Extending the use of the Body Appreciation Scale -2 in older adults: A Portuguese validation study

A Comprehensive Study of Positive Body Image as a Predictor of Psychological Well-Being in Anorexia Nervosa

Recent data suggest a close association between positive body image (PBI) and eating disorder recovery. Nevertheless, the specific mechanisms through which PBI may facilitate recovery from anorexia nervosa (AN) remain unknown. To advance understanding of these mechanisms, this study examined core indices of PBI within AN, exploring its association with emotion regulation and well-being outcomes. Data were collected from 159 female participants, 64 with AN diagnosis and 95 healthy controls (HCs), who completed measures of PBI (body appreciation, functionality appreciation, and body responsiveness), emotion regulation, and psychological well-being (depression, anxiety, stress, and psychological quality of life). The AN group reported lower levels of PBI and psychological well-being, along with greater difficulties in regulating emotions, relative to HCs. PBI variables significantly predicted emotion regulation and psychological well-being in AN, accounting for 36% to 72% of the variance, with body appreciation emerging as the strongest predictor. These findings lend credence to the view that PBI can serve as a catalyst for psychological health. We hypothesize that enhancing PBI can improve interoceptive awareness, which is crucial for emotion regulation and reducing maladaptive food-related coping. Emphasizing a mind-body connection in lifestyle could be a relevant element to consider for both treating and preventing AN.

Body image among adolescents: what is its relationship with rejection sensitivity and self-efficacy?

One of the significant development tasks of the adolescence period steps forth as the satisfaction and acceptance of one's own body. In the meantime, this period distinguishes by the adolescent's intensive need for approval and acceptance by their peers and adults. When adolescents are not accepted or rejected, they may encounter some difficulties. In this context, this study aimed at determining the relationship between body image, rejection sensitivity and self-efficacy among adolescents. The study was carried out based on the correlational design the study group consists of 749 adolescents. The measurement tools were administered to the students who were divided into groups according to grade level by the researchers. Based on the obtained data, a significant negative relationship was identified between body image and self-efficacy while a significant positive relationship was detected between body image and rejection sensitivity. Besides, it was found that body image among adolescents was predicted by rejection sensitivity and self-efficacy. Finally, it was determined that while the interaction effect of gender and self-efficacy on body image was significant, the interaction effect of gender and rejection sensitivity was not significant.

The Moderating Effect of Body Appreciation on the Relationship between Self-Esteem and Life Satisfaction

BACKGROUND

Although positive associations between life satisfaction, self-esteem, and body image have previously been established, differences in these variables by gender and age have yielded mixed results. Moreover, little is known about the interplay between self-esteem and body appreciation on life satisfaction. This study aims to investigate the moderating effect of body appreciation on the relationship between self-esteem and life satisfaction, considering disparities between females and males and also between emerging adults (before the age of thirty) and older adults.

METHODS

A cross-sectional online survey was performed in Poland with a sample of 449 adults aged between 18 and 75 (M = 30.41, SD = 12.72), including 68% of women. The survey included the Satisfaction With Life Scale (SWLS), Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSES), and Body Appreciation Scale (BAS-2).

RESULTS

Men scored higher than women in terms of life satisfaction and self-esteem, while older participants (age > 30) scored higher than younger individuals (age ≤ 30) in terms of life satisfaction, self-esteem, and body appreciation. The study confirmed positive and moderate correlations between life satisfaction, self-esteem, and body appreciation. The interactive effect of self-esteem and body appreciation on life satisfaction was also found by controlling for age and gender.

CONCLUSIONS

Some intervention programs focused on increasing levels of self-esteem and body appreciation should be implemented, especially among women and emerging adults, to improve their well-being.

Psychometric analysis of the body responsiveness questionnaire in the Portuguese population

Body responsiveness refers to the tendency to be attuned to the body's needs and use interoceptive information to guide behavior. Despite its potential beneficial effect on the development of positive body image, this construct is currently understudied. To boost research in this area, we examined the factor structure, gender invariance, and psychometric properties of a Portuguese translation of the Body Responsiveness Questionnaire (BRQ). A total of 650 men and women (aged 18-80 years) completed the Portuguese BRQ. To assess its convergent validity, participants also completed measures of body appreciation, emotion regulation, depression symptoms, and psychological quality of life. Exploratory factor analysis indicated a two-factor structure of the BRQ, which was upheld using confirmatory factor analysis: "Importance of Interoceptive Awareness" (ω = .85-.87) and "Perceived Connection" between body and mind (ω = .71-.74). BRQ scores had partial scalar invariance across gender, and no significant gender differences. Convergent and known-groups validity was supported. Participants with overweight/obesity (vs. normal weight) and middle-aged adults (vs. young adults) assigned higher importance to body signals to guide behavior. The Portuguese version of the BRQ is a psychometrically sound measure of body responsiveness and it may contribute to a comprehensive assessment of positive body image to guide intervention.

