Structure–activity relationships of lanostane-type triterpenoids from Ganoderma lingzhi as α-glucosidase inhibitors

Optimization, characterization and evaluation of sodium alginate nanoparticles for Ganoderic acid DM encapsulation: Inhibitory activity on tyrosinase activity and melanin formation

The efficacy of nanoencapsulation as a technology for enhancing the solubility of active substances has been demonstrated. In this particular investigation, Ganoderic acid DM (GA-DM) was encapsulated within sodium alginate nanoparticles (NPs) using the ionic crosslinking method. The confirmation of the successful loading of GA-DM was ascertained through the analysis of Fourier transform infrared spectrum (FTIR). Empirical evidence derived from the examination of scanning electron microscope (SEM) images, transmission electron microscope (TEM) images, atomic force microscope (AFM) images, and dynamic light scattering (DLS) demonstrated a regular distribution and spherical morphology, with an average particle size of approximately 133 nm. The investigation yielded an encapsulation efficiency of 95.27 ± 0.11 % and a drug loading efficiency of 21.17 ± 0.02 % for the prepared sample. The release kinetics of SGPN was fitted with the Korsmeyer-Peppas kinetic model corresponding to diffusion-controlled release. The incorporation of GA-DM into sodium alginate nanocarriers exhibited a mitigating effect on the cytotoxicity of HaCat and B16, while also demonstrating inhibitory properties against tyrosinase activity and melanin formation.

Ganoderma lucidum: Multifaceted mechanisms to combat diabetes through polysaccharides and triterpenoids: A comprehensive review

Diabetes is a chronic metabolic disorder. Diabetes complications can affect many organs and systems in the body. Ganoderma lucidum (G. lucidum) contains various compounds that have been studied for their potential antidiabetic effects, including polysaccharides, triterpenoids (ganoderic acids, ganoderol B), proteoglycans, and G. lucidum extracts. G. lucidum polysaccharides (GLPs) and triterpenoids have been shown to act through distinct mechanisms, such as improving glucose metabolism, modulating the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) system, inhibiting the nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) pathway, and protecting the pancreatic beta cells. While GLPs exhibit a significant role in controlling diabetic nephropathy and other associated complications. This review states the G. lucidum antidiabetic mechanisms of action and potential biologically active compounds that contribute to diabetes management and associated complications. To make G. lucidum an appropriate replacement for the treatment of diabetes with fewer side effects, more study is required to completely comprehend the number of physiologically active compounds present in it as well as the underlying cellular mechanisms that influence their effects on diabetes.

Mushrooms and Fungi and Their Biological Compounds with Antidiabetic Activity: A Review

Mushrooms have been used by humans for centuries as food and medicine because they have been shown to affect certain diseases. Mushrooms for medicinal purposes have been consumed in the form of extracts and/or biomass of the mycelium or fruiting body. The beneficial health effects of mushrooms are due to their content of bioactive compounds (polysaccharides, proteins, ergosterol, lectins, etc.). On the other hand, diabetes is one of the metabolic diseases that affects the population worldwide, characterized by hyperglycemia that involves a defective metabolism of insulin, a hormone secreted by β cells and that mainly stimulates glucose absorption by the cells. However, it also affects the metabolism of carbohydrates, fats and proteins; poor control of this disease leads to serious damage to eyesight, kidneys, bones, heart, skin, blood vessels, nerves, etc. It has been reported that the consumption of some mushrooms helps control and treat diabetes, since among other actions, they promote the secretion of insulin by the pancreas, help reduce blood glucose and have α-glucosidase inhibitory activity which improves glucose uptake by cells, which are effects that prescription medications have for patients with diabetes. In that sense, this manuscript shows a review of scientific studies that support the abilities of some mushrooms to be used in the control and/or treatment of diabetes.

Natural Bio-Compounds from Ganoderma lucidum and Their Beneficial Biological Actions for Anticancer Application: A Review

Ganoderma lucidum (G. lucidum) has been known for many centuries in Asian countries under different names, varying depending on the country. The objective of this review is to investigate the scientific research on the natural active bio-compounds in extracts obtained from G. lucidum with significant biological actions in the treatment of cancer. This review presents the classes of bio-compounds existing in G. lucidum that have been reported over time in the main databases and have shown important biological actions in the treatment of cancer. The results highlight the fact that G. lucidum possesses important bioactive compounds such as polysaccharides, triterpenoids, sterols, proteins, nucleotides, fatty acids, vitamins, and minerals, which have been demonstrated to exhibit multiple anticancer effects, namely immunomodulatory, anti-proliferative, cytotoxic, and antioxidant action. The potential health benefits of G. lucidum are systematized based on biological actions. The findings present evidence regarding the lack of certainty about the effects of G. lucidum bio-compounds in treating different forms of cancer, which may be due to the use of different types of Ganoderma formulations, differences in the study populations, or due to drug-disease interactions. In the future, larger clinical trials are needed to clarify the potential benefits of pharmaceutical preparations of G. lucidum, standardized by the known active components in the prevention and treatment of cancer.

