respectively. In 2008, SLs were shown to act as endogenous hormones that regulate shoot branching. The discovery of a hormonal function for SLs has provided a link between genetically studied shoot branching mutants and chemically characterized SLs in earlier studies. This has offered new strategies and experimental tools to address a number of intriguing questions as to the biological function and molecular action of SLs. In this review, we will provide an overview of recent topics on SLs, and highlight new discoveries regarding its biosynthetic pathway and multiple hormonal roles in plant development and adaptive responses.

Light and abscisic acid signalling are integrated by MIZ1 gene expression and regulate hydrotropic response in roots of Arabidopsis thaliana

Plant roots undergo tropic growth in response to environmental cues, and each tropic response is affected by several environmental stimuli. Even its importance, molecular regulation of hydrotropism has not been largely uncovered. Tropic responses including hydrotropism were impacted by other environmental signal. We found that hydrotropism was reduced in dark-grown seedling. Moreover, we found that the expression of MIZ1, an essential gene for hydrotropism, was regulated by light signal. From our genetic analysis, phytochrome A (phyA)-, phyB- and HY5-mediated blue-light signalling play curial roles in light-mediated induction of MIZ1 and hydrotropism. In addition, we found that abscisic acid (ABA) also induced MIZ1 expression. ABA treatment could recover weak hydrotropism and MIZ1 expression level of hy5, and ABA synthesis inhibitor, abamineSG, further reduced hydrotropic curvature of hy5. In contrast, ABA treatment did not affect ahydrotropic phenotype of miz1. These results suggest that ABA signalling regulates MIZ1 expression independently from light signalling. Our results demonstrate that environmental signals, such as light and stresses mediated by ABA signalling, are integrated into MIZ1 expression and thus regulate hydrotropism. These machineries will allow plants to acquire sufficient amounts of water.

Seasonal abscisic acid signal and a basic leucine zipper transcription factor, DkbZIP5, regulate proanthocyanidin biosynthesis in persimmon fruit

Proanthocyanidins (PAs) are secondary metabolites that contribute to plant protection and crop quality. Persimmon (Diospyros kaki) has a unique characteristic of accumulating large amounts of PAs, particularly in its fruit. Normal astringent-type and mutant nonastringent-type fruits show different PA accumulation patterns depending on the seasonal expression patterns of DkMyb4, which is a Myb transcription factor (TF) regulating many PA pathway genes in persimmon. In this study, attempts were made to identify the factors involved in DkMyb4 expression and the resultant PA accumulation in persimmon fruit. Treatment with abscisic acid (ABA) and an ABA biosynthesis inhibitor resulted in differential changes in the expression patterns of DkMyb4 and PA biosynthesis in astringent-type and nonastringent-type fruits depending on the development stage. To obtain an ABA-signaling TF, we isolated a full-length basic leucine zipper (bZIP) TF, DkbZIP5, which is highly expressed in persimmon fruit. We also showed that ectopic DkbZIP5 overexpression in persimmon calluses induced the up-regulation of DkMyb4 and the resultant PA biosynthesis. In addition, a detailed molecular characterization using the electrophoretic mobility shift assay and transient reporter assay indicated that DkbZIP5 recognized ABA-responsive elements in the promoter region of DkMyb4 and acted as a direct regulator of DkMyb4 in an ABA-dependent manner. These results suggest that ABA signals may be involved in PA biosynthesis in persimmon fruit via DkMyb4 activation by DkbZIP5.

Substrate-directable Heck reactions with arenediazonium salts. The regio- and stereoselective arylation of allylamine derivatives and applications in the synthesis of naftifine and abamines

The palladium-catalyzed, substrate-directable Heck-Matsuda reaction of allylamine derivatives with arenediazonium salts is reported. The reaction proceeds under mild conditions, with excellent regio- and stereochemical control as a function of coordinating groups present in the allylamine substrate. The distance between the olefin moiety and the carbonylic system seems to play a key role regarding the regiocontrol. The method presents itself as robust, as simple to carry out, and with wide synthetic scope concerning the allylic substrates and the type of arenediazonium employed. The synthetic potential of the method is illustrated by the short total syntheses of the bioactive compounds naftifine, abamine, and abamine SG.

Chemical biology of abscisic acid

Chemical biology is a discipline that utilizes chemicals to elucidate biological mechanisms and physiological functions. Various abscisic acid (ABA) derivatives have revealed the structural requirement for the perception by ABA receptors while biotin or caged derivatives of ABA have disclosed the localization of several ABA-binding proteins. Recently, selective ABA agonist has been used to identify ABA receptors. Furthermore, ABA biosynthesis and catabolic inhibitors have contributed to the identification of new ABA functions in plant growth and development. The physiological function of ABA in non-plant organisms has gradually been revealed. In this review, we discuss the development of small bioactive chemicals and their significance in ABA research.

