Thomas F. Cash: A multidimensional innovator in the measurement of body image; Some lessons learned and some lessons for the future of the field

Cognitive reappraisal moderates the protective effect of body satisfaction on mental health and wellbeing in adults: A prospective study during COVID-19 lockdown

BACKGROUND

Body satisfaction is associated with mental health and well-being in adults. However, prospective studies are needed to better understand its protective effects, and in whom these are most beneficial. This study investigated body satisfaction as a predictor of depressive symptoms, generalised anxiety, and well-being in a representative Australian sample collected during the initial COVID-19 lockdown. Two emotion regulation strategies - cognitive reappraisal and expressive suppression - were also tested as moderating variables.

METHODS

The sample comprised 684 adults aged 19 to 87 years who completed three primary waves of data spanning two months [Wave 3 (W3), W4 and W7] from the Australian National COVID-19 Mental Health, Behaviour and Risk Communication Survey.

RESULTS

Hierarchical multiple regression models controlling for demographic and COVID-19 risk factors, as well as W3 for each outcome variable, indicated that W3 body satisfaction predicted greater W7 well-being, and fewer W7 depressive symptoms and greater W7 well-being in participants reporting low levels of W4 cognitive reappraisal. No moderation for W4 expressive suppression was observed, nor predictive relationships between W3 body satisfaction and W7 anxiety.

LIMITATIONS

The two-month follow-up period precludes conclusions relating to the longer-term protective effects of body satisfaction within and beyond the pandemic context. Examination of focal relationships in clinical samples, and inclusion of broader indices of body image, emotion regulation and mental health, is needed in future studies.

CONCLUSIONS

Findings suggest body satisfaction warrants attention in community well-being promotion in adults, and may be particularly beneficial for those lack adaptive emotion regulation strategies.

Body Uneasiness, Body Figure Perception, and Body Weight: Factor Structure and Longitudinal Measurement Invariance of a Set of Attitudinal and Perceptual Body Image Assessment Tools in Adolescents

Body image is a multifaceted construct that includes attitudinal and perceptual components, but its attention has mainly been focused on the facet of body dissatisfaction. The present longitudinal study extended the validation of a multifacet attitudinal questionnaire, the Body Uneasiness Test (BUT), against perceptions of body shape and weight. A convenient sample of adolescents took part in a 2-year unbalanced panel study (5 waves). The participants completed the BUT questionnaire and selected their perceived actual, ideal, and reflected body figures along the Contour Drawing Rating Scale; ideal/actual and ideal/normative body mass index discrepancies were also included. After replicating the expected five-factor structure of the BUT items, results from confirmatory factor analysis revealed that the five BUT scales loaded on an attitudinal dimension, whereas the perceived body figures and the discrepancy indices were on a perceptive domain. Such a two-domain structure of body image measures showed gender and seasonal (1-year) measurement invariance, whereas longitudinal 6-month and 18-month invariance partially failed. Overall, the present findings support the validity of the Body Uneasiness Test in adolescence, further demonstrating a preliminary multidimensional structure of body image onto which attitudinal and perceptual body image-related measures were projected.

Appearance comparison on Instagram: The impact of fitspiration and transformation imagery on young women's body satisfaction

Fitspiration, or imagery of thin muscular individuals that displays their physiques while posing or exercising, is a popular type of content on Instagram which ostensibly exists to encourage individuals to engage in a healthy lifestyle. A subtype of fitspiration imagery, "transformation" imagery, depicts physical changes following a "lifestyle change" involving diet and exercise. Despite its intentions, fitspiration imagery largely promotes one idealized body type (the fit ideal) and can be accompanied by messages encouraging restrained eating. Viewing fitspiration imagery has been associated with body dissatisfaction and appearance comparison in women, but the impact of transformation imagery specifically on women's body image has not yet been studied, nor has the impact of the broader fitspiration category and the transformation subtype on women's body image been compared. The current study aimed to clarify the relations between fitspiration and transformation imagery, appearance comparison, and body satisfaction using an experimental design. Female participants (N = 161) completed a measure of body satisfaction and then were randomly assigned to view one of three types of images: fit ideal only, body transformation, or travel (control). Participants then completed measures of appearance comparison and body satisfaction. Viewing fit ideal only and body transformation imagery was associated with lower body satisfaction and higher appearance comparison. The relation between image type and changes in body satisfaction was mediated by appearance comparison. Findings suggest that individuals may benefit from limiting exposure to fit ideal and body transformation imagery, particularly if they are vulnerable to engaging in appearance comparison.