Lanostane triterpenoids with anti-proliferative and anti-inflammatory activities from medicinal mushroom Ganoderma lingzhi

Eight previously undescribed lanostane triterpenoids and nine known ones were identified from the fruiting bodies of Ganoderma lingzhi S.H. Wu, Y. Cao & Y.C. Dai. Their structures were determined based on spectroscopic data and quantum chemical calculations. Structurally, ganoderane GL-1, featuring a hydrogenated tetramethyls-phenanthraquinone, represents the first example in lanostane nor-triterpenoid group. Biologically, ganoderanes GL-2 and GL-3, distinguished by the presence of a rare "1,11-epoxy" moiety, exhibited significant inhibition against nitric oxide production induced by lipopolysaccharide in RAW264.7 macrophage cells, while ganoderanes GL-4 and GL-8 exhibited bifunctional activities of anti-proliferation and anti-inflammation.

Structural diversity, fermentation production, bioactivities and applications of triterpenoids from several common medicinal fungi: Recent advances and future perspectives

Medicinal fungi are beneficial to human health and it reduces the risk of chronic diseases. Triterpenoids are polycyclic compounds derived from the straight-chain hydrocarbon squalene, which are widely distributed in medicinal fungi. Triterpenoids from medicinal fungal sources possess diverse bioactive activities such as anti-cancer, immunomodulatory, anti-inflammatory, anti-obesity. This review article describes the structure, fermentation production, biological activities, and application of triterpenoids from the medicinal fungi including Ganoderma lucidum, Poria cocos, Antrodia camphorata, Inonotus obliquus, Phellinus linteus, Pleurotus ostreatus, and Laetiporus sulphureus. Besides, the research perspectives of triterpenoids from medicinal fungi are also proposed. This paper provides useful guidance and reference for further research on medicinal fungi triterpenoids.

Therapeutic potential and nutritional significance of Ganoderma lucidum - a comprehensive review from 2010 to 2022

With a long history in traditional Asian medicine, Ganoderma lucidum (G. lucidum) is a mushroom species suggested to improve health and extend life. Its medicinal reputation has merited it with numerous attributes and titles, and it is evidenced to be effective in the prevention and treatment of various metabolic disorders owing to its unique source of bioactive metabolites, primarily polysaccharides, triterpenoids, and polyphenols, attributed with antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anticancer, hepatoprotective, antidiabetic activities, etc. These unique potential pharmaceutical properties have led to its demand as an important resource of nutrient supplements in the food industry. It is reported that the variety of therapeutic/pharmacological properties was mainly due to its extensive prebiotic and immunomodulatory functions. All literature summarized in this study was collated based on a systematic review of electronic libraries (PubMed, Scopus databases, Web of Science Core Collection, and Google Scholar) from 2010-2022. This review presents an updated and comprehensive summary of the studies on the immunomodulatory therapies and nutritional significance of G. lucidum, with the focus on recent advances in defining its immunobiological mechanisms and the possible applications in the food and pharmaceutical industries for the prevention and management of chronic diseases. In addition, toxicological evidence and the adoption of standard pharmaceutical methods for the safety assessment, quality assurance, and efficacy testing of G. lucidum-derived compounds will be the gateway to bringing them into health establishments.

A Review on the Sources, Structures, and Pharmacological Activities of Lucidenic Acids

Ganoderma lucidum has long been used as a multi-purpose plant and functional food. The pharmacological properties of G. lucidum are primarily attributed to its polysaccharides and triterpenoids. Ganoderic and lucidenic acids are the two major triterpenoids groups in G. lucidum. Despite the discovery of 22 types of lucidenic acids, research on lucidenic acids is significantly less extensive compared to that on ganoderic acid. To the best of our knowledge, for the first time, in this review, we aimed to summarize the sources, contents, chemical structures, and pharmacological effects, including anti-cancer, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anti-viral, neuroprotective, anti-hyperlipidemic, anti-hypercholesterolemic, and anti-diabetic properties, of lucidenic acids. Studies on lucidenic acids are still preliminary and have several limitations. Therefore, more in-depth studies with optimal designs are essential for the development of lucidenic acids as medicines, functional foods, and nutraceuticals.