Study of 'Redhaven' peach and its white-fleshed mutant suggests a key role of CCD4 carotenoid dioxygenase in carotenoid and norisoprenoid volatile metabolism

BACKGROUND

Carotenoids are plant metabolites which are not only essential in photosynthesis but also important quality factors in determining the pigmentation and aroma of flowers and fruits. To investigate the regulation of carotenoid metabolism, as related to norisoprenoids and other volatile compounds in peach (Prunus persica L. Batsch.), and the role of carotenoid dioxygenases in determining differences in flesh color phenotype and volatile composition, the expression patterns of relevant carotenoid genes and metabolites were studied during fruit development along with volatile compound content. Two contrasted cultivars, the yellow-fleshed 'Redhaven' (RH) and its white-fleshed mutant 'Redhaven Bianca' (RHB) were examined.

RESULTS

The two genotypes displayed marked differences in the accumulation of carotenoid pigments in mesocarp tissues. Lower carotenoid levels and higher levels of norisoprenoid volatiles were observed in RHB, which might be explained by differential activity of carotenoid cleavage dioxygenase (CCD) enzymes. In fact, the ccd4 transcript levels were dramatically higher at late ripening stages in RHB with respect to RH. The two genotypes also showed differences in the expression patterns of several carotenoid and isoprenoid transcripts, compatible with a feed-back regulation of these transcripts. Abamine SG - an inhibitor of CCD enzymes - decreased the levels of both isoprenoid and non-isoprenoid volatiles in RHB fruits, indicating a complex regulation of volatile production.

CONCLUSIONS

Differential expression of ccd4 is likely to be the major determinant in the accumulation of carotenoids and carotenoid-derived volatiles in peach fruit flesh. More in general, dioxygenases appear to be key factors controlling volatile composition in peach fruit, since abamine SG-treated 'Redhaven Bianca' fruits had strongly reduced levels of norisoprenoids and other volatile classes. Comparative functional studies of peach carotenoid cleavage enzymes are required to fully elucidate their role in peach fruit pigmentation and aroma.

Does abscisic acid affect strigolactone biosynthesis?

*Strigolactones are considered a novel class of plant hormones that, in addition to their endogenous signalling function, are exuded into the rhizosphere acting as a signal to stimulate hyphal branching of arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi and germination of root parasitic plant seeds. Considering the importance of the strigolactones and their biosynthetic origin (from carotenoids), we investigated the relationship with the plant hormone abscisic acid (ABA). *Strigolactone production and ABA content in the presence of specific inhibitors of oxidative carotenoid cleavage enzymes and in several tomato ABA-deficient mutants were analysed by LC-MS/MS. In addition, the expression of two genes involved in strigolactone biosynthesis was studied. *The carotenoid cleavage dioxygenase (CCD) inhibitor D2 reduced strigolactone but not ABA content of roots. However, in abamineSG-treated plants, an inhibitor of 9-cis-epoxycarotenoid dioxygenase (NCED), and the ABA mutants notabilis, sitiens and flacca, ABA and strigolactones were greatly reduced. The reduction in strigolactone production correlated with the downregulation of LeCCD7 and LeCCD8 genes in all three mutants. *The results show a correlation between ABA levels and strigolactone production, and suggest a role for ABA in the regulation of strigolactone biosynthesis.

A new lead chemical for strigolactone biosynthesis inhibitors

Several triazole-containing chemicals have previously been shown to act as efficient inhibitors of cytochrome P450 monooxygenases. To discover a strigolactone biosynthesis inhibitor, we screened a chemical library of triazole derivatives to find chemicals that induce tiller bud outgrowth of rice seedlings. We discovered a triazole-type chemical, TIS13 [2,2-dimethyl-7-phenoxy-4-(1H-1,2,4-triazol-1-yl)heptan-3-ol], which induced outgrowth of second tiller buds of wild-type seedlings, as observed for non-treated strigolactone-deficient d10 mutant seedlings. TIS13 treatment reduced strigolactone levels in both roots and root exudates in a concentration-dependent manner. Co-application of GR24, a synthetic strigolactone, with TIS13 canceled the TIS13-induced tiller bud outgrowth. Taken together, these results indicate that TIS13 inhibits strigolactone biosynthesis in rice seedlings. We propose that TIS13 is a new lead compound for the development of specific strigolactone biosynthesis inhibitors.

Seed dormancy and ABA signaling: the breakthrough goes on

The seed is an important organ of higher plants regarding plant survival and species dispersion. The transition between seed dormancy and germination represents a critical stage in the plant life cycle and it is an important ecological and commercial trait. A dynamic balance of synthesis and catabolism of two antagonistic hormones, abscisic acid (ABA) and giberellins (GAs), controls the equilibrium between seed dormancy and germination. Embryonic ABA plays a central role in induction and maintenance of seed dormancy, and also inhibits the transition from embryonic to germination growth. Therefore, the ABA metabolism must be highly regulated at both temporal and spatial levels during phase of dessication tolerance. On the other hand, the ABA levels do not depend exclusively on the seeds because sometimes it becomes a strong sink and imports it from the roots and rhizosphere through the xylem and/or phloem. All theses events are discussed in depth here. Likewise, the role of some recently characterized genes belonging to seeds of woody species and related to ABA signaling, are also included. Finally, although four possible ABA receptors have been reported, not much is known about how they mediate ABA signalling transduction. However, new publications seem to shown that almost all these receptors lack several properties to consider them as such.

