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Yao Z, Liang M, Zhu S. Infectious factors in myocarditis: a comprehensive review of common and rare pathogens. Egypt Heart J 2024; 76:64. [PMID: 38789885 PMCID: PMC11126555 DOI: 10.1186/s43044-024-00493-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2024] [Accepted: 05/13/2024] [Indexed: 05/26/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Myocarditis is a significant health threat today, with infectious agents being the most common cause. Accurate diagnosis of the etiology of infectious myocarditis is crucial for effective treatment. MAIN BODY Infectious myocarditis can be caused by viruses, prokaryotes, parasites, and fungi. Viral infections are typically the primary cause. However, some rare opportunistic pathogens can also damage heart muscle cells in patients with immunodeficiencies, neoplasms and those who have undergone heart surgery. CONCLUSIONS This article reviews research on common and rare pathogens of infectious myocarditis, emphasizing the complexity of its etiology, with the aim of helping clinicians make an accurate diagnosis of infectious myocarditis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zongjie Yao
- School of Health and Life Sciences, University of Health and Rehabilitation Sciences, Qindao, China.
| | - Mingjun Liang
- Department of Intensive Care Medicine, Shanghai Six People's Hospital Affilicated to Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Simin Zhu
- Wuhan Third Hospital-Tongren Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan, China
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2
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Kim Y, Pool E, Kim E, Dampalla CS, Nguyen HN, Johnson DK, Lovell S, Groutas WC, Chang KO. Potent small molecule inhibitors against the 3C protease of foot-and-mouth disease virus. Microbiol Spectr 2024; 12:e0337223. [PMID: 38466127 PMCID: PMC10986521 DOI: 10.1128/spectrum.03372-23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2023] [Accepted: 01/18/2024] [Indexed: 03/12/2024] Open
Abstract
Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is one of the most devastating diseases of livestock which can cause significant economic losses, especially when introduced to FMD-free countries. FMD virus (FMDV) belongs to the family Picornaviridae and is antigenically heterogeneous with seven established serotypes. The prevailing preventive and control strategies are limited to restriction of animal movement and elimination of infected or exposed animals, which can be potentially combined with vaccination. However, FMD vaccination has limitations including delayed protection and lack of cross-protection against different serotypes. Recently, antiviral drug use for FMD outbreaks has increasingly been recognized as a potential tool to augment the existing early response strategies, but limited research has been reported on potential antiviral compounds for FMDV. FMDV 3C protease (3Cpro) cleaves the viral-encoded polyprotein into mature and functional proteins during viral replication. The essential role of viral 3Cpro in viral replication and the high conservation of 3Cpro among different FMDV serotypes make it an excellent target for antiviral drug development. We have previously reported multiple series of inhibitors against picornavirus 3Cpro or 3C-like proteases (3CLpros) encoded by coronaviruses or caliciviruses. In this study, we conducted structure-activity relationship studies for our in-house focused compound library containing 3Cpro or 3CLpro inhibitors against FMDV 3Cpro using enzyme and cell-based assays. Herein, we report the discovery of aldehyde and α-ketoamide inhibitors of FMDV 3Cpro with high potency. These data inform future preclinical studies that are related to the advancement of these compounds further along the drug development pathway.IMPORTANCEFood-and-mouth disease (FMD) virus (FMDV) causes devastating disease in cloven-hoofed animals with a significant economic impact. Emergency response to FMD outbreaks to limit FMD spread is critical, and the use of antivirals may overcome the limitations of existing control measures by providing immediate protection for susceptible animals. FMDV encodes 3C protease (3Cpro), which is essential for virus replication and an attractive target for antiviral drug discovery. Here, we report a structure-activity relationship study on multiple series of protease inhibitors and identified potent inhibitors of FMDV 3Cpro. Our results suggest that these compounds have the potential for further development as FMD antivirals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yunjeong Kim
- Department of Diagnostic Medicine and Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas, USA
| | - Emma Pool
- Department of Diagnostic Medicine and Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas, USA
| | - Eunji Kim
- Department of Diagnostic Medicine and Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas, USA
| | | | - Harry Nhat Nguyen
- Department of Chemistry, Wichita State University, Wichita, Kansas, USA
| | - David K. Johnson
- Computational Chemical Biology Core, The University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas, USA
| | - Scott Lovell
- Protein Structure and X-ray Crystallography Laboratory, The University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas, USA
| | | | - Kyeong-Ok Chang
- Department of Diagnostic Medicine and Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas, USA
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3
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Janin YL. On the origins of SARS-CoV-2 main protease inhibitors. RSC Med Chem 2024; 15:81-118. [PMID: 38283212 PMCID: PMC10809347 DOI: 10.1039/d3md00493g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2023] [Accepted: 10/13/2023] [Indexed: 01/30/2024] Open
Abstract
In order to address the world-wide health challenge caused by the COVID-19 pandemic, the 3CL protease/SARS-CoV-2 main protease (SARS-CoV-2-Mpro) coded by its nsp5 gene became one of the biochemical targets for the design of antiviral drugs. In less than 3 years of research, 4 inhibitors of SARS-CoV-2-Mpro have actually been authorized for COVID-19 treatment (nirmatrelvir, ensitrelvir, leritrelvir and simnotrelvir) and more such as EDP-235, FB-2001 and STI-1558/Olgotrelvir or five undisclosed compounds (CDI-988, ASC11, ALG-097558, QLS1128 and H-10517) are undergoing clinical trials. This review is an attempt to picture this quite unprecedented medicinal chemistry feat and provide insights on how these cysteine protease inhibitors were discovered. Since many series of covalent SARS-CoV-2-Mpro inhibitors owe some of their origins to previous work on other proteases, we first provided a description of various inhibitors of cysteine-bearing human caspase-1 or cathepsin K, as well as inhibitors of serine proteases such as human dipeptidyl peptidase-4 or the hepatitis C protein complex NS3/4A. This is then followed by a description of the results of the approaches adopted (repurposing, structure-based and high throughput screening) to discover coronavirus main protease inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yves L Janin
- Structure et Instabilité des Génomes (StrInG), Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, INSERM, CNRS, Alliance Sorbonne Université 75005 Paris France
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4
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Stubbing LA, Hubert JG, Bell-Tyrer J, Hermant YO, Yang SH, McSweeney AM, McKenzie-Goldsmith GM, Ward VK, Furkert DP, Brimble MA. P 1 Glutamine isosteres in the design of inhibitors of 3C/3CL protease of human viruses of the Pisoniviricetes class. RSC Chem Biol 2023; 4:533-547. [PMID: 37547456 PMCID: PMC10398354 DOI: 10.1039/d3cb00075c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2023] [Accepted: 06/19/2023] [Indexed: 08/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Viral infections are one of the leading causes of acute morbidity in humans and much endeavour has been made by the synthetic community for the development of drugs to treat associated diseases. Peptide-based enzyme inhibitors, usually short sequences of three or four residues, are one of the classes of compounds currently under development for enhancement of their activity and pharmaceutical properties. This review reports the advances made in the design of inhibitors targeting the family of highly conserved viral proteases 3C/3CLpro, which play a key role in viral replication and present minimal homology with mammalian proteases. Particular focus is put on the reported development of P1 glutamine isosteres to generate potent inhibitors mimicking the natural substrate sequence at the site of recognition.'