The bHLH-zip transcription factor SREBP regulates triterpenoid and lipid metabolisms in the medicinal fungus Ganoderma lingzhi

Ganoderic acids (GAs) are well recognized as important pharmacological components of the medicinal species belonging to the basidiomycete genus Ganoderma. However, transcription factors directly regulating the expression of GA biosynthesis genes remain poorly understood. Here, the genome of Ganoderma lingzhi is de novo sequenced. Using DNA affinity purification sequencing, we identify putative targets of the transcription factor sterol regulatory element-binding protein (SREBP), including the genes of triterpenoid synthesis and lipid metabolism. Interactions between SREBP and the targets are verified by electrophoretic mobility gel shift assay. RNA-seq shows that SREBP targets, mevalonate kinase and 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme A synthetase in mevalonate pathway, sterol isomerase and lanosterol 14-demethylase in ergosterol biosynthesis, are significantly upregulated in the SREBP overexpression (OE::SREBP) strain. In addition, 3 targets involved in glycerophospholipid/glycerolipid metabolism are upregulated. Then, the contents of mevalonic acid, lanosterol, ergosterol and 13 different GAs as well as a variety of lipids are significantly increased in this strain. Furthermore, the effects of SREBP overexpression on triterpenoid and lipid metabolisms are recovered when OE::SREBP strain are treated with exogenous fatostatin, a specific inhibitor of SREBP. Taken together, our genome-wide study clarify the role of SREBP in triterpenoid and lipid metabolisms of G. lingzhi.

A Review of Ganoderma Triterpenoids and Their Bioactivities

For centuries, Ganoderma has been used as a traditional medicine in Asian countries to prevent and treat various diseases. Numerous publications are stating that Ganoderma species have a variety of beneficial medicinal properties, and investigations on different metabolic regulations of Ganoderma species, extracts or isolated compounds have been performed both in vitro and in vivo. However, it has frequently been questioned whether Ganoderma is simply a dietary supplement for health or just a useful "medication" for restorative purposes. More than 600 chemical compounds including alkaloids, meroterpenoids, nucleobases, nucleosides, polysaccharides, proteins, steroids and triterpenes were extracted and identified from Ganoderma, with triterpenes serving as the primary components. In recent years, Ganoderma triterpenes and other small molecular constituents have aroused the interest of chemists and pharmacologists. Meanwhile, considering the significance of the triterpene constituents in the development of new drugs, this review describes 495 compounds from 25 Ganoderma species published between 1984 and 2022, commenting on their source, biosynthetic pathway, identification, biological activities and biosynthesis, together with applications of advanced analytical techniques to the characterization of Ganoderma triterpenoids.

-Glucosidase inhibitors screening from Cyclocarya paliurus based on spectrum-effect relationship and UPLC-MS/MS

Cyclocarya paliurus is an edible and medicinal plant exhibiting significant hypoglycemic effect. However, its active components are still unclear and need further elucidation. In this research, the active components of the leaves of C. paliurus responsible for α-glucosidase inhibitory activity were screened and identified based on spectrum-effect relationship study in combination with ultra-performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS) analysis. The 70% ethanol eluate fraction of the leaves of C. paliurus with the strongest α-glucosidase inhibitory activity was obtained after extraction and purification with macroporous resin. Their chromatographic fingerprints (15 batches) were established by UPLC analysis and 32 common peaks were specified by similarity analysis. Their IC₅₀ values for α-glucosidase inhibition were measured by an enzymatic reaction. Several multivariate statistical analysis methods including hierarchical cluster analysis, principal component analysis, partial least square analysis and grey relational analysis were applied to explore the spectrum-effect relationship between common peaks and IC₅₀ values, and the chromatographic peaks making great contribution to efficacy were screened out. To further elucidate the active components of leaves of C. paliurus, the 70% ethanol eluate fraction was characterized by UPLC-MS/MS analysis, and 10 compounds were identified. This study provided a valuable reference for further research and development of hypoglycemic active components of C. paliurus.

Ganoderic Acid A To Alleviate Neuroinflammation of Alzheimer's Disease in Mice by Regulating the Imbalance of the Th17/Tregs Axis

Ganoderic acid A (GAA) is a kind of lanostane-type triterpenoid isolated from Ganoderma lucidum. Imbalance of the Th17/Tregs axis exists in the progress of neuroinflammation of Alzheimer's disease (AD). In this study, the alleviating neuroinflammatory effect of GAA on d-galactose mice was studied from the aspect of regulating the imbalance of the Th17/Tregs axis. The Morris water maze test was used to evaluate the cognitive ability of AD mice. Flow cytometry was used to detect the percentages of IL-17A, IL-17F, IL-21, IL-22, and CD4⁺CD25⁺Foxp3⁺ in peripheral blood. Transmission electron microscopy was used to assess the cerebral mitochondrial ultrastructure. Metabolomic analysis based on gas chromatography-mass spectrometry was used to evaluate the mitochondrial dysfunction metabolism. Western blot analysis was used to detect the protein expressions of cytokines secreted by Th17 cells and Treg cells in the brain. As the results show, GAA has an alleviating neuroinflammatory effect on AD mice via regulating the imbalance of the Th17/Tregs axis. The potential mechanism was related to inhibition of the JAK/STAT signaling pathway induced by Th17 cells and enhancement of the mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation by regulating Treg cells, thereby improving mitochondrial dysfunction of AD mice.