Validation and measurement invariance of a Korean version of the Body Appreciation Scale-2 in cisgender sexual minorities and heterosexual adults

The Body Appreciation Scale-2 (BAS-2) has been validated in various languages across samples with different characteristics. However, its validation and invariance based on sexual orientation in Korean samples have yet to be examined. The current study validated the psychometric properties of the BAS-2 in Korean sexual minorities, and examined measurement invariance between sexual minority and heterosexual individuals and between sexual minority cisgender women and men. Responses from 449 sexual minority and 400 heterosexual individuals were analyzed. In the sexual minority sample, a confirmatory factor analysis supported the scale's unidimensional structure, exhibiting strong factorial validity; further, a correlation analysis revealed positive correlations with body satisfaction, positive sexual minority identity, life satisfaction, and self-esteem, supporting the convergent and criterion-related validity. A hierarchical regression analysis confirmed the incremental validity of the BAS-2 on life satisfaction and self-esteem. The BAS-2 was invariant across women and men at the scalar level in the sexual minority sample, and across sexual minorities and heterosexuals at the partial scalar level in the total sample. Latent mean comparisons indicated no significant differences in BAS-2 scores between sexual minority women and men, while sexual minorities scored significantly lower than heterosexuals. The multiple-indicators multiple-causes model provided evidence of differential item functioning.

Psychometric properties of an Arabic translation of the body appreciation scale (BAS-2) and its short forms (BAS-2SF) in a community sample of Lebanese adults

OBJECTIVES

The present study sought to examine the factor structure, reliability, validity and gender invariance of the Arabic Body Appreciation Scale (BAS-2), and its two short forms (the 3-item and 2-item BAS-2SF) among community Lebanese Arabic-speaking adults.

METHODS

We carried-out an online cross-sectional survey. The 10-item BAS-2, the functionality appreciation scale and the Eating Attitudes Test-26 were completed by 826 Lebanese community adults (57.9% females, aged 25.42 ± 8.44 years).

RESULTS

The Arabic 10-item, 3-item and 2-item BAS-2 converged on a one-factor solution, and demonstrated high internal consistency (McDonald's ω value of .92, .88, and .86 respectively). All indices suggested that configural, metric, and scalar invariance was supported across gender. The 3-item and 2-item BAS-2SF were highly correlated with the original BAS-2 (r > 0.9). Higher 10-item, 3-item and 2-item BAS-2 scores correlated significantly and strongly with more positive eating attitudes and greater functionality appreciation, and higher 10-item BAS-2 scores correlated positively and weakly with BMI, supporting convergent validity.

CONCLUSION

The present work contributes to the literature by providing a psychometrically sound Arabic-translation of the BAS-2 and short-forms, benefitting both researchers and clinicians.

Body appreciation around the world: Measurement invariance of the Body Appreciation Scale-2 (BAS-2) across 65 nations, 40 languages, gender identities, and age

The Body Appreciation Scale-2 (BAS-2) is a widely used measure of a core facet of the positive body image construct. However, extant research concerning measurement invariance of the BAS-2 across a large number of nations remains limited. Here, we utilised the Body Image in Nature (BINS) dataset - with data collected between 2020 and 2022 - to assess measurement invariance of the BAS-2 across 65 nations, 40 languages, gender identities, and age groups. Multi-group confirmatory factor analysis indicated that full scalar invariance was upheld across all nations, languages, gender identities, and age groups, suggesting that the unidimensional BAS-2 model has widespread applicability. There were large differences across nations and languages in latent body appreciation, while differences across gender identities and age groups were negligible-to-small. Additionally, greater body appreciation was significantly associated with higher life satisfaction, being single (versus being married or in a committed relationship), and greater rurality (versus urbanicity). Across a subset of nations where nation-level data were available, greater body appreciation was also significantly associated with greater cultural distance from the United States and greater relative income inequality. These findings suggest that the BAS-2 likely captures a near-universal conceptualisation of the body appreciation construct, which should facilitate further cross-cultural research.