Development and validation of the Exteroceptive Body Awareness (EBA-q) questionnaire

The conscious processing of body signals influences higher-order psychological and cognitive functions, including self-awareness. Dysfunctions in the processing of these signals has been connected to neurological and psychiatric disorders characterized by altered states of self-consciousness. Studies indicate that perceiving the body through interoceptive signals (e.g., from internal organs such as heartbeat and breathing) is distinct from perceiving the body through exteroceptive signals (e.g., by relying on visual, tactile and olfactory cues). While questionnaires are available for assessing interoception, there are no validated self-report instruments for measuring bodily exterception. To fill this gap, we performed three studies to develop and validate a novel scale designed to assess bodily self-consciousness based on the processing of exteroceptive bodily signals. Exploratory factor analysis (Study 1, N = 302) led to an 18-item questionnaire comprised of four factors. We called this instrument Exteroceptive Body Awareness questionnaire (EBA-q). Confirmatory factor analysis (Study 2, N = 184) run on a second sample showed an acceptable fit for a bifactor model, suggesting researchers may use the questionnaire as a unidimensional scale reflecting exteroceptive bodily self-consciousness, or use each of its four sub-scales, reflecting "visuo-tactile body awareness", "spatial coordination", "awareness of body changes" and "awareness of clothing fit". Overall EBA-q showed good internal consistency. Convergent and divergent validity were assessed via cross-validation with existing body awareness questionnaires (Study 3, N = 366) and behavioral measures (Study 3, N = 64) of exteroceptive and interoceptive bodily self-consciousness. Research applications are discussed within a multi-faceted model of exteroception and interoception as distinct, but at the same time interconnected, dimensions of bodily self-consciousness.

The Paradox of Sexual Dysfunction Observed during Pregnancy

The aim of this study is to analyze the evolution of sexual function throughout pregnancy and highlight the predicting factors of sexual dysfunction in pregnant women. Our study included 144 participants, aged 16 to 45. Patients were evaluated three times during pregnancy by filling out the Female Sexual Function Index (FSFI) and the Body Exposure in Sexual Activities Questionnaire (BESAQ). At the time of the last evaluation, we asked patients to also fill out Beck's Depression Inventory (BDI-II) and a questionnaire regarding their psychological status and relationship satisfaction. We observed that the FSFI lubrication, satisfaction, and pain domains and the FSFI total score significantly decreased from the 1st to the 3rd evaluation. We observed that an increase in BDI score and the presence of abortion in the patient's history increase the risk of developing female sexual dysfunction (FSD). Higher BMIs were found to be a protective factor against FSD, as was being unmarried. The relationship satisfaction score was found to be an independent predictor of FSD. These findings support previous studies that indicate that pregnancy and postpartum sexuality are multifaceted phenomena and that psycho-social factors have a greater impact on sexuality than biological factors.

Investigating the Effects of a Physical Education (PE) Kit Intervention on Female Adolescent Body Esteem

It is widely acknowledged that adolescent females are particularly at risk of low body esteem. Low body esteem is associated with poor mental health and other negative outcomes. Interventions to help raise body esteem could have a considerable impact, especially if the intervention is low cost, easy to implement, and scalable. We investigated the efficacy of an intervention where participants could choose their clothes to wear during a physical education lesson (PE). PE is a context associated with low body esteem, a finding that is particularly evident among females. We hypothesized that body esteem would improve with choice. To show that body esteem does not randomly change, we tested its stability when assessed in a test-retest design when completed in a classroom setting, hypothesizing that body esteem would be stable. Participants (n = 110; Age M = 14.9 years; SD = 0.68 years) completed a 14-item body esteem scale eight times: (a) wearing the school uniform in a classroom and (b) during a PE lesson on two occasions in each context within a week. This was repeated at the re-test, which was separated by a two-week gap. The intervention was implemented and students were given a choice of PE kit and could wear their own (non-designer) clothes. The findings indicate that the choice of PE kit intervention was associated with improved body esteem in a PE context but was stable in a classroom context, which we hypothesized to be stable. We argue that this low-cost and scalable intervention represents a useful starting point for helping to support females with low body esteem among a potentially vulnerable population.