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Affiliation(s)
- Louise A Stubbing
- School of Chemical Sciences, The University of Auckland 23 Symonds Street and 3b Symonds Street Auckland 1142 New Zealand
- Maurice Wilkins Centre for Molecular Biodiscovery, The University of Auckland 3b Symonds Street Auckland 1142 New Zealand
| | - Jonathan G Hubert
- School of Chemical Sciences, The University of Auckland 23 Symonds Street and 3b Symonds Street Auckland 1142 New Zealand
| | - Joseph Bell-Tyrer
- School of Chemical Sciences, The University of Auckland 23 Symonds Street and 3b Symonds Street Auckland 1142 New Zealand
| | - Yann O Hermant
- School of Chemical Sciences, The University of Auckland 23 Symonds Street and 3b Symonds Street Auckland 1142 New Zealand
- Maurice Wilkins Centre for Molecular Biodiscovery, The University of Auckland 3b Symonds Street Auckland 1142 New Zealand
| | - Sung Hyun Yang
- School of Chemical Sciences, The University of Auckland 23 Symonds Street and 3b Symonds Street Auckland 1142 New Zealand
| | - Alice M McSweeney
- Maurice Wilkins Centre for Molecular Biodiscovery, The University of Auckland 3b Symonds Street Auckland 1142 New Zealand
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Otago PO Box 56, 720 Cumberland Street Dunedin 9054 New Zealand
| | - Geena M McKenzie-Goldsmith
- Maurice Wilkins Centre for Molecular Biodiscovery, The University of Auckland 3b Symonds Street Auckland 1142 New Zealand
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Otago PO Box 56, 720 Cumberland Street Dunedin 9054 New Zealand
| | - Vernon K Ward
- Maurice Wilkins Centre for Molecular Biodiscovery, The University of Auckland 3b Symonds Street Auckland 1142 New Zealand
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Otago PO Box 56, 720 Cumberland Street Dunedin 9054 New Zealand
| | - Daniel P Furkert
- School of Chemical Sciences, The University of Auckland 23 Symonds Street and 3b Symonds Street Auckland 1142 New Zealand
- Maurice Wilkins Centre for Molecular Biodiscovery, The University of Auckland 3b Symonds Street Auckland 1142 New Zealand
| | - Margaret A Brimble
- School of Chemical Sciences, The University of Auckland 23 Symonds Street and 3b Symonds Street Auckland 1142 New Zealand
- Maurice Wilkins Centre for Molecular Biodiscovery, The University of Auckland 3b Symonds Street Auckland 1142 New Zealand
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5
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Wan L, Wang X, Wang T, Yuan X, Liu W, Huang Y, Deng C, Cao S. Comparison of Target Pocket Similarity and Progress into Research on Inhibitors of Picornavirus 3C Proteases. Chem Biodivers 2023; 20:e202201100. [PMID: 36808685 DOI: 10.1002/cbdv.202201100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2022] [Revised: 02/09/2023] [Accepted: 02/09/2023] [Indexed: 02/21/2023]
Abstract
The 3C protease (3C Pro) plays a significant role in the life cycle of picornaviruses from replication to translation, making it an attractive target for structure-based design of drugs against picornaviruses. The structurally related 3C-like protease (3CL Pro) is an important protein involved in the replication of coronaviruses. With the emergence of COVID-19 and consequent intensive research into 3CL Pro, development of 3CL Pro inhibitors has emerged as a popular topic. This article compares the similarities of the target pockets of various 3C and 3CL Pros from numerous pathogenic viruses. This article also reports several types of 3C Pro inhibitors that are currently undergoing extensive studies and introduces various structural modifications of 3C Pro inhibitors to provide a reference for the development of new and more effective inhibitors of 3C Pro and 3CL Pro.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li Wan
- Key Laboratory of Green Chemical Engineering Process of Ministry of Education, School of Chemical Engineering and Pharmacy, Wuhan Institute of Technology, Wuhan, 430205, P. R. China
| | - Xiaobo Wang
- School of Pharmacy, Xianning Medical College, Hubei University of Science and Technology, Xianning, 437100, P. R. China
| | - Tangle Wang
- Key Laboratory of Green Chemical Engineering Process of Ministry of Education, School of Chemical Engineering and Pharmacy, Wuhan Institute of Technology, Wuhan, 430205, P. R. China
| | - Xiaolan Yuan
- Key Laboratory of Green Chemical Engineering Process of Ministry of Education, School of Chemical Engineering and Pharmacy, Wuhan Institute of Technology, Wuhan, 430205, P. R. China
| | - Wei Liu
- Key Laboratory of Green Chemical Engineering Process of Ministry of Education, School of Chemical Engineering and Pharmacy, Wuhan Institute of Technology, Wuhan, 430205, P. R. China
| | - Yan Huang
- Key Laboratory of Green Chemical Engineering Process of Ministry of Education, School of Chemical Engineering and Pharmacy, Wuhan Institute of Technology, Wuhan, 430205, P. R. China
| | - Changyong Deng
- Key Laboratory of Green Chemical Engineering Process of Ministry of Education, School of Chemical Engineering and Pharmacy, Wuhan Institute of Technology, Wuhan, 430205, P. R. China
| | - Shuang Cao
- Key Laboratory of Green Chemical Engineering Process of Ministry of Education, School of Chemical Engineering and Pharmacy, Wuhan Institute of Technology, Wuhan, 430205, P. R. China
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6
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Dai W, Jochmans D, Xie H, Yang H, Li J, Su H, Chang D, Wang J, Peng J, Zhu L, Nian Y, Hilgenfeld R, Jiang H, Chen K, Zhang L, Xu Y, Neyts J, Liu H. Design, Synthesis, and Biological Evaluation of Peptidomimetic Aldehydes as Broad-Spectrum Inhibitors against Enterovirus and SARS-CoV-2. J Med Chem 2022; 65:2794-2808. [PMID: 33872498 PMCID: PMC8084273 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.0c02258] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2020] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
A novel series of peptidomimetic aldehydes was designed and synthesized to target 3C protease (3Cpro) of enterovirus 71 (EV71). Most of the compounds exhibited high antiviral activity, and among them, compound 18p demonstrated potent enzyme inhibitory activity and broad-spectrum antiviral activity on a panel of enteroviruses and rhinoviruses. The crystal structure of EV71 3Cpro in complex with 18p determined at a resolution of 1.2 Å revealed that 18p covalently linked to the catalytic Cys147 with an aldehyde group. In addition, these compounds also exhibited good inhibitory activity against the 3CLpro and the replication of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), especially compound 18p (IC50 = 0.034 μM, EC50 = 0.29 μM). According to our previous work, these compounds have no reasons for concern regarding acute toxicity. Compared with AG7088, compound 18p also exhibited good pharmacokinetic properties and more potent anticoronavirus activity, making it an excellent lead for further development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenhao Dai
- State Key Laboratory of Drug Research, CAS Key
Laboratory of Receptor Research, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica,
Chinese Academy of Sciences, 555 Zu Chong Zhi Road, Shanghai 201203,
China
- University of Chinese Academy of
Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Dirk Jochmans
- KU Leuven, Department of Microbiology and Immunology,
Rega Institute for Medical Research, Laboratory of Virology and
Chemotherapy, Leuven B-3000, Belgium
| | - Hang Xie
- State Key Laboratory of Drug Research, CAS Key
Laboratory of Receptor Research, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica,
Chinese Academy of Sciences, 555 Zu Chong Zhi Road, Shanghai 201203,
China
| | - Hang Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Virology, Wuhan
Institute of Virology, Center for Biosafety Mega-Science, Chinese Academy of
Sciences, Wuhan, Hubei 430071, China
| | - Jian Li
- State Key Laboratory of Drug Research, CAS Key
Laboratory of Receptor Research, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica,
Chinese Academy of Sciences, 555 Zu Chong Zhi Road, Shanghai 201203,
China
- College of Pharmacy, Nanjing University
of Chinese Medicine, 138 Xianlin Avenue, Qixia District, Nanjing, 210023,
China
| | - Haixia Su
- State Key Laboratory of Drug Research, CAS Key
Laboratory of Receptor Research, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica,
Chinese Academy of Sciences, 555 Zu Chong Zhi Road, Shanghai 201203,
China
- University of Chinese Academy of
Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Di Chang
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of New Drug Design, School of
Pharmacy, East China University of Science and Technology, 130
Meilong Road, Shanghai 200237, China
| | - Jiang Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Drug Research, CAS Key
Laboratory of Receptor Research, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica,
Chinese Academy of Sciences, 555 Zu Chong Zhi Road, Shanghai 201203,
China
- University of Chinese Academy of
Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
- School of Pharmaceutical Science and Technology,
Hangzhou Institute for Advanced Study, University of Chinese Academy of
Sciences, Hangzhou 310024, China
| | - Jingjing Peng
- State Key Laboratory of Drug Research, CAS Key
Laboratory of Receptor Research, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica,
Chinese Academy of Sciences, 555 Zu Chong Zhi Road, Shanghai 201203,
China
- University of Chinese Academy of
Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Lili Zhu
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of New Drug Design, School of
Pharmacy, East China University of Science and Technology, 130
Meilong Road, Shanghai 200237, China
| | - Yong Nian
- State Key Laboratory of Drug Research, CAS Key
Laboratory of Receptor Research, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica,
Chinese Academy of Sciences, 555 Zu Chong Zhi Road, Shanghai 201203,
China
- College of Pharmacy, Nanjing University
of Chinese Medicine, 138 Xianlin Avenue, Qixia District, Nanjing, 210023,
China
| | - Rolf Hilgenfeld
- Institute of Molecular Medicine,
University of Lübeck, 23562 Lübeck,
Germany
- German Center for Infection Research (DZIF),
University of Lübeck, 23562 Lübeck,
Germany
| | - Hualiang Jiang
- State Key Laboratory of Drug Research, CAS Key
Laboratory of Receptor Research, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica,
Chinese Academy of Sciences, 555 Zu Chong Zhi Road, Shanghai 201203,
China
- University of Chinese Academy of
Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
- School of Pharmaceutical Science and Technology,
Hangzhou Institute for Advanced Study, University of Chinese Academy of
Sciences, Hangzhou 310024, China
| | - Kaixian Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Drug Research, CAS Key
Laboratory of Receptor Research, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica,
Chinese Academy of Sciences, 555 Zu Chong Zhi Road, Shanghai 201203,
China
- University of Chinese Academy of
Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Leike Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Virology, Wuhan
Institute of Virology, Center for Biosafety Mega-Science, Chinese Academy of
Sciences, Wuhan, Hubei 430071, China
| | - Yechun Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Drug Research, CAS Key
Laboratory of Receptor Research, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica,
Chinese Academy of Sciences, 555 Zu Chong Zhi Road, Shanghai 201203,
China
- University of Chinese Academy of
Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
- School of Pharmaceutical Science and Technology,
Hangzhou Institute for Advanced Study, University of Chinese Academy of
Sciences, Hangzhou 310024, China
| | - Johan Neyts
- KU Leuven, Department of Microbiology and Immunology,
Rega Institute for Medical Research, Laboratory of Virology and
Chemotherapy, Leuven B-3000, Belgium
| | - Hong Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Drug Research, CAS Key
Laboratory of Receptor Research, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica,
Chinese Academy of Sciences, 555 Zu Chong Zhi Road, Shanghai 201203,
China
- College of Pharmacy, Nanjing University
of Chinese Medicine, 138 Xianlin Avenue, Qixia District, Nanjing, 210023,
China
- University of Chinese Academy of
Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
- School of Pharmaceutical Science and Technology,
Hangzhou Institute for Advanced Study, University of Chinese Academy of
Sciences, Hangzhou 310024, China
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7
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Chia CSB, Xu W, Shuyi Ng P. A Patent Review on SARS Coronavirus Main Protease (3CL pro ) Inhibitors. ChemMedChem 2022; 17:e202100576. [PMID: 34651447 PMCID: PMC8653044 DOI: 10.1002/cmdc.202100576] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2021] [Revised: 10/11/2021] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
The severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) pandemic is an unprecedented global health emergency causing more than 4.2 million fatalities as of 30 July 2021. Only three antiviral therapies have been approved or granted emergency use authorization by the FDA. The SARS-CoV-2 3CL protease (3CLpro ) is deemed an attractive drug target as it plays an essential role in viral polyprotein processing and pathogenesis, although no inhibitors have been approved. This patent review discusses SARS coronavirus 3CLpro inhibitors that have been filed up to 30 July 2021, giving an overview on the types of inhibitors that have generated commercial interest, especially amongst drug companies. Insights into the common structural motifs required for active site binding is also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- C. S. Brian Chia
- Experimental Drug Development Centre10 Biopolis Road138670Chromos #08-01Singapore
| | - Weijun Xu
- Experimental Drug Development Centre10 Biopolis Road138670Chromos #08-01Singapore
| | - Pearly Shuyi Ng
- Experimental Drug Development Centre10 Biopolis Road138670Chromos #08-01Singapore
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8
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Zhao B, Hu L, Song Y, Patil K, Ramani S, Atmar RL, Estes MK, Prasad BVV. Norovirus Protease Structure and Antivirals Development. Viruses 2021; 13:v13102069. [PMID: 34696498 PMCID: PMC8537771 DOI: 10.3390/v13102069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2021] [Revised: 10/06/2021] [Accepted: 10/09/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Human norovirus (HuNoV) infection is a global health and economic burden. Currently, there are no licensed HuNoV vaccines or antiviral drugs available. The protease encoded by the HuNoV genome plays a critical role in virus replication by cleaving the polyprotein and is an excellent target for developing small-molecule inhibitors. The current strategy for developing HuNoV protease inhibitors is by targeting the enzyme’s active site and designing inhibitors that bind to the substrate-binding pockets located near the active site. However, subtle differential conformational flexibility in response to the different substrates in the polyprotein and structural differences in the active site and substrate-binding pockets across different genogroups, hamper the development of effective broad-spectrum inhibitors. A comparative analysis of the available HuNoV protease structures may provide valuable insight for identifying novel strategies for the design and development of such inhibitors. The goal of this review is to provide such analysis together with an overview of the current status of the design and development of HuNoV protease inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Boyang Zhao
- Department of Molecular Virology and Microbiology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA; (B.Z.); (K.P.); (S.R.); (R.L.A.); (M.K.E.)