Body image explains differences in intuitive eating between men and women: Examining indirect effects across negative and positive body image

Intuitive eating is an adaptive and flexible form of eating. Men report higher rates of intuitive eating than women. Objectification processes are proposed to underlie this (binary) gender difference due to the intense body-related pressures that disrupt body image in women. The current study is the first known to test whether body image indirectly explains lower levels of intuitive eating in women relative to men. A cross-sectional sample of 498 adults aged 18-74 years recruited through Prolific completed an online survey assessing intuitive eating and negative and positive body image indicators. Women reported poorer body image and lower levels of intuitive eating compared to men. Significant indirect effects suggested body image explained gender differences in intuitive eating, controlling for age and body mass index. In women relative to men, greater body surveillance and lower aesthetic satisfaction explained lower total intuitive eating and reliance on hunger and satiety, greater aesthetic investment explained lower total intuitive eating and eating for physical reasons, and lower functionality investment explained lower body-food choice congruence. More research is needed, but findings suggest programs may benefit from decreasing critical views of appearance and strengthening functionality investment in women to reduce gender differences in intuitive eating.

Psychometric properties of the Arabic version of the Intuitive Eating Scale-2 (IES-2) in a sample of community adults

BACKGROUND

There is a growing attention on intuitive eating (IE) styles in the Western world that has not yet reached Arab countries, which is likely due to the lack of psychometrically sound measures of the IE construct for Arabic-speaking people. The current study aims to examine the psychometric properties of an Arabic translation of the most widely used measure of IE-the Intuitive Eating Scale-2 (IES-2), in an Arabic-speaking community population from Lebanon.

METHODS

Two samples of Arabic-speaking community adults from Lebanon (sample 1: n = 359, 59.9% females, age 22.75 ± 7.04 years; sample 2: n = 444, 72.7% females, age 27.25 ± 9.53 years) were recruited through online convenience sampling. The translation and back-translation method was applied to the IES-2 for linguistic validation. Factorial validity was investigated using an Exploratory Factor Analysis & Confirmatory Factor Analysis strategy. Composite reliability and sex invariance were examined. We also tested convergent and criterion-related validity through correlations with other theoretically plausible constructs.

RESULTS

Nine out of the original 23 items were removed because they either loaded below 0.40 and/or cross-loaded too highly on multiple factors. This resulted in four domains (Unconditional Permission to Eat, Eating for Physical Rather than Emotional Reasons, Reliance on Hunger and Satiety Cues, and Body-Food Choice Congruence) and 14 items retained. Internal reliability estimates were excellent, with McDonald's ω values ranging from 0.828 to 0.923 for the four factors. Multigroup analysis established configural, thresholds, metric, scalar, strict invariance across gender. Finally, higher IES-2 total scores were significantly correlated with lower body dissatisfaction scores and more positive eating attitudes, thus attesting to convergent and criterion-related validity of the scale.

CONCLUSIONS

The current findings provide preliminary evidence for the appropriate psychometric qualities of the Arabic 14-item, four-factor structure IES-2; thereby supporting its use at least among Arabic-speaking community adults.

Further evaluation of the psychometric properties of the German version of the Body Appreciation Scale-2 (BAS-2): Cross-validation, measurement invariance, and population-based norms

Using a representative sample of the German general population (N = 2509, 16-74 years), this work aimed to cross-validate the modified one-factor model recently reported for the German Body Appreciation Scale 2 (BAS-2). We also examined measurement invariance across gender, tested differential item functioning across age and BMI, systematically evaluated subgroup differences, and provided norms according to subgroups. Overall, the BAS-2 demonstrates good internal consistency. Cross-validation supported the generalizability of the modified one-factor model. Multi-group confirmatory factor analyses supported full scalar invariance across gender; comparisons revealed higher scores among men compared to women with a small effect size. Age (only women) and BMI (both genders) significantly predicted latent BAS-2 scores. Of note, differential item functioning for age and BMI was observed. Concerning manifest group differences, we found a significant main effect of weight status: Individuals with obesity reported the lowest body appreciation levels, while individuals with underweight/ normal weight reported highest levels. Our findings suggest that the German BAS-2 has good psychometric properties and is suitable for examining body appreciation across gender among German women and men. Moreover, norm values enable future usage of the scale in health and clinical research by providing reference data for interpretation.

Implications of Socio-Cultural Pressure for a Thin Body Image on Avoidance of Social Interaction and on Corrective, Compensatory or Compulsive Shopping Behaviour

This paper aims to discuss the implications of body talk and socio-cultural pressure for the internalisation of a thin body image in purchase decisions, shopping habits and other outcomes of body dissatisfaction, in particular the proneness to avoid human/social interaction in retail contexts and proneness to engage in corrective, compensatory or compulsive shopping behaviour. This paper conducted an online questionnaire that measured the following constructs: body mass index; Socio-cultural Attitudes Towards Appearance Scale-4 (SATAQ-4), Body Appreciation Scale (BAS-2), Acceptance of Cosmetic Surgery Scale (ACSS), Compulsive Buying Follow-up Scale (CBFS), proneness to avoid social interaction in retail contexts, and the intention to purchase a list of products and services as a compensation for body dissatisfaction. A structural equations model supported the hypotheses proposing the influence of BAS-2 and SATAQ-4 (the internalisation of thin/athletic body and the social comparison induced by family, peers and media) upon the outcomes of social-interaction avoidance, ACSS and CBFS. Nevertheless, BAS-2 only influences social-interaction avoidance. This paper provides several recommendations to brand managers highlighting the social responsibility role of brand advertising in enhancing positive body appreciation, mitigating the psychological damage caused by socio-cultural pressure and preventing the stigmatisation bias against obese people.