The beneficial effects of Ganoderma lucidum on cardiovascular and metabolic disease risk

CONTEXT

Various herbal medicines are thought to be useful in the management of cardiometabolic disease and its risk factors. Ganoderma lucidum (Curtis) P. Karst. (Ganodermataceae), also known as Lingzhi, has received considerable attention for various indications, including some related to the prevention and treatment of cardiovascular and metabolic disease by ameliorating major cardiovascular risk factors.

OBJECTIVE

This review focuses on the major studies of the whole plant, plant extract, and specific active compounds isolated from G. lucidum in relation to the main risk factors for cardiometabolic disease.

METHODS

References from major databases including PubMed, Web of Science, and Google Scholar were compiled. The search terms used were Ganoderma lucidum, Lingzhi, Reishi, cardiovascular, hypoglycaemic, diabetes, dyslipidaemia, antihypertensive, and anti-inflammatory.

RESULTS

A number of in vitro studies and in vivo animal models have found that G. lucidum possesses antioxidative, antihypertensive, hypoglycaemic, lipid-lowering, and anti-inflammatory properties, but the health benefits in clinical trials are inconsistent. Among these potential health benefits, the most compelling evidence thus far is its hypoglycaemic effects in patients with type 2 diabetes or hyperglycaemia.

CONCLUSIONS

The inconsistent evidence about the potential health benefits of G. lucidum is possibly because of the use of different Ganoderma formulations and different study populations. Further large controlled clinical studies are therefore needed to clarify the potential benefits of G. lucidum preparations standardised by known active components in the prevention and treatment of cardiometabolic disease.

Heme oxygenase-1/carbon monoxide signaling participates in the accumulation of triterpenoids of Ganoderma lucidum

Ganoderic triterpenoids (GTs) are the primary bioactive constituents of the Basidiomycotina fungus, Ganoderma lucidum. These compounds exhibit antitumor, anti-hyperlipidemic, and immune-modulatory pharmacological activities. This study focused on GT accumulation in mycelia of G. lucidum mediated by the heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1)/carbon monoxide (CO) signaling. Compared with the control, hemin (10 μmol/L) induced an increase of 60.1% in GT content and 57.1% in HO-1 activity. Moreover, carbon monoxide-releasing molecule-2 (CORM-2), CO donor, increased GT content by 56.0% and HO-1 activity by 18.1%. Zn protoporphyrin IX (ZnPPIX), a specific HO-1 inhibitor, significantly reduced GT content by 26.0% and HO-1 activity by 15.8%, while hemin supplementation reversed these effects. Transcriptome sequencing showed that HO-1/CO could function directly as a regulator involved in promoting GT accumulation by regulating gene expression in the mevalonate pathway, and modulating the reactive oxygen species (ROS) and Ca²⁺ pathways. The results of this study may help enhance large-scale GT production and support further exploration of GT metabolic networks and relevant signaling cross-talk.

The Effects of Major Mushroom Bioactive Compounds on Mechanisms That Control Blood Glucose Level

Diabetes mellitus is a life-threatening multifactorial metabolic disorder characterized by high level of glucose in the blood. Diabetes and its chronic complications have a significant impact on human life, health systems, and countries' economies. Currently, there are many commercial hypoglycemic drugs that are effective in controlling hyperglycemia but with several serious side-effects and without a sufficient capacity to significantly alter the course of diabetic complications. Over many centuries mushrooms and their bioactive compounds have been used in the treatment of diabetes mellitus, especially polysaccharides and terpenoids derived from various mushroom species. This review summarizes the effects of these main mushroom secondary metabolites on diabetes and underlying molecular mechanisms responsible for lowering blood glucose. In vivo and in vitro data revealed that treatment with mushroom polysaccharides displayed an anti-hyperglycemic effect by inhibiting glucose absorption efficacy, enhancing pancreatic β-cell mass, and increasing insulin-signaling pathways. Mushroom terpenoids act as inhibitors of α-glucosidase and as insulin sensitizers through activation of PPARγ in order to reduce hyperglycemia in animal models of diabetes. In conclusion, mushroom polysaccharides and terpenoids can effectively ameliorate hyperglycemia by various mechanisms and can be used as supportive candidates for prevention and control of diabetes in the future.

Cytotoxic ergostane-type steroids from Ganoderma lingzhi

Two new ergostane-type steroids (1 and 2) have been isolated from the fruiting body of a medicinal macro fungus Ganoderma lingzhi. The structures including the absolute configurations of them were elucidated by a combination of different spectroscopic analyses especially 13C NMR and ECD calculations. Compound 2 features an unusual 1,2-dioxolane moiety. Our bioassays revealed that the two steroids showed remarkable cytotoxicity against human A549 (lung) and MCF-7 (breast) tumor cell lines, with IC50 values ranging from 5.15 to 8.57 μg/mL.