| | - Liya Hu
- Verna and Marrs McLean Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA;
| | - Yongcheng Song
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA;
| | - Ketki Patil
- Department of Molecular Virology and Microbiology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA; (B.Z.); (K.P.); (S.R.); (R.L.A.); (M.K.E.)
| | - Sasirekha Ramani
- Department of Molecular Virology and Microbiology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA; (B.Z.); (K.P.); (S.R.); (R.L.A.); (M.K.E.)
| | - Robert L. Atmar
- Department of Molecular Virology and Microbiology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA; (B.Z.); (K.P.); (S.R.); (R.L.A.); (M.K.E.)
- Department of Medicine, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Mary K. Estes
- Department of Molecular Virology and Microbiology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA; (B.Z.); (K.P.); (S.R.); (R.L.A.); (M.K.E.)
- Department of Medicine, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - B. V. Venkataram Prasad
- Department of Molecular Virology and Microbiology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA; (B.Z.); (K.P.); (S.R.); (R.L.A.); (M.K.E.)
- Verna and Marrs McLean Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA;
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +1-713-798-5686
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9
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Synthetic and computational efforts towards the development of peptidomimetics and small-molecule SARS-CoV 3CLpro inhibitors. Bioorg Med Chem 2021; 46:116301. [PMID: 34332853 PMCID: PMC8254399 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmc.2021.116301] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2021] [Revised: 06/25/2021] [Accepted: 06/27/2021] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) is a severe febrile respiratory disease caused by the beta genus of human coronavirus, known as SARS-CoV. Last year, 2019-n-CoV (COVID-19) was a global threat for everyone caused by the outbreak of SARS-CoV-2. 3CLpro, chymotrypsin-like protease, is a major cysteine protease that substantially contributes throughout the viral life cycle of SARS-CoV and SARS-CoV-2. It is a prospective target for the development of SARS-CoV inhibitors by applying a repurposing strategy. This review focuses on a detailed overview of the chemical synthesis and computational chemistry perspectives of peptidomimetic inhibitors (PIs) and small-molecule inhibitors (SMIs) targeting viral proteinase discovered from 2004 to 2020. The PIs and SMIs are one of the primary therapeutic inventions for SARS-CoV. The journey of different analogues towards the evolution of SARS-CoV 3CLpro inhibitors and complete synthetic preparation of nineteen derivatives of PIs and ten derivatives of SMIs and their computational chemistry perspectives were reviewed. From each class of derivatives, we have identified and highlighted the most compelling PIs and SMIs for SARS-CoV 3CLpro. The protein-ligand interaction of 29 inhibitors were also studied that involved with the 3CLpro inhibition, and the frequent amino acid residues of the protease were also analyzed that are responsible for the interactions with the inhibitors. This work will provide an initiative to encourage further research for the development of effective and drug-like 3CLpro inhibitors against coronaviruses in the near future.
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10
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Gossen J, Albani S, Hanke A, Joseph BP, Bergh C, Kuzikov M, Costanzi E, Manelfi C, Storici P, Gribbon P, Beccari AR, Talarico C, Spyrakis F, Lindahl E, Zaliani A, Carloni P, Wade RC, Musiani F, Kokh DB, Rossetti G. A Blueprint for High Affinity SARS-CoV-2 Mpro Inhibitors from Activity-Based Compound Library Screening Guided by Analysis of Protein Dynamics. ACS Pharmacol Transl Sci 2021; 4:1079-1095. [PMID: 34136757 PMCID: PMC8009102 DOI: 10.1021/acsptsci.0c00215] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2020] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
The SARS-CoV-2 coronavirus outbreak continues to spread at a rapid rate worldwide. The main protease (Mpro) is an attractive target for anti-COVID-19 agents. Unexpected difficulties have been encountered in the design of specific inhibitors. Here, by analyzing an ensemble of ∼30 000 SARS-CoV-2 Mpro conformations from crystallographic studies and molecular simulations, we show that small structural variations in the binding site dramatically impact ligand binding properties. Hence, traditional druggability indices fail to adequately discriminate between highly and poorly druggable conformations of the binding site. By performing ∼200 virtual screenings of compound libraries on selected protein structures, we redefine the protein's druggability as the consensus chemical space arising from the multiple conformations of the binding site formed upon ligand binding. This procedure revealed a unique SARS-CoV-2 Mpro blueprint that led to a definition of a specific structure-based pharmacophore. The latter explains the poor transferability of potent SARS-CoV Mpro inhibitors to SARS-CoV-2 Mpro, despite the identical sequences of the active sites. Importantly, application of the pharmacophore predicted novel high affinity inhibitors of SARS-CoV-2 Mpro, that were validated by in vitro assays performed here and by a newly solved X-ray crystal structure. These results provide a strong basis for effective rational drug design campaigns against SARS-CoV-2 Mpro and a new computational approach to screen protein targets with malleable binding sites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonas Gossen
- Institute
for Neuroscience and Medicine (INM-9), Forschungszentrum
Jülich, Jülich, 52425, Germany
- Institute
for Advanced Simulations (IAS-5) “Computational biomedicine”, Forschungszentrum Jülich, Jülich, 52425, Germany
- Faculty of
Mathematics, Computer Science and Natural Sciences, RWTH Aachen, Aachen, 52062, Germany
| | - Simone Albani
- Institute
for Neuroscience and Medicine (INM-9), Forschungszentrum
Jülich, Jülich, 52425, Germany
- Institute
for Advanced Simulations (IAS-5) “Computational biomedicine”, Forschungszentrum Jülich, Jülich, 52425, Germany
- Faculty of
Mathematics, Computer Science and Natural Sciences, RWTH Aachen, Aachen, 52062, Germany
| | - Anton Hanke
- Molecular
and Cellular Modeling Group, Heidelberg
Institute for Theoretical Studies (HITS), Schloss-Wolfsbrunnenweg 35, Heidelberg, 69118, Germany
- Institute
of Pharmacy and Molecular Biotechnology (IPMB), Heidelberg University, Im Neuenheimer Feld 364, Heidelberg, 69120, Germany
| | - Benjamin P. Joseph
- Institute
for Neuroscience and Medicine (INM-9), Forschungszentrum
Jülich, Jülich, 52425, Germany
- Institute
for Advanced Simulations (IAS-5) “Computational biomedicine”, Forschungszentrum Jülich, Jülich, 52425, Germany
- Faculty of
Mathematics, Computer Science and Natural Sciences, RWTH Aachen, Aachen, 52062, Germany
| | - Cathrine Bergh
- Science for
Life Laboratory & Swedish e-Science Research Center, Department
of Applied Physics, KTH Royal Institute
of Technology, Stockholm, 11428, Sweden
| | - Maria Kuzikov
- Department
of Screening Port, Fraunhofer Institute
for Translational Medicine and Pharmacology ITMP, Schnackenburgallee 114, Hamburg, 22525, Germany
| | - Elisa Costanzi
- Elettra-Sincrotrone
Trieste S.C.p.A., SS 14-km 163,5 in AREA Science Park, Basovizza,
Trieste, 34149, Italy
| | - Candida Manelfi
- Dompé
Farmaceutici SpA, Via Campo di Pile, L’Aquila, 67100, Italy
| | - Paola Storici
- Elettra-Sincrotrone
Trieste S.C.p.A., SS 14-km 163,5 in AREA Science Park, Basovizza,
Trieste, 34149, Italy
| | - Philip Gribbon
- Department
of Screening Port, Fraunhofer Institute
for Translational Medicine and Pharmacology ITMP, Schnackenburgallee 114, Hamburg, 22525, Germany
| | | | - Carmine Talarico
- Dompé
Farmaceutici SpA, Via Campo di Pile, L’Aquila, 67100, Italy
| | - Francesca Spyrakis
- Department
of Drug Science and Technology, University
of Turin, via Giuria
9, Turin, 10125, Italy
| | - Erik Lindahl
- Science for
Life Laboratory & Swedish e-Science Research Center, Department
of Applied Physics, KTH Royal Institute
of Technology, Stockholm, 11428, Sweden
- Science
for Life Laboratory, Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Stockholm University, Solna, SE-106 91, Sweden
| | - Andrea Zaliani
- Department
of Screening Port, Fraunhofer Institute
for Translational Medicine and Pharmacology ITMP, Schnackenburgallee 114, Hamburg, 22525, Germany
| | - Paolo Carloni
- Institute
for Neuroscience and Medicine (INM-9), Forschungszentrum
Jülich, Jülich, 52425, Germany
- Institute
for Molecular Neuroscience and Neuroimaging (INM-11), Forschungszentrum Jülich, Jülich, 52425, Germany
- Institute
for Advanced Simulations (IAS-5) “Computational biomedicine”, Forschungszentrum Jülich, Jülich, 52425, Germany
- Faculty of
Mathematics, Computer Science and Natural Sciences, RWTH Aachen, Aachen, 52062, Germany
| | - Rebecca C. Wade
- Molecular
and Cellular Modeling Group, Heidelberg
Institute for Theoretical Studies (HITS), Schloss-Wolfsbrunnenweg 35, Heidelberg, 69118, Germany
- Zentrum
für Molekulare Biologie der University Heidelberg, DKFZ-ZMBH
Alliance, INF 282, Heidelberg, 69120, Germany
- Interdisciplinary
Center for Scientific Computing (IWR), Heidelberg
University, INF 368, Heidelberg, 69120, Germany
| | - Francesco Musiani
- Laboratory
of Bioinorganic Chemistry, Department of Pharmacy and Biotechnology, University of Bologna, Bologna, 40126, Italy
| | - Daria B. Kokh
- Molecular
and Cellular Modeling Group, Heidelberg
Institute for Theoretical Studies (HITS), Schloss-Wolfsbrunnenweg 35, Heidelberg, 69118, Germany
| | - Giulia Rossetti
- Institute
for Neuroscience and Medicine (INM-9), Forschungszentrum
Jülich, Jülich, 52425, Germany
- Institute
for Advanced Simulations (IAS-5) “Computational biomedicine”, Forschungszentrum Jülich, Jülich, 52425, Germany
- Jülich
Supercomputing Center (JSC), Forschungszentrum
Jülich, Jülich, 52425, Germany
- Department
of Hematology, Oncology, Hemostaseology, and Stem Cell Transplantation, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, 44517, Germany
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11