Validation of the Body Appreciation Scale-2 in cisgender, heterosexual and sexual and gender minority adolescents and sexuality-related correlates

Body dissatisfaction has received considerable scientific attention, while research about positive body image has been neglected, particularly among adolescents. The aims of the present study were to examine (1) the factor structure of the Body Appreciation Scale-2 (BAS-2) in a large sample of cisgender, heterosexual and sexual and gender minority adolescents, (2) measurement invariance across language, gender and sexual orientation-based groups, (3) convergent validity with sexuality-related outcomes and (4) one-year temporal stability. Results of a confirmatory analysis among 2419 adolescents (M_age=14.6 years, SD=0.62; 52.6% girls) corroborated the proposed one-dimensional factor structure of the scale. The BAS-2 demonstrated adequate reliability and one-year temporal stability. The scale was partially invariant across gender and fully invariant across language and cisgender heterosexual and sexual and gender minority adolescents. Boys (cis and trans) had higher levels of body appreciation than girls (cis and trans), while no significant differences were observed between heterosexual and sexual minority adolescents. The BAS-2 correlated positively with sexual satisfaction and sexual body-esteem as well as negatively with sexual distress. Our findings support the validity and reliability of the BAS-2 in French and English for measuring body appreciation in adolescents.

Portuguese version of the Body Appreciation Scale-2 for Children (BAS-2C): Psychometric evaluation and measurement of invariance across sex

Body appreciation, a central aspect of positive body image, recently started to capture the attention of the scientific community as a potential determinant of well-being. However, little is known about onset and early identification in both males and females, as studies on this subject in childhood are still scarce, due in part to a dearth of validated instruments. Therefore, the main purpose of this study is to examine the psychometric properties and sex invariance of a Portuguese version of the Body Appreciation Scale-2 for Children (BAS-2C; Halliwell et al., 2017). We also explored the relationship between the BAS-2C and body mass index z-scores (BMIz). Participants were 328 children, ages 9-to-11 years (50.9% girls). Confirmatory factor analysis indicated that the one-dimensional factor structure had adequate fit, but sex invariance was not supported. Differential item functioning analysis revealed that boys and girls respond differently to item #9, which assesses body comfort. BAS-2C scores evidenced internal consistency and convergent validity with quality of life, healthy eating habits, and body size dissatisfaction. BMIz showed a low ability to predict body appreciation. This study brings support for the use of the BAS-2C in Portuguese-speaking children, but caution is warranted in comparing BAS-2C scores across sexes.

Factor structure and psychometric properties of a Korean translation of the Body Appreciation Scale-2

The applicability of the Body Appreciation Scale-2 (BAS-2) in a Korean context is still unexplored, even though awareness of the importance of a positive body image has increased in South Korea. The current study examined the factor structure and psychometric properties of a Korean translation of the BAS-2, specifically to (1) translate and culturally adapt the BAS-2 to Korea, (2) confirm its unidimensional construct, and (3) identify its associations with body image and psychological outcomes across sex with a Korean sample. Data from 839 Korean adult men (n = 415) and women (n = 424) were randomly split into two subsamples. Using the exploratory factor analysis to confirmatory factor analysis strategy, the current study showed support for one factor structure of a Korean translation of the BAS-2. Scalar measurement invariance was found between men and women. Further analyses revealed construct validity through associations with measures of muscularity and body fat dissatisfaction (for men), internalization (for women), and appearance evaluation, as well as incremental validity through hierarchical regression analyses predicting life satisfaction and self-esteem. The Korean BAS-2 presented good internal consistency and test-retest reliability. The Korean BAS-2 is a reliable and valid measure, allowing for cross-cultural comparisons of body appreciation.