Tetracyclic and Pentacyclic Triterpenes with High Therapeutic Efficiency in Wound Healing Approaches

Wounds are among the most common skin conditions, displaying a large etiological diversity and being characterized by different degrees of severity. Wound healing is a complex process that involves multiple steps such as inflammation, proliferation and maturation and ends with scar formation. Since ancient times, a widely used option for treating skin wounds are plant- based treatments which currently have become the subject of modern pharmaceutical formulations. Triterpenes with tetracyclic and pentacyclic structure are extensively studied for their implication in wound healing as well as to determine their molecular mechanisms of action. The current review aims to summarize the main results of in vitro, in vivo and clinical studies conducted on lupane, ursane, oleanane, dammarane, lanostane and cycloartane type triterpenes as potential wound healing treatments.

Traditional uses, chemical components and pharmacological activities of the genus Ganoderma P. Karst.: a review

In recent years, some natural products isolated from the fungi of the genus Ganoderma have been found to have anti-tumor, liver protection, anti-inflammatory, immune regulation, anti-oxidation, anti-viral, anti-hyperglycemic and anti-hyperlipidemic effects. This review summarizes the research progress of some promising natural products and their pharmacological activities. The triterpenoids, meroterpenoids, sesquiterpenoids, steroids, alkaloids and polysaccharides isolated from Ganoderma lucidum and other species of Ganoderma were reviewed, including their corresponding chemical structures and biological activities. In particular, the triterpenes, polysaccharides and meroterpenoids of Ganoderma show a wide range of biological activities. Among them, the hydroxyl groups on the C-3, C-24 and C-25 positions of the lanostane triterpenes compound were the necessary active groups for the anti-HIV-1 virus. Previous study showed that lanostane triterpenes can inhibit human immunodeficiency virus-1 protease with an IC50 value of 20-40 μM, which has potential anti-HIV-1 activity. Polysaccharides can promote the production of TNF α and IFN-γ by macrophages and spleen cells in mice, and further inhibit or kill tumor cells. Some meroterpenoids contain oxygen-containing heterocycles, and they have significant antioxidant activity. In addition, Ganoderma has been used as a medicine to treat diseases for more than 2000 years, and we also reviewed its traditional uses.

Ionic Liquid-Based Ultrasonic-Assisted Extraction Coupled with HPLC and Artificial Neural Network Analysis for Ganoderma lucidum

Ganoderma lucidum is widely used in traditional Chinese medicine (TCM). Ganoderic acid A and D are the main bioactive components with anticancer effects in G. lucidum. To obtain the maximum content of two compounds from G. lucidum, a novel extraction method, an ionic liquid-based ultrasonic-assisted method (ILUAE) was established. Ionic liquids (ILs) of different types and parameters, including the concentration of ILs, ultrasonic power, ultrasonic time, rotational speed, solid–liquid ratio, were optimized by the orthogonal experiment and variance analysis. Under these optimal conditions, the total extraction yield of the two compounds in G. lucidum was 3.31 mg/g, which is 36.21% higher than that of the traditional solvent extraction method. Subsequently, an artificial neural network (ANN) was developed to model the performance of the total extraction yield. The Levenberg–Marquardt back propagation algorithm with the sigmoid transfer function (logsig) at the hidden layer and a linear transfer function (purelin) at the output layer were used. Results showed that single hidden layer with 9 neurons presented the best values for the mean squared error (MSE) and the correlation coefficient (R), with respectively corresponding values of 0.09622 and 0.93332.

Mushrooms of the Genus Ganoderma Used to Treat Diabetes and Insulin Resistance

Pharmacotherapy using natural substances can be currently regarded as a very promising future alternative to conventional therapy of diabetes mellitus, especially in the case of chronic disease when the body is no longer able to produce adequate insulin or when it cannot use the produced insulin effectively. This minireview summarizes the perspectives, recent advances, and major challenges of medicinal mushrooms from Ganoderma genus with reference to their antidiabetic activity. The most active ingredients of those mushrooms are polysaccharides and triterpenoids. We hope this review can offer some theoretical basis and inspiration for the mechanism study of the bioactivity of those compounds.