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Sakshi C, Harikrishnan A, Jayaraman S, Choudhury AR, Veena V. Predictive medicinal metabolites from Momordica dioica against comorbidity related proteins of SARS-CoV-2 infections. J Biomol Struct Dyn 2021; 40:5175-5188. [PMID: 33427588 PMCID: PMC7814569 DOI: 10.1080/07391102.2020.1868340] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Momordica dioica have proven medicinal potential of antidiabetic, antiviral and immune stimulating properties. Flavonoids and triterpenoids from M. dioica were more extensively investigated for antiviral, antidiabetic and immunomodulatory activities. In this present study, we have predicted the reported bioactive flavonoids and triterpenoids of the plant against the SARS-CoV-2 main protease, RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp), spike protein, angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE-2) receptor and dipeptidyl peptidase (DPP4) receptor through molecular docking and in silico ADME predictions methods. According to the binding affinities, the two triterpenoids, hederagenin and oleanolic acid exhibited the best docking scores with these proteins than the catechin and quercetin with compared to standard remdesivir, favipiravir and hydroxychloroquine. The in vitro protein-drug studies have also showed significant interaction of catechin and quercetin compounds than standard drugs. The in silico binding studies correlated with the in silico binding studies. Further, M. dioica being used as antidiabetic and its metabolite had significant interaction with DDP4, a comorbidity protein involved in aiding the viral entry. Out of all the natural ligands, quercetin was reported relatively good and safe for humans with high gastrointestinal tract permeability and poor blood brain barrier crossing abilities. Hence, M. dioica phytocompounds reflects promising therapeutic properties against SARS-CoV-2 infections under comorbid conditions such as diabetes, cardiovascular disease and kidney disorders. Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma
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Affiliation(s)
- Chavan Sakshi
- Department of Bioanalytical Sciences, Ramnarain Ruia Autonomous College, Mumbai, Maharashtra, India
| | - A Harikrishnan
- Department of Chemistry, School of Arts and Sciences, Vinayaka Mission Research Foundation-Aarupadai Veedu (VMRF-AV) Campus, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India
| | | | - Ahana Roy Choudhury
- Centre for Bioinformatics, School of Life Science, Pondicherry University, Puducherry, India
| | - V Veena
- Department of Biotechnology, School of Applied Sciences, REVA University, Bengaluru, Karnataka, India
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12
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Novikov FN, Stroylov VS, Svitanko IV, Nebolsin VE. Molecular basis of COVID-19 pathogenesis. RUSSIAN CHEMICAL REVIEWS 2020. [DOI: 10.1070/rcr4961] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The review summarizes the publications, available at the time it was written, addressing the chemical and biological processes that occur in the human body upon exposure to coronaviruses, in particular SARS-CoV-2. The mechanisms of viral particle entry into the cell, viral replication and impact on the immune system and on oxygen transport system are considered. The causes behind complications of the viral infection, such as vasculitis, thrombosis, cytokine storm and lung fibrosis, are discussed. The latest research in the field of small molecule medications to counteract the virus is surveyed. Molecular targets and possible vectors to exploit them are considered. The review is primarily written for specialists who want to understand the chains of activation, replication, action and inhibition of SARS-CoV-2. Due to the short period of such studies, the data on complexes of small molecule compounds with possible protein targets are not numerous, but they will be useful in the search and synthesis of new potentially effective drugs.
The bibliography includes 144 references.
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Abstract
This Review is devoted to the chemistry of macrocyclic peptides having heterocyclic fragments in their structure. These motifs are present in many natural products and synthetic macrocycles designed against a particular biochemical target. Thiazole and oxazole are particularly common constituents of naturally occurring macrocyclic peptide molecules. This frequency of occurrence is because the thiazole and oxazole rings originate from cysteine, serine, and threonine residues. Whereas other heteroaryl groups are found less frequently, they offer many insightful lessons that range from conformational control to receptor/ligand interactions. Many options to develop new and improved technologies to prepare natural products have appeared in recent years, and the synthetic community has been pursuing synthetic macrocycles that have no precedent in nature. This Review attempts to summarize progress in this area.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ivan V Smolyar
- Department of Chemistry , Moscow State University , Leninskije Gory , 199991 Moscow , Russia
| | - Andrei K Yudin
- Davenport Research Laboratories, Department of Chemistry , University of Toronto , 80 St. George Street , Toronto , Ontario M5S 3H6 , Canada
| | - Valentine G Nenajdenko
- Department of Chemistry , Moscow State University , Leninskije Gory , 199991 Moscow , Russia
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14
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Netzler NE, Enosi Tuipulotu D, White PA. Norovirus antivirals: Where are we now? Med Res Rev 2019; 39:860-886. [PMID: 30584800 PMCID: PMC7168425 DOI: 10.1002/med.21545] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2018] [Revised: 10/02/2018] [Accepted: 10/04/2018] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Human noroviruses inflict a significant health burden on society and are responsible for approximately 699 million infections and over 200 000 estimated deaths worldwide each year. Yet despite significant research efforts, approved vaccines or antivirals to combat this pathogen are still lacking. Safe and effective antivirals are not available, particularly for chronically infected immunocompromised individuals, and for prophylactic applications to protect high-risk and vulnerable populations in outbreak settings. Since the discovery of human norovirus in 1972, the lack of a cell culture system has hindered biological research and antiviral studies for many years. Recent breakthroughs in culturing human norovirus have been encouraging, however, further development and optimization of these novel methodologies are required to facilitate more robust replication levels, that will enable reliable serological and replication studies, as well as advances in antiviral development. In the last few years, considerable progress has been made toward the development of norovirus antivirals, inviting an updated review. This review focuses on potential therapeutics that have been reported since 2010, which were examined across at least two model systems used for studying human norovirus or its enzymes. In addition, we have placed emphasis on antiviral compounds with a defined chemical structure. We include a comprehensive outline of direct-acting antivirals and offer a discussion of host-modulating compounds, a rapidly expanding and promising area of antiviral research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natalie E. Netzler
- School of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences, Faculty of Science, University of New South Wales, SydneyNew South WalesAustralia
| | - Daniel Enosi Tuipulotu
- School of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences, Faculty of Science, University of New South Wales, SydneyNew South WalesAustralia
| | - Peter A. White
- School of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences, Faculty of Science, University of New South Wales, SydneyNew South WalesAustralia
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15
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Sun D, Wang M, Wen X, Mao S, Cheng A, Jia R, Yang Q, Wu Y, Zhu D, Chen S, Liu M, Zhao X, Zhang S, Chen X, Liu Y, Yu Y, Zhang L. Biochemical characterization of recombinant Avihepatovirus 3C protease and its localization. Virol J 2019; 16:54. [PMID: 31036013 PMCID: PMC6489322 DOI: 10.1186/s12985-019-1155-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2018] [Accepted: 03/28/2019] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The picornaviral 3C protease mediates viral polyprotein maturation and multiple cleavages of host proteins to modulate viral translation and transcription. The 3C protease has been regarded as a valid target due to its structural similarity among different picornaviruses and minimal sequence similarity with host proteins; therefore, the development of potent inhibitors against the 3C protease as an antiviral drug is ongoing. Duck hepatitis A virus (DHAV) belongs to the Picornavidea family and is a major threat to the poultry industry. To date, little is known about the roles of the DHAV 3C protease plays during infection. METHODS In this study, we compared the full-length DHAV 3C protein sequence with other 3C sequences to obtain an alignment for the construction of a phylogenetic tree. Then, we expressed and purified recombinant DHAV 3C protease in the BL21 expression system using nickel-NTA affinity chromatography. The optimization of the cleavage assay conditions and the kinetic analysis for DHAV 3C protease were done by in vitro cleavage assays with a fluorogenic peptide respectively. The inhibitory activity of rupintrivir against the DHAV 3C protease was further evaluated. The localization of the 3C protease in infected and transfected cells was determined using immunofluorescence and confocal microscopy. RESULTS Under different expression conditions, the 3C protease was found to be highly expressed after induction with 1 mM IPTG at 16 °C for 10 h. We synthesized a fluorogenic peptide derived from the cleavage site of the DHAV polyprotein and evaluated the protease activity of the DHAV 3C protease for the first time. We used fluorimetric based kinetic analysis to determine kinetic parameters, and Vmax and Km values were determined to be 16.52 nmol/min and 50.78 μM, respectively. Rupintrivir was found to exhibit inhibitory activity against the DHAV 3C protease. Using polyclonal antibody and an indirect immunofluorescence microscopy assay (IFA), it was determined that the DHAV 3C protease was found in the nucleus during infection. In addition, the DHAV 3C protease can enter into the nucleus without the cooperation of viral proteins. CONCLUSIONS This is the first study to examine the activity of the DHAV 3C protease, and the activity of the DHAV 3C protease is temperature-, pH- and NaCl concentration- dependent. The DHAV 3C protease localizes throughout DHAV-infected cells and can enter into the nucleus in the absence of other viral proteins. The kinetic analysis was calculated, and the Vmax and Km values were 16.52 nmol/min and 50.78 μM, respectively, using the Lineweaver-Burk plot.