Psychometric properties of a Mandarin Chinese version of the Body Appreciation Scale-2 with residents from Chinese mainland

The current study aimed to translate the Body Appreciation Scale-2 (BAS-2) into Mandarin Chinese and explore its psychometric properties with college students from the Chinese mainland. In Study 1 (N = 840, 415 women, 425 men), an exploratory factor analysis upheld the unidimensional factor structure of the Mandarin Chinese BAS-2, and McDonald's omega supported the internal consistency reliability of its scores. Evidence of construct validity of the Mandarin Chinese BAS-2 was also accrued via its positive correlations with self-esteem, self-compassion, and body satisfaction as well as negative correlations with BMI, weight discrepancy, negative affect, and body surveillance. Its negative correlation with eating disorder symptomatology and negligible correlation with impression management supported its criterion-related validity and discriminant validity, respectively. Additionally, the Mandarin Chinese BAS-2 contributed unique variance in eating disorder symptomatology and self-esteem beyond the variance explained by BMI and other body satisfaction measures, providing evidence of incremental validity. Study 2 (N = 522, 322 women, 230 men) confirmed its unidimensional factor structure, upheld the internal consistency and stability of its scores over a 3-month period, and supported its measurement invariance between women and men. Taken together, these findings support the cross-cultural validity of the Mandarin Chinese BAS-2 on the Chinse mainland.

Measurement invariance of body image measures by age, gender, sexual orientation, race, weight status, and age: The U.S. Body Project I

Despite growing interest in comparing body image experiences across diverse groups, limited work has examined whether body image measures operate similarly across different populations, raising important questions about the appropriateness of comparing scale means across demographic groups. This study employed measurement invariance testing to evaluate whether such comparisons are appropriate with existing body image measures. Specifically, multi-group confirmatory factor analysis was conducted using a community sample of 11,620 men and women to test increasing levels of invariance (configural, metric, scalar) across five key demographic variables (age group, gender, sexual orientation, race, weight status) for five commonly used body image measures (the Sociocultural Attitudes Towards Appearance Questionnaire-4, the Body Surveillance subscale of the Objectified Body Consciousness Scale, the Appearance Evaluation and Overweight Preoccupation subscales of the Multidimensional Body-Self Relations Questionnaire, and the Body Image Quality of Life Inventory). Results provided evidence of scalar (i.e., strong) invariance for all five measures across age, gender, sexual orientation, race, and weight status groups, indicating that the latent factors captured by these measures have the same meaning across demographic groups. Findings therefore support the comparison of scale/subscale means across multiple demographic groups for these body image measures.

Validation of a German version of the Body Appreciation Scale-2 (BAS-2)

The Body Appreciation Scale-2 (BAS-2) is the most current measure of body appreciation, a central facet of positive body image. This work aimed to examine the factor structure and psychometric properties of a German version. In Study 1 (N = 659; M_age = 27.19, SD = 8.57), exploratory factor analysis (EFA) revealed that the German BAS-2 has a one-dimensional factor structure in women and men, showing cross-gender factor similarity. In Study 2 (N = 472; M_age = 30.08, SD = 12.35), confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) further supported the original scale's one-dimensional factor structure after freeing correlated errors. The German BAS-2 also showed partial scalar invariance across gender, with women and men not differing significantly in latent mean scores. As predicted, we found convergent relationships with measures of self-esteem, intuitive eating, and variables associated with negative body image (i.e., weight- and shape concerns, drive for thinness). Correlations with BMI were small and in an inverse direction. Incremental validity was demonstrated by predicting self-esteem and intuitive eating over and above measures of negative body image. Additionally, the German BAS-2 showed internal consistency and 2-week test-retest reliability. Overall, our results suggest that the German BAS-2 is a psychometrically sound instrument.

Quality of life in patients with inflammatory bowel disease: the role of positive psychological factors

Objective

To identify differences in quality of life (QoL) of patients with inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) between diagnosis (Crohn’s Disease and Ulcerative Colitis), gender (male and female), treatment condition (with and without surgery), and attachment styles (secure, preoccupied, and disconnected); to examine associations between QoL, sociodemographic, clinical, and positive psychological variables; to determine whether sociodemographic, clinical, and positive psychological variables predict QoL.

Method

The sample included 70 participants diagnosed with IBD (Mage = 43.37 years, SD = 12.81), of whom 71.4% were females and 67.1% had Crohn’s Disease. Positive psychological variables (meaning in life, positive body image, and attachment styles), sociodemographic (age, education, gender) and clinical variables (diagnosis, disease duration, surgery) were assessed as independent variables. QoL was the dependent variable, analyzed through four domains (physical, psychological, social, environment).

Results

Participants with a secure attachment style reported higher QoL (physical, psychological, and social) than participants with a preoccupied attachment style. Strong positive correlations were found between positive psychological variables and QoL. Body appreciation was a significant predictor of three QoL domains (physical, psychological, and environment). Meaning in life made a unique contribution to the social QoL regression model, and it was also a significant predictor of psychological QoL. Body acceptance by others was a significant predictor of physical QoL, whereas disease duration and education predicted environment QoL. Attachment styles did not predict any QoL domain.