Pentacylic triterpenes from Lavandula coronopifolia: structure related inhibitory activity on α-glucosidase

Ten pentacyclic triterpenes (1-10) were isolated from Lavandula coronopifolia. We evaluated their α-glucosidase inhibitory activity, and found that the aglycones, 1, 2, 3, 4, 7 and 10 showed superior IC₅₀ values to the positive control. In order to explain the structural requirements for α-glucosidase inhibitory activity, eleven derivatives were prepared, including one new compound, 2-formyl-(A)1-19α-hydroxy-1-norursane-2, 12-dien-28-oic acid 10c. The results demonstrated that a free hydroxyl at ring-A and a free carboxylic group at position 28 are key structural features for the α-glucosidase inhibitory activity, also that an ursane skeleton is optimum for the activity. Additionally, enzyme kinetic analysis of pomolic acid 2, the most potent compound, revealed that it inhibited α-glucosidase in a mixed-type manner. The molecular docking simulation validated this type of inhibition and highlighted the role of the C-3 hydroxyl and C-28 carboxylic groups in interaction with the enzyme in silico.

Review of the molecular mechanisms of Ganoderma lucidum triterpenoids: Ganoderic acids A, C2, D, F, DM, X and Y

Ganoderma lucidum is a multi-purpose plant medicine that is homologous to functional food. The most attractive properties of G. lucidum are its immunomodulatory and antitumour activities, which are mainly attributed to the following two major active components: G. lucidum polysaccharides and G. lucidum triterpenoids (GLTs). GLTs are effective as supplemental therapies and improve health when combined with other medications to treat hepatitis, fatigue syndrome, and prostate cancer. However, research investigating the mechanism and application of G. lucidum or GLTs in the treatment of diseases remains preliminary in terms of both the utilization efficacy and product type. This review offers comprehensive insight into the pharmacological activities of GLTs and their potential applications in the development of functional foods and nutraceuticals. Specifically, 83 GLTs were selected, and their molecular structures and chemical formulas were described. We also describe 7 ganoderic acids that are currently at different stages of clinical trials (ganoderic acids A, C2, D, F, DM, X and Y). The related pharmacodynamic mechanisms and targeted signalling proteins were further analysed. Notably, the specific relationship between autophagy and apoptosis induced by ganoderic acid DM is summarized here for the first time.

Cataract Preventive Role of Isolated Phytoconstituents: Findings from a Decade of Research

Cataract is an eye disease with clouding of the eye lens leading to disrupted vision, which often develops slowly and causes blurriness of the eyesight. Although the restoration of the vision in people with cataract is conducted through surgery, the costs and risks remain an issue. Botanical drugs have been evaluated for their potential efficacies in reducing cataract formation decades ago and major active phytoconstituents were isolated from the plant extracts. The aim of this review is to find effective phytoconstituents in cataract treatments in vitro, ex vivo, and in vivo. A literature search was synthesized from the databases of Pubmed, Science Direct, Google Scholar, Web of Science, and Scopus using different combinations of keywords. Selection of all manuscripts were based on inclusion and exclusion criteria together with analysis of publication year, plant species, isolated phytoconstituents, and evaluated cataract activities. Scientists have focused their attention not only for anti-cataract activity in vitro, but also in ex vivo and in vivo from the review of active phytoconstituents in medicinal plants. In our present review, we identified 58 active phytoconstituents with strong anti-cataract effects at in vitro and ex vivo with lack of in vivo studies. Considering the benefits of anti-cataract activities require critical evaluation, more in vivo and clinical trials need to be conducted to increase our understanding on the possible mechanisms of action and the therapeutic effects.

Changes in content of triterpenoids and polysaccharides in Ganoderma lingzhi at different growth stages

Ganoderma lingzhi is a traditional medicinal mushroom, and its extract contains many bioactive compounds. Triterpenoids and polysaccharides are the primary bioactive components that contribute to its medicinal properties. In this study, we quantified 18 triterpenoids, total triterpenoid content and total polysaccharide content in the ethanol and water extracts of G. lingzhi at different growth stages. Triterpenoids were quantified by liquid chromatograph-tandem mass spectrometry in the multiple-reaction-monitoring mode. Total triterpenoid and total polysaccharide content were determined by colorimetric analysis. The results indicated that the fruit bodies at an early growth stage had a higher content of ganoderic acid A, C2, I and LM2, as well as of ganoderenic acid C and D, than those at a later growth stage. In contrast, ganoderic acid K, TN and T-Q contents were higher in mature fruit bodies (maturation stage). The highest total triterpenoid and total polysaccharide contents were found in fruit bodies before maturity (stipe elongation stage or early stage of pileus formation). Our results provide information which will contribute to the establishment of an efficient cultivation system for G. lingzhi with a higher content of triterpenoids.

Hypoglycemic mechanisms of Ganoderma lucidum polysaccharides F31 in db/db mice via RNA-seq and iTRAQ

This study provides insight into the system-level hypoglycemic mechanisms of Ganoderma lucidum polysaccharides F31 by the integrative analysis of transcriptomics and proteomics data.