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Affiliation(s)
- Di Sun
- Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Wenjiang, Chengdu, Sichuan 611130 People’s Republic of China
- Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Wenjiang, Chengdu, Sichuan 611130 People’s Republic of China
- Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Wenjiang, Chengdu, Sichuan 611130 People’s Republic of China
| | - Mingshu Wang
- Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Wenjiang, Chengdu, Sichuan 611130 People’s Republic of China
- Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Wenjiang, Chengdu, Sichuan 611130 People’s Republic of China
- Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Wenjiang, Chengdu, Sichuan 611130 People’s Republic of China
| | - Xingjian Wen
- Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Wenjiang, Chengdu, Sichuan 611130 People’s Republic of China
- Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Wenjiang, Chengdu, Sichuan 611130 People’s Republic of China
- Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Wenjiang, Chengdu, Sichuan 611130 People’s Republic of China
| | - Sai Mao
- Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Wenjiang, Chengdu, Sichuan 611130 People’s Republic of China
- Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Wenjiang, Chengdu, Sichuan 611130 People’s Republic of China
- Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Wenjiang, Chengdu, Sichuan 611130 People’s Republic of China
| | - Anchun Cheng
- Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Wenjiang, Chengdu, Sichuan 611130 People’s Republic of China
- Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Wenjiang, Chengdu, Sichuan 611130 People’s Republic of China
- Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Wenjiang, Chengdu, Sichuan 611130 People’s Republic of China
| | - Renyong Jia
- Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Wenjiang, Chengdu, Sichuan 611130 People’s Republic of China
- Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Wenjiang, Chengdu, Sichuan 611130 People’s Republic of China
- Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Wenjiang, Chengdu, Sichuan 611130 People’s Republic of China
| | - Qiao Yang
- Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Wenjiang, Chengdu, Sichuan 611130 People’s Republic of China
- Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Wenjiang, Chengdu, Sichuan 611130 People’s Republic of China
- Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Wenjiang, Chengdu, Sichuan 611130 People’s Republic of China
| | - Ying Wu
- Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Wenjiang, Chengdu, Sichuan 611130 People’s Republic of China
- Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Wenjiang, Chengdu, Sichuan 611130 People’s Republic of China
- Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Wenjiang, Chengdu, Sichuan 611130 People’s Republic of China
| | - Dekang Zhu
- Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Wenjiang, Chengdu, Sichuan 611130 People’s Republic of China
- Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Wenjiang, Chengdu, Sichuan 611130 People’s Republic of China
| | - Shun Chen
- Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Wenjiang, Chengdu, Sichuan 611130 People’s Republic of China
- Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Wenjiang, Chengdu, Sichuan 611130 People’s Republic of China
- Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Wenjiang, Chengdu, Sichuan 611130 People’s Republic of China
| | - Mafeng Liu
- Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Wenjiang, Chengdu, Sichuan 611130 People’s Republic of China
- Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Wenjiang, Chengdu, Sichuan 611130 People’s Republic of China
- Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Wenjiang, Chengdu, Sichuan 611130 People’s Republic of China
| | - Xinxin Zhao
- Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Wenjiang, Chengdu, Sichuan 611130 People’s Republic of China
- Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Wenjiang, Chengdu, Sichuan 611130 People’s Republic of China
- Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Wenjiang, Chengdu, Sichuan 611130 People’s Republic of China
| | - Shaqiu Zhang
- Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Wenjiang, Chengdu, Sichuan 611130 People’s Republic of China
- Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Wenjiang, Chengdu, Sichuan 611130 People’s Republic of China
- Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Wenjiang, Chengdu, Sichuan 611130 People’s Republic of China
| | - Xiaoyue Chen
- Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Wenjiang, Chengdu, Sichuan 611130 People’s Republic of China
- Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Wenjiang, Chengdu, Sichuan 611130 People’s Republic of China
| | - Yunya Liu
- Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Wenjiang, Chengdu, Sichuan 611130 People’s Republic of China
- Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Wenjiang, Chengdu, Sichuan 611130 People’s Republic of China
- Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Wenjiang, Chengdu, Sichuan 611130 People’s Republic of China
| | - Yanling Yu
- Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Wenjiang, Chengdu, Sichuan 611130 People’s Republic of China
- Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Wenjiang, Chengdu, Sichuan 611130 People’s Republic of China
- Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Wenjiang, Chengdu, Sichuan 611130 People’s Republic of China
| | - Ling Zhang
- Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Wenjiang, Chengdu, Sichuan 611130 People’s Republic of China
- Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Wenjiang, Chengdu, Sichuan 611130 People’s Republic of China
- Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Wenjiang, Chengdu, Sichuan 611130 People’s Republic of China
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Antiviral Drug Discovery: Norovirus Proteases and Development of Inhibitors. Viruses 2019; 11:v11020197. [PMID: 30823509 PMCID: PMC6410195 DOI: 10.3390/v11020197] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2019] [Revised: 02/20/2019] [Accepted: 02/22/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Proteases are a major enzyme group playing important roles in a wide variety of biological processes in life forms ranging from viruses to mammalians. The aberrant activity of proteases can lead to various diseases; consequently, host proteases have been the focus of intense investigation as potential therapeutic targets. A wide range of viruses encode proteases which play an essential role in viral replication and, therefore, constitute attractive targets for the development of antiviral therapeutics. There are numerous examples of successful drug development targeting cellular and viral proteases, including antivirals against human immunodeficiency virus and hepatitis C virus. Most FDA-approved antiviral agents are peptidomimetics and macrocyclic compounds that interact with the active site of a targeted protease. Norovirus proteases are cysteine proteases that contain a chymotrypsin-like fold in their 3D structures. This review focuses on our group’s efforts related to the development of norovirus protease inhibitors as potential anti-norovirus therapeutics. These protease inhibitors are rationally designed transition-state inhibitors encompassing dipeptidyl, tripeptidyl and macrocyclic compounds. Highly effective inhibitors validated in X-ray co-crystallization, enzyme and cell-based assays, as well as an animal model, were generated by launching an optimization campaign utilizing the initial hit compounds. A prodrug approach was also explored to improve the pharmacokinetics (PK) of the identified inhibitors.