Conclusion

The most significant predictors of QoL in patients with IBD were body appreciation and meaning in life. Body acceptance by others and body appreciation were the main predictors of physical QoL. Psychological interventions for patients who suffer from IBD should address body appreciation and meaning in life.

Modeling the associations between internal body orientation, body appreciation, and intuitive eating among early-adult and middle-adult men and women: A multigroup structural invariance analysis

This cross-sectional study investigated the associations among internal body orientation, body appreciation, intuitive eating, age, and BMI in men and women between 30 and 70 years old as delineated in the acceptance model of intuitive eating. Self-report measures were administered to a final sample of 522 individuals consisting of early-adult men (ages 30-44; n = 153), middle-adult men (ages 45-70; n = 108), early-adult women (ages 30-44; n = 135), and middle-adult women (ages 45-70; n = 126). Overall mean age was 45.03 (SD = 10.95). Structural equation modeling evidenced that, for both age groups of men and women, internal body orientation was positively associated with body appreciation and body appreciation was positively associated with intuitive eating. Internal body orientation was positively associated with intuitive eating in each group, except early-adult women. The associations among age and BMI with the aforementioned variables were inconsistent. Although evidencing measurement non-invariance among a number of parameters, multigroup structural invariance analyses showed that the associations among internal body orientation, body appreciation, intuitive eating, age, and BMI were invariant across each gender and age. These results further confirm components of the acceptance model of intuitive eating among men and women in early-adulthood and middle-adulthood.

Intuitive eating and its psychological correlates: A meta-analysis

OBJECTIVE

Intuitive eating is an adaptive style of eating that has generated significant research attention. Theoretically, intuitive eating is a core construct that features prominently in the Acceptance Model of Intuitive Eating, a framework that explains how positive environmental influences can foster intuitive eating practices via body appreciation. Empirically, intuitive eating has been connected to a broad range of adaptive mental health indices. At present, a quantitative synthesis of intuitive eating and its correlates has yet to be conducted. This was the objective of the current meta-analysis.

METHOD

Ninety-seven studies (89% cross-sectional) were included. Random effects meta-analyses were conducted on 23 psychological correlates, divided into three clusters: eating behavior and body image disturbances, positive body image and other adaptive factors, and general psychopathology. Meta-analytic path analyses were also computed to test the validity of the Acceptance Model.

RESULTS

Intuitive eating was inversely associated with multiple indices of eating pathology, body image disturbances, and psychopathology (rs = -.23 to -.58). Intuitive eating was positively associated with numerous positive psychological constructs, such as positive body image, self-esteem, and wellbeing (rs = .20 to .58). Men reported higher levels of intuitive eating than women (d = 0.39), with differences being largest in Caucasian samples. Meta-analytic path analyses strongly supported the hypothesized pathways specified in the Acceptance Model of Intuitive Eating.

CONCLUSIONS

There is a strong evidence base for intuitive eating's connection to numerous adaptive psychological constructs. Attention should now shift toward prospective and experimental designs so that the temporal nature of these relationships can be identified.

Body image flexibility and its correlates: A meta-analysis

Body image flexibility refers to the ability to openly experience thoughts or feelings about the body without acting on them or trying to change them. Accumulating evidence has demonstrated that body image flexibility is connected to numerous adaptive processes, and that it is sensitive to change during psychological interventions. However, a quantitative synthesis of empirical research on body image flexibility is lacking. We conducted the first meta-analysis on body image flexibility and its correlates. Sixty-two studies were included. Random effects meta-analyses were conducted on 19 psychological correlates, divided into three clusters: eating and body image disturbances, positive body-related and general psychological constructs, and general psychopathology. Meta-analyses showed inverse correlations between body image flexibility and each construct within the eating and body image disturbances cluster (rs= -.45 to -.67), and the general psychopathology cluster (rs= -.37 to -.58). Body image flexibility was positively associated with each positive psychology construct (rs = .23 - .58). Men reported higher levels of body image flexibility than women (d = 0.32). Psychological interventions were more effective than control groups at enhancing body image flexibility in randomized controlled trials (d = 0.42). Findings confirm that body image flexibility is consistently connected to indices of mental health, and that it can be enhanced during psychological interventions.

Cross-validation of the body appreciation scale-2: invariance across sex, body mass index, and age in Mexican adolescents

Cross-validation is a useful strategy to address problems associated with the post hoc model fitting. The aim of this study was to cross-validate the BAS-2, in two samples (Calibration and Validation Samples), using an invariance testing strategy. 1127 Mexican adolescents (508 males and 619 females), aged 11-19 years (M = 15.41, SD = 2.30), allocated in two samples (n₁ = 672; n₂ = 455) completed the Mexican version of the BAS-2, along with other body image-related instruments. The cross-validation supported the generalizability of the one-factor respecified model of the BAS-2. The measure was invariant across body mass index and age, but not across sex. Internal consistency and test-retest reliability (a three-week period between each test) was excellent. In support of the validity of the BAS-2, it was positively associated with scores on body esteem, but negatively with body mass index, drive for thinness, and body dissatisfaction. Normal-weight and young adolescents groups showed higher body appreciation than excess-weight and late adolescents groups, respectively. Considering these findings, it is reasonable to conclude that the BAS-2 is a reliable and valid instrument to assess body appreciation in Mexican adolescents. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Level V, cross-sectional, descriptive study.