Nortriterpenoids from the Fruiting Bodies of the Mushroom Ganoderma resinaceum

Ganoderma resinaceum is usually used as ethnomedicine for immune-regulation, hyperglycemia, and liver disease. To date, only a few chemical constituents have been reported from G. resinaceum. In this study, fifteen nortriterpenoids including six new nortriterpenoids (1–6) and nine known analogs (7–15), were separated and purified from the fruiting bodies of G. resinaceum. New compounds were identified as lucidone I (1), lucidone J (2), lucidone K (3), lucidone I (4), ganosineniol B (5), and ganosineniol C (6), based on analysis of extensive spectroscopic data (high resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS), nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), infrared (IR), and ultraviolet (UV)). The known compounds were assigned as lucidone A (7), lucidone B (8), lucidone H (9), lucidone E (10), lucidone F (11), lucidone D (12), lucidone C (13), ganoderense F (14), and ganosineniol A (15), by comparing their spectroscopic data with those reported in the literature. Compounds 3, 4, and 7–13 were examined for α-glucosidase inhibitory activity and display no significant activity, but the finding may support that the side chain of ganoderma triterpenoids played an important role in α-glucosidase inhibitory activity.

Effects of various ginsenosides and ginseng root and ginseng berry on the activity of Pancreatic lipase

Although ginsenosides Rb1, Rb2, Rc, and Rd and ginseng extracts are shown to inhibit pancreatic lipase (PL) activity, the effects of the other ginsenosides, particularly the deglycosylated ones that are considered to show stronger biological activities than the glycosylated forms, are not clear. In this study, we observed the effects of various ginsenosides on PL activity. Results showed that the effects vary with each individual ginsenoside. Ginsenosides Rb1, Rd, Rg1, Rg3, and compound K significantly suppressed 43, 47, 75, and 55% of PL activity at the concentration of 100 μg/mL, respectively. Rg3 was discovered to be the most effective among various common ginsenosides, with a minimum effective concentration of 6.25 μg/mL. Ginsenosides F2 and Rf slightly enhanced PL activity. In addition, fermentation markedly enhanced the inhibitory effect of the ginseng root and ginseng berry, which might be attributed to the changes of ginsenoside profiles.

Gabosines P and Q, new carbasugars from Streptomyces sp. and their α-glucosidase inhibitory activity

Two new polyoxygenated cyclohexenone 'ketocarbasugars', named gabosines P and Q (1 and 2), were isolated from the culture of the actinomycete Streptomycetes strain no. 8, along with two known cyclic dipeptides. The structures and absolute configurations of the new metabolites were determined by spectroscopic data (1D- and 2D-NMR, HR-ESI-MS, and IR), chemical transformation, and electronic circular dichroism (ECD). These compounds were evaluated for α-glucosidase inhibitory activity in vitro. Only compound 1 exhibited IC₅₀ values of 9.07μM, with potency higher than that of the control acarbose. Molecular docking studies revealed the existence of hydrogen bonding and hydrophobic interaction between the enzyme and gabosine P. The results will be useful in designing new anti-diabetes control agents.

Development of Ling-zhi industry in China - emanated from the artificial cultivation in the Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences (IMCAS)

Ling-zhi is a medicinal herb that generally refers to a fungus in the genus Ganoderma. It has been used as a medicinal mushroom in traditional Chinese medicine for more than 2000 years. Mycologists at the Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences (IMCAS) first artificially cultivated the Ling-zhi fruiting body in the late 1960s (X.J. Liu's team). In IMCAS, different research teams have extensively studied Ling-zhi in the aspects of national resource surveys, systematic taxonomy, chemical analysis, and processing for medicinal and health applications. The research results from IMCAS have provided essential support and prompted the development of the Ling-zhi industry in China to some extent. This review aims to summarize the history of research on Ling-zhi in IMCAS and its role in the development of the Ling-zhi economy.

From 2000years of Ganoderma lucidum to recent developments in nutraceuticals

Medicinal mushrooms have been used for centuries as nutraceuticals to improve health and to treat numerous chronic and infectious diseases. One such mushroom is Ganoderma lucidum, commonly known as Lingzhi, a species revered as a medicinal mushroom for treating assorted diseases and prolonging life. The fungus is found in diverse locations, and this may have contributed to confusion regarding the correct taxonomic classification of the genus Ganoderma. G. lucidum was first used to name a specimen found in England and thereafter was naively applied to a different Ganoderma species found in Asia, commonly known as Chinese Lingzhi. Despite the taxonomic confusion, which has largely been uncorrected, the popularity of Lingzhi has escalated across the globe. The current taxonomic situation is now discussed accurately in this Special Issue on Ganoderma. Today it is a multi-billion dollar industry wherein Lingzhi is cultivated or collected from the wild and consumed as a tea, in alcoholic beverages, and as a nutraceutical to confer numerous health benefits. Consumption of nutraceuticals has grown in popularity, and it is becoming increasingly important that active ingredients be identified and that suppliers make substantiated health claims about their products. The objective of this article is to present a review of G. lucidum over the past 2000 years from prized ancient "herbal" remedy to its use in nutraceuticals and to the establishment of a 2.5 billion $ (US) industry.