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17
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Kuiper BD, Muzzarelli KM, Keusch BJ, Holcomb J, Amblard F, Liu P, Zhou S, Kovari IA, Yang Z, Schinazi RF, Kovari LC. Expression, Purification and Characterization of a GII.4 Norovirus Protease from Minerva Virus. Infect Disord Drug Targets 2019; 18:224-232. [PMID: 29779487 DOI: 10.2174/1871526518666180521091158] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2017] [Revised: 04/30/2018] [Accepted: 05/15/2018] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Noroviruses are the leading cause of acute gastroenteritis worldwide. Norovirus proteases, which are responsible for cleavage of the viral polyprotein, have become an attractive drug target to treat norovirus infections. Genogroup II (GII) noroviruses are responsible for a majority of outbreaks; however, limited data exists regarding GII norovirus proteases. METHODS We report here successful expression, purification, characterization, and inhibition of the Minerva virus protease (MVpro), a genogroup II genotype 4 (GII.4) norovirus protease. We observed MVpro as both a monomer and dimer in solution through sizeexclusion chromatography. In addition, MVpro cleaves the synthetic substrate mimicking the MVpro NS2/NS3 cleavage site more efficiently than other norovirus proteases such as the Norwalk virus protease (GI.1) and the MD145 protease (GII.4). RESULTS AND CONCLUSION Compound A, a potent inhibitor of MVpro, is a good starting point for the design of inhibitors to target GII.4 noroviruses. Furthermore, the results presented here will allow for future characterization of MVpro inhibitors as they are synthesized.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin D Kuiper
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI 48201, United States
| | - Kendall M Muzzarelli
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI 48201, United States
| | - Bradley J Keusch
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI 48201, United States
| | - Joshua Holcomb
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI 48201, United States
| | - Franck Amblard
- Center for AIDS Research, Laboratory of Biochemical Pharmacology, Department of Pediatrics, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322, United States
| | - Peng Liu
- Center for AIDS Research, Laboratory of Biochemical Pharmacology, Department of Pediatrics, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322, United States
| | - Shaoman Zhou
- Center for AIDS Research, Laboratory of Biochemical Pharmacology, Department of Pediatrics, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322, United States
| | - Iulia A Kovari
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI 48201, United States
| | - Zhe Yang
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI 48201, United States
| | - Raymond F Schinazi
- Center for AIDS Research, Laboratory of Biochemical Pharmacology, Department of Pediatrics, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322, United States
| | - Ladislau C Kovari
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI 48201, United States
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18
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Rasti M, Khanbabaei H, Teimoori A. An update on enterovirus 71 infection and interferon type I response. Rev Med Virol 2019; 29:e2016. [PMID: 30378208 PMCID: PMC7169063 DOI: 10.1002/rmv.2016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2018] [Revised: 10/01/2018] [Accepted: 10/02/2018] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Enteroviruses are members of Pichornaviridae family consisting of human enterovirus group A, B, C, and D as well as nonhuman enteroviruses. Hand, foot, and mouth disease (HFMD) is a serious disease which is usually seen in the Asia-Pacific region in children. Enterovirus 71 and coxsackievirus A16 are two important viruses responsible for HFMD which are members of group A enterovirus. IFN α and β are two cytokines, which have a major activity in the innate immune system against viral infections. Most of the viruses have some weapons against these cytokines. EV71 has two main proteases called 2A and 3C, which are important for polyprotein processing and virus maturation. Several studies have indicated that they have a significant effect on different cellular pathways such as interferon production and signaling pathway. The aim of this study was to investigate the latest findings about the interaction of 2A and 3C protease of EV71 and IFN production/signaling pathway and their inhibitory effects on this pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mojtaba Rasti
- Infectious and Tropical Diseases Research Center, Health Research InstituteAhvaz Jundishapur University of Medical SciencesAhvazIran
| | - Hashem Khanbabaei
- Medical Physics Department, School of MedicineAhvaz Jundishapur University of Medical SciencesAhvazIran
| | - Ali Teimoori
- Department of Virology, Faculty of MedicineHamadan University of Medical SciencesHamadanIran
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19
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Perera KD, Galasiti Kankanamalage AC, Rathnayake AD, Honeyfield A, Groutas W, Chang KO, Kim Y. Protease inhibitors broadly effective against feline, ferret and mink coronaviruses. Antiviral Res 2018; 160:79-86. [PMID: 30342822 PMCID: PMC6240502 DOI: 10.1016/j.antiviral.2018.10.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2018] [Revised: 09/25/2018] [Accepted: 10/17/2018] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Ferret and mink coronaviruses typically cause catarrhal diarrhea in ferrets and minks, respectively. In recent years, however, systemic fatal coronavirus infection has emerged in ferrets, which resembles feline infectious peritonitis (FIP) in cats. FIP is a highly fatal systemic disease caused by a virulent feline coronavirus infection in cats. Despite the importance of coronavirus infections in these animals, there are no effective commercial vaccines or antiviral drugs available for these infections. We have previously reported the efficacy of a protease inhibitor in cats with FIP, demonstrating that a virally encoded 3C-like protease (3CLpro) is a valid target for antiviral drug development for coronavirus infections. In this study, we extended our previous work on coronavirus inhibitors and investigated the structure-activity relationships of a focused library of protease inhibitors for ferret and mink 3CLpro. Using the fluorescence resonance energy transfer assay, we identified potent inhibitors broadly effective against feline, ferret and mink coronavirus 3CLpro. Multiple amino acid sequence analysis and modelling of 3CLpro of ferret and mink coronaviruses were conducted to probe the structural basis for these findings. The results of this study provide support for further research to develop broad-spectrum antiviral agents for multiple coronavirus infections. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report on small molecule inhibitors of ferret and mink coronaviruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Krishani Dinali Perera
- Department of Diagnostic Medicine and Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, USA
| | | | | | - Amanda Honeyfield
- Department of Diagnostic Medicine and Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, USA
| | - William Groutas
- Department of Chemistry, Wichita State University, Wichita, KS, USA
| | - Kyeong-Ok Chang
- Department of Diagnostic Medicine and Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, USA
| | - Yunjeong Kim
- Department of Diagnostic Medicine and Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, USA.
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20
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Prior AM, Hori T, Fishman A, Sun D. Recent Reports of Solid-Phase Cyclohexapeptide Synthesis and Applications. Molecules 2018; 23:molecules23061475. [PMID: 29912160 PMCID: PMC6100019 DOI: 10.3390/molecules23061475] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2018] [Revised: 06/11/2018] [Accepted: 06/16/2018] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Macrocyclic peptides are privileged scaffolds for drug development and constitute a significant portion of macrocyclic drugs on the market today in fields spanning from infectious disease to oncology. Developing orally bioavailable peptide-based drugs remains a challenging task; however, macrocyclization of linear peptides can be an effective strategy to improve membrane permeability, proteolytic stability, oral bioavailability, and overall drug-like characteristics for this class. Significant advances in solid-phase peptide synthesis (SPPS) have enabled the efficient construction of macrocyclic peptide and peptidomimetic libraries with macrolactamization being performed on-resin or in solution phase. The primary goal of this review is to summarize solid-phase cyclohexapeptide synthesis using the on-resin and solution-phase macrocyclization methodologies published since 2013. We also highlight their broad applications ranging from natural product total synthesis, synthetic methodology development, and medicinal chemistry, to drug development and analyses of conformational and physiochemical properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Allan M Prior
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, The Daniel K. Inouye College of Pharmacy, University of Hawaii at Hilo, 34 Rainbow Drive, Hilo, Hawaii, HI 96720, USA.
| | - Taylor Hori
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, The Daniel K. Inouye College of Pharmacy, University of Hawaii at Hilo, 34 Rainbow Drive, Hilo, Hawaii, HI 96720, USA.
| | - Ashriel Fishman
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, The Daniel K. Inouye College of Pharmacy, University of Hawaii at Hilo, 34 Rainbow Drive, Hilo, Hawaii, HI 96720, USA.
| | - Dianqing Sun
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, The Daniel K. Inouye College of Pharmacy, University of Hawaii at Hilo, 34 Rainbow Drive, Hilo, Hawaii, HI 96720, USA.
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21
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Namoto K, Sirockin F, Sellner H, Wiesmann C, Villard F, Moreau RJ, Valeur E, Paulding SC, Schleeger S, Schipp K, Loup J, Andrews L, Swale R, Robinson M, Farady CJ. Structure-based design and synthesis of macrocyclic human rhinovirus 3C protease inhibitors. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2018; 28:906-909. [PMID: 29433930 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2018.01.064] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2017] [Revised: 01/28/2018] [Accepted: 01/30/2018] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
The design and synthesis of macrocyclic inhibitors of human rhinovirus 3C protease is described. A macrocyclic linkage of the P1 and P3 residues, and the subsequent structure-based optimization of the macrocycle conformation and size led to the identification of a potent biochemical inhibitor 10 with sub-micromolar antiviral activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kenji Namoto
- Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, Novartis Campus, CH-4002 Basel, Switzerland.
| | - Finton Sirockin
- Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, Novartis Campus, CH-4002 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Holger Sellner
- Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, Novartis Campus, CH-4002 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Christian Wiesmann
- Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, Novartis Campus, CH-4002 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Frederic Villard
- Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, Novartis Campus, CH-4002 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Robert J Moreau
- Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, 5300 Chiron Way, Emeryville, CA 94608-2916, USA
| | - Eric Valeur
- Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, Novartis Campus, CH-4002 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Stephanie C Paulding
- Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, Novartis Campus, CH-4002 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Simone Schleeger
- Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, Novartis Campus, CH-4002 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Kathrin Schipp
- Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, Novartis Campus, CH-4002 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Joachim Loup
- Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, Novartis Campus, CH-4002 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Lori Andrews
- Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, 5300 Chiron Way, Emeryville, CA 94608-2916, USA
| | - Ryann Swale
- Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, 5300 Chiron Way, Emeryville, CA 94608-2916, USA
| | - Michael Robinson
- Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, 5300 Chiron Way, Emeryville, CA 94608-2916, USA
| | - Christopher J Farady
- Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, Novartis Campus, CH-4002 Basel, Switzerland.
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22
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Koromyslova A, Tripathi S, Morozov V, Schroten H, Hansman GS. Human norovirus inhibition by a human milk oligosaccharide. Virology 2017; 508:81-89. [PMID: 28505592 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2017.04.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 93] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2017] [Revised: 04/24/2017] [Accepted: 04/28/2017] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
Human noroviruses are the leading cause of outbreaks of acute gastroenteritis. Norovirus interactions with histo-blood group antigens (HBGAs) are known to be important for an infection. In this study, we identified the HBGA binding pocket for an emerging GII genotype 17 (GII.17) variant using X-ray crystallography. The GII.17 variant bound the HBGA with an equivalent set of residues as the leading pandemic GII.4 variants. These structural data highlights the conserved nature of HBGA binding site between prevalent GII noroviruses. Noroviruses also interact with human milk oligosaccharides (HMOs), which mimic HBGAs and may function as receptor decoys. We previously showed that HMOs inhibited the binding of rarely detected GII.10 norovirus to HBGAs. We now found that an HMO, 2'-fucosyllactose (2'FL), additionally blocked both the GI.1 and GII.17 noroviruses from binding to HBGAs. Together, these findings provide evidence that 2'FL might function as a broadly reactive antiviral against multiple norovirus genogroups.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Koromyslova
- Schaller Research Group at the University of Heidelberg and the DKFZ, Heidelberg, Germany; Department of Infectious Diseases, Virology, University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Shailesh Tripathi
- Schaller Research Group at the University of Heidelberg and the DKFZ, Heidelberg, Germany; Department of Infectious Diseases, Virology, University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Vasily Morozov
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Virology, University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany; Pediatric Infectious Diseases Unit, University Children's Hospital Mannheim, University of Heidelberg, Mannheim, Germany
| | - Horst Schroten
- Pediatric Infectious Diseases Unit, University Children's Hospital Mannheim, University of Heidelberg, Mannheim, Germany
| | - Grant S Hansman
- Schaller Research Group at the University of Heidelberg and the DKFZ, Heidelberg, Germany; Department of Infectious Diseases, Virology, University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany.
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23
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Pehere AD, Zhang X, Abell AD. Macrocyclic Peptidomimetics Prepared by Ring-Closing Metathesis and Azide–Alkyne Cycloaddition. Aust J Chem 2017. [DOI: 10.1071/ch16532] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Macrocycles are finding increasing use as a means to define the backbone geometries of peptides and peptidomimetics. Ring-closing metathesis and CuI-catalyzed azide–alkyne cycloaddition are particularly useful for introducing such rings and they do so in high yield and with a good functional group tolerance and compatibility. Here, we present an overview of the use of these two methods, with reference to selected examples and particular reference to β-strand peptidomimetics for use as protease inhibitors.