Ageism and Psychological Distress in Older Adults: The Moderating Role of Self-Esteem and Body Image

Ageist attitudes have been associated with negative physical consequences and psychological distress among older adults. Although holding a positive self-image and body image contributes to well-being among older adults, their combined effect on the consequences of ageism has not been examined. Accordingly, the current study examines the moderating role of both variables on the connection between ageism and psychological distress among older adults. Data were collected from 383 older adults (age range = 60-90; M = 71.44; SD = 6.62), who filled out scales assessing ageism, self-esteem, body image, and psychological distress. Psychological distress was associated with reduced self-esteem and body image. In line with the moderation hypothesis, the ageism-distress link remained significant only for individuals with low levels of both self-esteem and body image. The discussion highlights the relevance of both self-esteem and body image as important personal resources which may buffer the connection between ageism and psychological distress among older adults.

The Body Acceptance by Others Scale: An assessment of its factorial validity in adults from the United Kingdom

The construct of body acceptance by others (i.e., the degree to which an individual perceives acceptance for their appearance by others) is central to conceptual models of positive body image and adaptive eating styles. It is typically measured using the 10-item Body Acceptance by Others Scale (BAOS; Avalos & Tylka, 2006), but emerging research has suggested that a unidimensional model of BAOS scores may be unstable. Here, we examined the factor structure of BAOS scores in a sample of adults from the United Kingdom (N = 1148). Exploratory factor analyses indicated that BAOS scores reduced to two dimensions in women, of which only a primary 6-item factor was stable. In men, all 10 items loaded onto a primary factor. However, the results of confirmatory factor analyses indicated that both models of BAOS scores had poor fit. Although both the unidimensional 10-item and 6-item models had adequate internal consistency, our results are suggestive of factor structure instability. We conclude by suggesting ways in which future research could revise the BAOS to improve its factorial stability and validity.

An examination of the factor structure and preliminary assessment of the psychometric properties of a Hebrew translation of the Body Appreciation Scale-2 (BAS-2)

The Body Appreciation Scale-2 (BAS-2) is a widely-used, 10-item measure of a core facet of positive body image. To extend its use internationally, we examined the factor structure and conducted a preliminary assessment of the psychometric properties of a novel Hebrew translation of the BAS-2. A sample of 613 Israeli adults (362 women, 251 men; age M = 29.52, SD = 9.47) completed the BAS-2 alongside demographic items and previously-validated measures of life satisfaction, self-esteem, self-compassion, and body investment. Exploratory factor analyses with a semi-random split-half subsample (n = 377) indicated that BAS-2 scores reduced to a single dimension with all 10 items. This factor structure was equivalent across women and men. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) with a second split-half subsample (n = 235) showed the 1-dimensional factor structure had adequate fit following one modification and multi-group CFA showed that the model was invariant across sex. Men had significantly higher BAS-2 scores than women, but the effect size was small (d = 0.22). Evidence of construct validity was demonstrated through positive associations with indices of life satisfaction, self-esteem, self-compassion, and body investment. The availability of a validated BAS-2 Hebrew translation should advance future research of body appreciation in Israel.

Psychometric properties of the Japanese version of the Body Appreciation Scale-2 for Children (BAS-2C)

Despite the heightened interest in positive body image research in recent years, few studies have explored positive body image among children. Examining the Body Appreciation Scale-2 for Children (BAS-2C) using a different cultural sample than the original version would thus be beneficial in extending the research on this topic. This research aimed to validate the BAS-2C for use in Japan. The measures were administered to 243 children, and the participants completed the survey in their classrooms with the support of a teacher. The survey was repeated after four weeks. Confirmatory factor analysis showed that the one-factor structure was the same as that of the original version, and the BAS-2C was invariant across gender. Scores on the BAS-2C demonstrated good internal consistency and test-retest reliability over a four-week period. In addition, construct validity was accrued through the BAS-2C's correlation with body dissatisfaction (among girls), self-esteem, and life satisfaction. Results indicated that the BAS-2C shows good psychometric properties among Japanese children, and supports further research into positive body image in this group.