Anti-diabetic effects of Ganoderma lucidum

Ganoderma lucidum is a white rot fungus widely used as a tonic for the promotion of longevity and health. Extracts of G. lucidum have been recognized as an alternative adjuvant treatment for diabetes. Among the many biologically active constituents of G. lucidum, polysaccharides, proteoglycans, proteins and triterpenoids have been shown to have hypoglycemic effects. G. lucidum polysaccharides have been reported to have hypoglycemic activity by increasing plasma insulin levels and decreasing plasma sugar levels in mice. Protein tyrosine phosphatase 1B is a promising therapeutic target in diabetes, and G. lucidum proteoglycan can inhibit this enzyme in vitro. Moreover, G. lucidum triterpenoids were shown to have inhibitory activity on aldose reductase and α-glucosidase that can suppress postprandial hyperglycemia. In addition, a protein Ling Zhi-8 extracted from G. lucidum significantly decreased lymphocyte infiltration and increased the antibody detection of insulin in diabetic mice. This review summarizes most of the research about the hypoglycemic action effects of polysaccharides, proteoglycans, proteins and tritrerpenoids from G. lucidum as a guide for future research.

Headspace-Solid-Phase Microextraction-Gas Chromatography as Analytical Methodology for the Determination of Volatiles in Wild Mushrooms and Evaluation of Modifications Occurring during Storage

Mushrooms are sources of food, medicines, and agricultural means. Not much is reported in the literature about wild species of the Mediterranean flora, although many of them are traditionally collected for human consumption. The knowledge of their chemical constituents could represent a valid tool for both taxonomic and physiological characterizations. In this work, a headspace-solid-phase microextraction (HS-SPME) method coupled with GC-MS and GC-FID was developed to evaluate the volatile profiles of ten wild mushroom species collected in South Italy. In addition, in order to evaluate the potential of this analytical methodology for true quantitation of volatiles, samples of the cultivated species Agaricus bisporus were analyzed. The choice of this mushroom was dictated by its ease of availability in the food market, due to the consistent amounts required for SPME method development. For calibration of the main volatile compounds, the standard addition method was chosen. Finally, the assessed volatile composition of A. bisporus was monitored in order to evaluate compositional changes occurring during storage, which represents a relevant issue for such a wide consumption edible product.

Flavonoid interactions during digestion, absorption, distribution and metabolism: a sequential structure-activity/property relationship-based approach in the study of bioavailability and bioactivity

Flavonoids are a group of polyphenols that provide health-promoting benefits upon consumption. However, poor bioavailability has been a major hurdle in their use as drugs or nutraceuticals. Low bioavailability has been associated with flavonoid interactions at various stages of the digestion, absorption and distribution process, which is strongly affected by their molecular structure. In this review, we use structure-activity/property relationship to discuss various flavonoid interactions with food matrices, digestive enzymes, intestinal transporters and blood proteins. This approach reveals specific bioactive properties of flavonoids in the gastrointestinal tract as well as various barriers for their bioavailability. In the last part of this review, we use these insights to determine the effect of different structural characteristics on the overall bioavailability of flavonoids. Such information is crucial when flavonoid or flavonoid derivatives are used as active ingredients in foods or drugs.

Terpenoids with alpha-glucosidase inhibitory activity from the submerged culture of Inonotus obliquus

Lanostane-type triterpenoids, inotolactones A and B, a drimane-type sesquiterpenoid, inotolactone C, and five known terpenoids 6β-hydroxy-trans-dihydroconfertifolin, inotodiol, 3β,22-dihydroxyanosta-7,9(11),24-triene, 3β-hydroxycinnamolide, and 17-hydroxy-ent-atisan-19-oic acid, were isolated from the submerged culture of chaga mushroom, Inonotus obliquus. Their structures were characterized by spectroscopic methods, including MS and NMR (1D and 2D) spectroscopic techniques. Inotolactones A and B, examples of lanostane-type triterpenoids bearing α,β-dimethyl, α,β-unsaturated δ-lactone side chains, exhibited more potent alpha-glucosidase inhibitory activities than the positive control acarbose. This finding might be related to the anti-hyperglycemic properties of the fungus and to its popular role as a diabetes treatment. In addition, a drimane-type sesquiterpenoid and an atisane-type diterpenoid were isolated from I. obliquus.

Two new compounds from Ganoderma lucidum

Two pairs of new enantiomers, lucidulactones A and B (1 and 2), and two known compounds were isolated from Ganoderma lucidum. Their structures were determined by means of spectroscopic methods. The chiral HPLC was used to separate the ( - )- and (+)-antipodes of the new compounds.