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24
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Adhikari N, Baidya SK, Saha A, Jha T. Structural Insight Into the Viral 3C-Like Protease Inhibitors: Comparative SAR/QSAR Approaches. VIRAL PROTEASES AND THEIR INHIBITORS 2017. [PMCID: PMC7150231 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-809712-0.00011-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS), caused by SARS-coronavirus (SARS-CoV), is a dreadful infection worldwide having economic and medical importance and a global threat for health. It was turned into an epidemic in South China followed by a chain of infections across three generations. A number of pathogeneses in human may occur due to the virus. This infection has not been taken into account before the SARS outbreak, and still it is a neglected one. Therefore, there is an urgent need to develop small molecule antivirals to combat the SARS-CoV. No vaccines are available till date though a number of SARS-CoV 3C-like and 3C protease inhibitors were reported. In this chapter, quantitative structure–activity relationship technique is used for development of anti-SARS and anti-HRV drugs and outcome discussed in details. This approach may be a useful strategy to design novel and potential anti-SARS drugs to combat these dreadful viral diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Tarun Jha
- Jadavpur University, Kolkata, West Bengal, India
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25
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Antiviral targets of human noroviruses. Curr Opin Virol 2016; 18:117-25. [PMID: 27318434 DOI: 10.1016/j.coviro.2016.06.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2016] [Revised: 06/06/2016] [Accepted: 06/06/2016] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Human noroviruses are major causative agents of sporadic and epidemic gastroenteritis both in children and adults. Currently there are no licensed therapeutic intervention measures either in terms of vaccines or drugs available for these highly contagious human pathogens. Genetic and antigenic diversity of these viruses, rapid emergence of new strains, and their ability to infect a broad population by using polymorphic histo-blood group antigens for cell attachment, pose significant challenges for the development of effective antiviral agents. Despite these impediments, there is progress in the design and development of therapeutic agents. These include capsid-based candidate vaccines, and potential antivirals either in the form of glycomimetics or designer antibodies that block HBGA binding, as well as those that target essential non-structural proteins such as the viral protease and RNA-dependent RNA polymerase. In addition to these classical approaches, recent studies suggest the possibility of interferons and targeting host cell factors as viable approaches to counter norovirus infection. This review provides a brief overview of this progress.
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26
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Laitinen OH, Svedin E, Kapell S, Nurminen A, Hytönen VP, Flodström-Tullberg M. Enteroviral proteases: structure, host interactions and pathogenicity. Rev Med Virol 2016; 26:251-67. [PMID: 27145174 PMCID: PMC7169145 DOI: 10.1002/rmv.1883] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2015] [Revised: 03/22/2016] [Accepted: 03/23/2016] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Enteroviruses are common human pathogens, and infections are particularly frequent in children. Severe infections can lead to a variety of diseases, including poliomyelitis, aseptic meningitis, myocarditis and neonatal sepsis. Enterovirus infections have also been implicated in asthmatic exacerbations and type 1 diabetes. The large disease spectrum of the closely related enteroviruses may be partially, but not fully, explained by differences in tissue tropism. The molecular mechanisms by which enteroviruses cause disease are poorly understood, but there is increasing evidence that the two enteroviral proteases, 2Apro and 3Cpro, are important mediators of pathology. These proteases perform the post‐translational proteolytic processing of the viral polyprotein, but they also cleave several host‐cell proteins in order to promote the production of new virus particles, as well as to evade the cellular antiviral immune responses. Enterovirus‐associated processing of cellular proteins may also contribute to pathology, as elegantly demonstrated by the 2Apro‐mediated cleavage of dystrophin in cardiomyocytes contributing to Coxsackievirus‐induced cardiomyopathy. It is likely that improved tools to identify targets for these proteases will reveal additional host protein substrates that can be linked to specific enterovirus‐associated diseases. Here, we discuss the function of the enteroviral proteases in the virus replication cycle and review the current knowledge regarding how these proteases modulate the infected cell in order to favour virus replication, including ways to avoid detection by the immune system. We also highlight new possibilities for the identification of protease‐specific cellular targets and thereby a way to discover novel mechanisms contributing to disease. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olli H Laitinen
- BioMediTech, Finland and Fimlab Laboratories, University of Tampere, Tampere, Finland
| | - Emma Svedin
- The Center for Infectious Medicine, Department of Medicine HS, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Sebastian Kapell
- The Center for Infectious Medicine, Department of Medicine HS, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Anssi Nurminen
- BioMediTech, Finland and Fimlab Laboratories, University of Tampere, Tampere, Finland
| | - Vesa P Hytönen
- BioMediTech, Finland and Fimlab Laboratories, University of Tampere, Tampere, Finland
| | - Malin Flodström-Tullberg
- BioMediTech, Finland and Fimlab Laboratories, University of Tampere, Tampere, Finland.,The Center for Infectious Medicine, Department of Medicine HS, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
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27
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Abstract
INTRODUCTION Rapid transmission of norovirus often occurs due to its low infectious dosage, high genetic diversity and its short incubation time. The viruses cause acute gastroenteritis and may lead to death. Presently, no effective vaccine or selective drugs accepted by the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) are available for the treatment of norovirus. Advances in the development of norovirus replicon cell lines, GII.4-Sydney HuNoV strain human B cells, and murine and gnotobiotic pig norovirus models have facilitated the discovery of effective small molecule inhibitors in vitro and in vivo. AREAS COVERED This review gives a brief discussion of the biology and replication of norovirus before highlighting the discovery of anti-norovirus molecules. The article coverage includes: an overview of the current state of norovirus drug discovery, the targeting of the norovirus life cycle, the inhibition of structural and nonstructural proteins of norovirus such as proteases and polymerase, and the blockage of virus entry into host cells. Finally, anti-norovirus drugs in the clinical development stage are described. EXPERT OPINION The current approach for the counteraction of norovirus focuses on the inhibition of viral RNA polymerase, norovirus 3C-like protease and the structural proteins VP1 as well as the blockade of norovirus entry. Broad-spectrum anti-norovirus molecules, based on the inhibition of 3C-like protease, have been developed. Other host factors and ways to overcome the development of resistance through mutation are also being examined. A dual approach in targeting viral and host factors may lead to an effective counteraction of norovirus infection. Current successes in developing norovirus replicon harboring cells and norovirus infected human cells, as well as murine norovirus models and other animal models such as piglets have facilitated the discovery of effective drugs and helped our understanding of its mechanism of action.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sahani Weerasekara
- a Department of Chemistry , Kansas State University , Manhattan , KS , USA
| | - Allan M Prior
- b Molecular Sciences Institute, School of Chemistry , University of the Witwatersrand , Johannesburg , South Africa
| | - Duy H Hua
- a Department of Chemistry , Kansas State University , Manhattan , KS , USA
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28
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Weerawarna PM, Kim Y, Galasiti Kankanamalage AC, Damalanka VC, Lushington GH, Alliston KR, Mehzabeen N, Battaile KP, Lovell S, Chang KO, Groutas WC. Structure-based design and synthesis of triazole-based macrocyclic inhibitors of norovirus protease: Structural, biochemical, spectroscopic, and antiviral studies. Eur J Med Chem 2016; 119:300-18. [PMID: 27235842 PMCID: PMC4916972 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2016.04.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2016] [Revised: 04/04/2016] [Accepted: 04/06/2016] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
Outbreaks of acute gastroenteritis caused by noroviruses constitute a public health concern worldwide. To date, there are no approved drugs or vaccines for the management and prophylaxis of norovirus infections. A potentially effective strategy for the development of norovirus therapeutics entails the discovery of inhibitors of norovirus 3CL protease, an enzyme essential for noroviral replication. We describe herein the structure-based design of the first class of permeable, triazole-based macrocyclic inhibitors of norovirus 3C-like protease, as well as pertinent X-ray crystallographic, biochemical, spectroscopic, and antiviral studies. Novel triazole-based macrocyclic inhibitors of norovirus 3CL protease were synthesized. The interplay of conformation and activity was probed using NMR and X-ray crystallography. Bound inhibitors assume a β-strand conformation according to X-ray crystal structure. Loss of critical hydrogen bonding interactions was revealed by X-ray crystallography.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Yunjeong Kim
- Department of Diagnostic Medicine & Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 66506, USA
| | | | - Vishnu C Damalanka
- Department of Chemistry, Wichita State University, Wichita, KS 67260, USA
| | | | - Kevin R Alliston
- Department of Chemistry, Wichita State University, Wichita, KS 67260, USA
| | - Nurjahan Mehzabeen
- Protein Structure Laboratory, The University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS 66047, USA
| | - Kevin P Battaile
- IMCA-CAT, Hauptman-Woodward Medical Research Institute, APS Argonne National Laboratory, Argonne, IL 60439, USA
| | - Scott Lovell
- Protein Structure Laboratory, The University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS 66047, USA
| | - Kyeong-Ok Chang
- Department of Diagnostic Medicine & Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 66506, USA.
| | - William C Groutas
- Department of Chemistry, Wichita State University, Wichita, KS 67260, USA.