The high light response in Arabidopsis involves ABA signaling between vascular and bundle sheath cells

Previously, it has been shown that Arabidopsis thaliana leaves exposed to high light accumulate hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) in bundle sheath cell (BSC) chloroplasts as part of a retrograde signaling network that induces ASCORBATE PEROXIDASE2 (APX2). Abscisic acid (ABA) signaling has been postulated to be involved in this network. To investigate the proposed role of ABA, a combination of physiological, pharmacological, bioinformatic, and molecular genetic approaches was used. ABA biosynthesis is initiated in vascular parenchyma and activates a signaling network in neighboring BSCs. This signaling network includes the Galpha subunit of the heterotrimeric G protein complex, the OPEN STOMATA1 protein kinase, and extracellular H2O2, which together coordinate with a redox-retrograde signal from BSC chloroplasts to activate APX2 expression. High light-responsive genes expressed in other leaf tissues are subject to a coordination of chloroplast retrograde signaling and transcellular signaling activated by ABA synthesized in vascular cells. ABA is necessary for the successful adjustment of the leaf to repeated episodes of high light. This process involves maintenance of photochemical quenching, which is required for dissipation of excess excitation energy.

Sesquiterpene-like inhibitors of a 9-cis-epoxycarotenoid dioxygenase regulating abscisic acid biosynthesis in higher plants

Abscisic acid (ABA) is a carotenoid-derived plant hormone known to regulate critical functions in growth, development and responses to environmental stress. The key enzyme which carries out the first committed step in ABA biosynthesis is the carotenoid cleavage 9-cis-epoxycarotenoid dioxygenase (NCED). We have developed a series of sulfur and nitrogen-containing compounds as potential ABA biosynthesis inhibitors of the NCED, based on modification of the sesquiterpenoid segment of the 9-cis-xanthophyll substrates and product. In in vitro assays, three sesquiterpene-like carotenoid cleavage dioxygenase (SLCCD) inhibitor compounds 13, 17 and 18 were found to act as inhibitors of Arabidopsis thaliana NCED 3 (AtNCED3) with K(i)'s of 93, 57 and 87 microM, respectively. Computational docking to a model of AtNCED3 supports a mechanism of inhibition through coordination of the heteroatom with the non-heme iron in the enzyme active site. In pilot studies, pretreatment of osmotically stressed Arabidopsis plants with compound 13 resulted lower levels of ABA and catabolite accumulation compared to levels in mannitol-stressed plant controls. This same inhibitor moderated known ABA-induced gene regulation effects and was only weakly active in inhibition of seed germination. Interestingly, all three inhibitors led to moderation of the stress-induced transcription of AtNCED3 itself, which could further contribute to lowering ABA biosynthesis in planta. Overall, these sesquiterpenoid-like inhibitors present new tools for controlling and investigating ABA biosynthesis and regulation.

Selective inhibition of carotenoid cleavage dioxygenases: phenotypic effects on shoot branching

Members of the carotenoid cleavage dioxygenase family catalyze the oxidative cleavage of carotenoids at various chain positions, leading to the formation of a wide range of apocarotenoid signaling molecules. To explore the functions of this diverse enzyme family, we have used a chemical genetic approach to design selective inhibitors for different classes of carotenoid cleavage dioxygenase. A set of 18 arylalkyl-hydroxamic acids was synthesized in which the distance between an iron-chelating hydroxamic acid and an aromatic ring was varied; these compounds were screened as inhibitors of four different enzyme classes, either in vitro or in vivo. Potent inhibitors were found that selectively inhibited enzymes that cleave carotenoids at the 9,10 position; 50% inhibition was achieved at submicromolar concentrations. Application of certain inhibitors at 100 μm to Arabidopsis node explants or whole plants led to increased shoot branching, consistent with inhibition of 9,10-cleavage.

Analysis of protein changes during grape berry ripening by 2-DE and MALDI-TOF

Grape berry, a nonclimacteric fruit, during ripening turns from green, hard and acidic to coloured, soft and sweet. Many studies have focused on dynamic changes of mRNA levels, metabolites, sugars or individual proteins, but this is the first report of a proteomic approach applied to the screening of the most prominent variations that take place during berry ripening. Vitis vinifera cv. 'Nebbiolo Lampia' berries were collected at 10-day intervals, starting 1 month after flowering to complete ripe stage; total protein extracts from deseeded berries were separated by 2-DE. A total of 730 spots were detected in the 2-DE gels. 118 protein spots, differentially expressed during berry development, were subjected to MALDI-TOF analysis. Ninety-three of them were identified, corresponding to 101 proteins. The majority of proteins were linked to metabolism, energy and protein synthesis and fate. In comparison to published surveys of major berry proteins, fewer proteins related to stress response and more proteins related to cell structure were differentially expressed. Our data confirm a general decrease of glycolysis during ripening, and an increase of PR proteins in the range of 20-35 kDa. They furthermore suggest that oxidative stress decreases during ripening while extensive cytoskeleton rearrangement takes place in this period.