Meta-analysis of gender differences in body appreciation

There are a number of studies that have conducted comparisons of body appreciation between males and females. However, findings are largely inconsistent, making it unclear whether there are actual gender differences in body appreciation. With a meta-analytic approach, the current study quantitatively reviewed and synthesized previous findings, published up to May 2019, on gender differences in body appreciation. After searching and screening potential studies in four databases (i.e., PubMed, PsycINFO, Web of Science, and ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global), we identified 40 relevant articles published from 2008 to 2019. A random-effects model reveals an overall estimate of gender difference in body appreciation of d = 0.27 (95 % CI: 0.21, 0.33; p <  .001); that is, males generally have a higher level of body appreciation than females, with a small effect size. Survey method, type of sample (cohorts), and age were identified as significant moderators that have contributed to the variability in previous findings. Future research and interventions in body appreciation may consider gender differences in their designs.

Associations between Body Appreciation and Disordered Eating in a Large Sample of Adolescents

Body appreciation is one of the main facets of a positive body image. The present study aimed to examine the psychometric properties of the Lithuanian version of the Body Appreciation Scale-2 (BAS-2-LT) and test the associations between body appreciation and disordered eating in a large sample of adolescents of both genders. Method: The sample consisted of 1412 adolescents (40.2% were boys). The ages ranged from 15 to 18 years (92.4% were 17), with a mean age of 16.9 (SD = 0.5) for girls and 17.0 (SD = 0.4) for boys. Participants completed the BAS-2-LT alongside the measures of body dissatisfaction, disordered eating, body mass index, self-esteem, body functionality, and participation in sports. Linear regressions were used to test the associations between study variables and disordered eating. Results: BAS-2-LT replicated the original one-dimensional structure in girls and boys. Invariance across genders was established. The instrument showed good internal consistency and temporal stability. Body appreciation was negatively correlated with higher levels of body mass index, body dissatisfaction, and disordered eating. Positive associations were observed between body appreciation, self-esteem, body functionality, and sports participation. Higher levels of body appreciation decreased the risk of disordered eating behaviors in both genders. Conclusions: The results of the present study support the psychometric properties of BAS-2-LT. Body appreciation is associated with lower disordered eating in adolescent girls and boys. These findings present empirical support for the development of interventions programs that promote positive body images and aim to prevent disordered eating in adolescent boys and girls.

Assessing the measurement invariance of a Latin-American Spanish translation of the Body Appreciation Scale-2 in Mexican, Argentinean, and Colombian adolescents

In order to advance in the study of positive body image among different cultures, it is important to create culturally appropriate measures. We examined the psychometric properties of a Latin-American Spanish translation of the Body Appreciation Scale-2 (BAS-2; Tylka & Wood-Barcalow, 2015a), specifically assessing measurement invariance using a large sample of 3845 male and female adolescents from Argentina, Mexico, and Colombia. Participants completed the BAS-2, Eating Disorder Inventory-2, Male Body Attitude Scale and the Sociocultural Attitudes Toward Appearance Questionnaire-3. The BAS-2 had a unidimensional factor structure in each of the three samples. We confirmed the structural, metric, and scalar invariance of the scale regardless of gender or country. Adolescents in Argentina had lower body appreciation compared with those in Mexico and Colombia. Overall, females had lower body appreciation than males, with the greatest gender difference found in the Argentinean sample. Our findings strongly support the validity and reliability of this Latin-American translation of the BAS-2 in measuring positive body image in adolescents in Argentina, Mexico, and Colombia.

Translation and validation of a Brazilian Portuguese version of the Body Appreciation Scale-2 in Brazilian adults

We examined the psychometric properties of a Brazilian Portuguese translation of the Body Appreciation Scale-2 (BAS-2; Tylka & Wood-Barcalow, 2015). A sample of 990 Brazilian adults (560 women, 430 men; M_age = 31.10, SD = 8.94) completed the BAS-2 and measures of life satisfaction, self-esteem, actual-ideal weight discrepancy (women only), breast size dissatisfaction (women only), drive for muscularity (men only), and disordered eating behaviours. Exploratory factor analyses indicated that BAS-2 scores reduced to a single dimension with all 10 items in women and men. Confirmatory factor analysis supported the fit of this one-dimensional factor structure following freeing of error covariances between two pairs of items. BAS-2 scores achieved full scalar invariance across sex, and men had significantly higher BAS-2 scores than women. Internal consistency coefficients were adequate and test-retest reliability was supported up to three weeks in a subsample of 221 participants (140 women, 81 men). Evidence of construct validity was demonstrated through positive associations with indices of psychological well-being and negative associations with indices of negative body image and disordered eating behaviours. Availability of a Brazilian Portuguese translation of the BAS-2 should help to promote greater understanding of positive body image in the Brazilian context.