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29
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Sun D, Chen S, Cheng A, Wang M. Roles of the Picornaviral 3C Proteinase in the Viral Life Cycle and Host Cells. Viruses 2016; 8:82. [PMID: 26999188 PMCID: PMC4810272 DOI: 10.3390/v8030082] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2015] [Revised: 02/27/2016] [Accepted: 03/07/2016] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The Picornaviridae family comprises a large group of non-enveloped viruses that have a major impact on human and veterinary health. The viral genome contains one open reading frame encoding a single polyprotein that can be processed by viral proteinases. The crucial 3C proteinases (3C(pro)s) of picornaviruses share similar spatial structures and it is becoming apparent that 3C(pro) plays a significant role in the viral life cycle and virus host interaction. Importantly, the proteinase and RNA-binding activity of 3C(pro) are involved in viral polyprotein processing and the initiation of viral RNA synthesis. In addition, 3C(pro) can induce the cleavage of certain cellular factors required for transcription, translation and nucleocytoplasmic trafficking to modulate cell physiology for viral replication. Due to interactions between 3C(pro) and these essential factors, 3C(pro) is also involved in viral pathogenesis to support efficient infection. Furthermore, based on the structural conservation, the development of irreversible inhibitors and discovery of non-covalent inhibitors for 3C(pro) are ongoing and a better understanding of the roles played by 3C(pro) may provide insights into the development of potential antiviral treatments. In this review, the current knowledge regarding the structural features, multiple functions in the viral life cycle, pathogen host interaction, and development of antiviral compounds for 3C(pro) is summarized.
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Affiliation(s)
- Di Sun
- Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Wenjiang, Chengdu 611130, China.
- Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Wenjiang, Chengdu 611130, China.
| | - Shun Chen
- Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Wenjiang, Chengdu 611130, China.
- Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Wenjiang, Chengdu 611130, China.
- Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Wenjiang, Chengdu 611130, China.
| | - Anchun Cheng
- Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Wenjiang, Chengdu 611130, China.
- Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Wenjiang, Chengdu 611130, China.
- Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Wenjiang, Chengdu 611130, China.
| | - Mingshu Wang
- Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Wenjiang, Chengdu 611130, China.
- Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Wenjiang, Chengdu 611130, China.
- Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Wenjiang, Chengdu 611130, China.
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30
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Damalanka VC, Kim Y, Alliston KR, Weerawarna PM, Galasiti Kankanamalage AC, Lushington GH, Mehzabeen N, Battaile KP, Lovell S, Chang KO, Groutas WC. Oxadiazole-Based Cell Permeable Macrocyclic Transition State Inhibitors of Norovirus 3CL Protease. J Med Chem 2016; 59:1899-913. [PMID: 26823007 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.5b01464] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Human noroviruses are the primary causative agents of acute gastroenteritis and a pressing public health burden worldwide. There are currently no vaccines or small molecule therapeutics available for the treatment or prophylaxis of norovirus infections. Norovirus 3CL protease plays a vital role in viral replication by generating structural and nonstructural proteins via the cleavage of the viral polyprotein. Thus, molecules that inhibit the viral protease may have potential therapeutic value. We describe herein the structure-based design, synthesis, and in vitro and cell-based evaluation of the first class of oxadiazole-based, permeable macrocyclic inhibitors of norovirus 3CL protease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vishnu C Damalanka
- Department of Chemistry, Wichita State University , Wichita, Kansas 67260, United States
| | - Yunjeong Kim
- Department of Diagnostic Medicine and Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Kansas State University , Manhattan, Kansas 66506, United States
| | - Kevin R Alliston
- Department of Chemistry, Wichita State University , Wichita, Kansas 67260, United States
| | - Pathum M Weerawarna
- Department of Chemistry, Wichita State University , Wichita, Kansas 67260, United States
| | | | | | - Nurjahan Mehzabeen
- Protein Structure Laboratory, The University of Kansas , Lawrence, Kansas 66047, United States
| | - Kevin P Battaile
- IMCA-CAT, Hauptman-Woodward Medical Research Institute, APS Argonne National Laboratory, Argonne, Illinois 60439, United States
| | - Scott Lovell
- Protein Structure Laboratory, The University of Kansas , Lawrence, Kansas 66047, United States
| | - Kyeong-Ok Chang
- Department of Diagnostic Medicine and Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Kansas State University , Manhattan, Kansas 66506, United States
| | - William C Groutas
- Department of Chemistry, Wichita State University , Wichita, Kansas 67260, United States
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31
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Galasiti Kankanamalage AC, Weerawarna PM, Kim Y, Chang KO, Groutas WC. Anti-norovirus therapeutics: a patent review (2010-2015). Expert Opin Ther Pat 2016; 26:297-308. [PMID: 26881878 PMCID: PMC4948123 DOI: 10.1517/13543776.2016.1153065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Human noroviruses are the primary causative agents of acute gastroenteritis and are a pressing public health burden worldwide. There are currently no vaccines or small molecule therapeutics available for the treatment or prophylaxis of norovirus infections. An improved understanding of norovirus biology, as well as the pathogenic mechanisms underlying the disease, has provided the impetus for a range of intense exploratory drug discovery efforts targeting viral and host factors. AREAS COVERED An overview of norovirus inhibitors disclosed in the patent literature (2010-present) and Clinicaltrials.gov is presented. The review is further enriched and supplemented by recent literature reports. EXPERT OPINION Seminal discoveries made in recent years, including a better understanding of the pathobiology and life cycle of norovirus, the identification and targeting of multiple viral and host factors, the advent of a replicon system and a small animal model for the preclinical evaluation of lead compounds, and the availability of high resolution X-ray crystal structures that can be utilized in structure-based drug design and lead optimization campaigns, collectively suggest that a small molecule therapeutic and prophylactic for norovirus infection is likely to emerge in the not too distant future.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Yunjeong Kim
- Department of Diagnostic Medicine & Pathobiology, Manhattan, Kansas 66506, USA
| | - Kyeong-Ok Chang
- Department of Diagnostic Medicine & Pathobiology, Manhattan, Kansas 66506, USA
| | - William C. Groutas
- Department of Chemistry, Wichita State University, Wichita, Kansas 67260, USA
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Kankanamalage ACG, Kim Y, Weerawarna PM, Uy RAZ, Damalanka VC, Mandadapu SR, Alliston KR, Mehzabeen N, Battaile KP, Lovell S, Chang KO, Groutas WC. Structure-guided design and optimization of dipeptidyl inhibitors of norovirus 3CL protease. Structure-activity relationships and biochemical, X-ray crystallographic, cell-based, and in vivo studies. J Med Chem 2015; 58:3144-55. [PMID: 25761614 PMCID: PMC4484267 DOI: 10.1021/jm5019934] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Norovirus infection constitutes the primary cause of acute viral gastroenteritis. There are currently no vaccines or norovirus-specific antiviral therapeutics available for the management of norovirus infection. Norovirus 3C-like protease is essential for viral replication, consequently, inhibition of this enzyme is a fruitful avenue of investigation that may lead to the emergence of antinorovirus therapeutics. We describe herein the optimization of dipeptidyl inhibitors of norovirus 3C-like protease using iterative SAR, X-ray crystallographic, and enzyme and cell-based studies. We also demonstrate herein in vivo efficacy of an inhibitor using the murine model of norovirus infection.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Yunjeong Kim
- Department of Diagnostic Medicine & Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas 66506
| | | | | | | | | | - Kevin R. Alliston
- Department of Chemistry, Wichita State University, Wichita, Kansas 67260
| | - Nurjahan Mehzabeen
- Protein Structure Laboratory, The University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas 66047
| | - Kevin P. Battaile
- IMCA-CAT, Hauptman-Woodward Medical Research Institute, APS Argonne National Laboratory, Argonne, IL 60439
| | - Scott Lovell
- Protein Structure Laboratory, The University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas 66047
| | - Kyeong-Ok Chang
- Department of Diagnostic Medicine & Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas 66506
| | - William C. Groutas
- Protein Structure Laboratory, The University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas 66047
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Takahashi D, Kim Y, Lovell S, Prakash O, Groutas WC, Chang KO. Structural and inhibitor studies of norovirus 3C-like proteases. Virus Res 2013; 178:437-44. [PMID: 24055466 PMCID: PMC3840063 DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2013.09.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2013] [Revised: 09/04/2013] [Accepted: 09/05/2013] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
Noroviruses have a single-stranded, positive sense 7-8kb RNA genome, which encodes a polyprotein precursor processed by a virus-encoded 3C-like cysteine protease (3CLpro) to generate mature non-structural proteins. Because processing of the polyprotein is essential for virus replication, norovirus 3CLpro has been targeted for the discovery of anti-norovirus small molecule therapeutics. Thus, we performed functional, structural and inhibition studies of norovirus 3CLpro with fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) assay, X-ray crystallography, and NMR spectroscopy with a synthetic protease inhibitor. Three 3CLpro from Norwalk virus (NV, genogroup I), MD145 (genogroup II) and murine norovirus-1 (MNV-1, genogroup V) were optimized for a FRET assay, and compared for the inhibitory activities of a synthetic protease inhibitor (GC376). The apo 3D structures of NV 3CLpro determined with X-ray crystallography and NMR spectroscopy were further analyzed. In addition, the binding mode of NV 3CLpro-GC376 was compared with X-ray crystallography and NMR spectroscopy. The results of this report provide insight into the interaction of NV 3CLpro with substrate/inhibitor for better understanding of the enzyme and antiviral drug development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daisuke Takahashi
- Department of Biochemistry, Kansas State University, 141 Chalmers Hall, Manhattan, KS 66506, USA
| | - Yunjeong Kim
- Department of Diagnostic Medicine and Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 66506
| | - Scott Lovell
- Protein Structure Laboratory, Del Shankel Structural Biology Center, University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS 66047
| | - Om Prakash
- Department of Biochemistry, Kansas State University, 141 Chalmers Hall, Manhattan, KS 66506, USA
| | - William C Groutas
- Department of Chemistry, Wichita State University, Wichita, Kansas 67260
| | - Kyeong-Ok Chang
- Department of Diagnostic Medicine and Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 66506
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Potent inhibition of norovirus by dipeptidyl α-hydroxyphosphonate transition state mimics. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2013; 23:5941-4. [PMID: 24054123 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2013.08.073] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2013] [Revised: 08/12/2013] [Accepted: 08/15/2013] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
The design, synthesis, and evaluation of a series of dipeptidyl α-hydroxyphosphonates is reported. The synthesized compounds displayed high anti-norovirus activity in a cell-based replicon system, as well as high enzyme selectivity.
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