Effects of Hormonal Profile, Weight, and Body Image on Sexual Function in Women with Polycystic Ovary Syndrome

Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is a hyperandrogenic endocrinological disorder associated with chronic oligo-anovulation and polycystic ovarian morphology. Compared to women without PCOS, women with PCOS have a risk of sexual dysfunction that is more than 30% higher. Although alterations in sex hormones and psychosocial wellbeing have been proposed, the precise mechanisms of FSD in PCOS remain unclear. The aim of our study was to analyze how the hormonal, clinical and psychometric parameters of PCOS patients are involved in the development of sexual dysfunction. The study group consisted of 54 women, aged between 21 and 32 years, diagnosed with PCOS. We collected the following parameters: age, body mass index (BMI), the Ferriman-Gallwey score (FG), maximum duration of oligomenorrhea, abdominal circumference (AC), free testosterone value (FT), luteinizing hormone/follicle stimulating hormone (LH/FSH) ratio value, serum cortisol value and ovarian ultrasound appearance. At the time of the examination, patients were asked to fill in the Female Sexual Function Index (FSFI) and the Body Exposure during Sexual Activities Questionnaire (BESAQ). Statistically significant differences were observed between normal weight and overweight women regarding BESAQ (p-value = 0.02) and FSFI total (p-value <0.001). Elevated BMI, AC or BESAQ scores correlated with a lower FSFI score. The most involved domains of the scale were orgasm, arousal, and desire. Elevated BESAQ scores increase the risk of female sexual dysfunction (FSD) by 4.24 times. FT, BESAQ score, BMI, and LH/FSH ratio were found to independently predict FSD. The cutoff point for the BESAQ score in detecting FSD was found to be 1.97. Weight, body image and anxiety related to sexual activities seem to be significant components in the development of sexual dysfunction in PCOS patients, beyond the effect due to hyperandrogenism. FT value has a U-shape effect in sexual dysfunction, because both in the case of deficit and in the case of excess, sexual function is impaired. BESAQ is a strong predictor for sexual dysfunction in women with PCOS, along with FT value, LH/FSH ratio and BMI.

Body image explains differences in intuitive eating between men and women: Examining indirect effects across negative and positive body image

Intuitive eating is an adaptive and flexible form of eating. Men report higher rates of intuitive eating than women. Objectification processes are proposed to underlie this (binary) gender difference due to the intense body-related pressures that disrupt body image in women. The current study is the first known to test whether body image indirectly explains lower levels of intuitive eating in women relative to men. A cross-sectional sample of 498 adults aged 18-74 years recruited through Prolific completed an online survey assessing intuitive eating and negative and positive body image indicators. Women reported poorer body image and lower levels of intuitive eating compared to men. Significant indirect effects suggested body image explained gender differences in intuitive eating, controlling for age and body mass index. In women relative to men, greater body surveillance and lower aesthetic satisfaction explained lower total intuitive eating and reliance on hunger and satiety, greater aesthetic investment explained lower total intuitive eating and eating for physical reasons, and lower functionality investment explained lower body-food choice congruence. More research is needed, but findings suggest programs may benefit from decreasing critical views of appearance and strengthening functionality investment in women to reduce gender differences in intuitive eating.

Body image and Black African women: A comparative study of Kenya and Nigeria

Very few cross-national studies on body image focus on Black African women. In this study, a comparative analytical approach and sociocultural theory framework was utilized in examining measures of body image among 209 Kenyan and Nigerian women aged 18-69 (M = 34.4, SD = 7.81). We examined both weight-related and non-weight-related aspects of appearance, including hair texture, skin tone, and other racialized features. The regional samples were compared on scores of internalized Eurocentric beauty ideals, skin color satisfaction, objectified body consciousness, racialized body image satisfaction, and other demographic metrics. Kenyan and Nigerian women showed differences across multiple body image measures. Nigerian women showed thinner body ideals compared to Kenyan women and also endorsed higher skin color satisfaction, racialized body dissatisfaction, and internalized Eurocentric beauty idealization. Kenyan women showed higher levels of objectified body consciousness. An indirect effect of nationality was observed with internalized Eurocentric beauty ideals mediating differences in racialized body dissatisfaction and objectified body shame. Attention to regional variation in appearance satisfaction may deepen understandings of the particular sociocultural influences impacting body image among populations of Black African women.

The role of mothers' involvement in their daughters' self-esteem and dieting behaviors

This study presents an initial effort to develop disordered eating pathology (DEP) prevention program with an emphasis on maternal involvement. Disordered eating pathology representing a range of behaviors and attitudes, from negative body image to full-blown eating disorder. It appears mainly in adolescent females and related to psychological and familial factors, including maternal modeling of thinness. A sample of 118 Israeli girls (11-12) was divided into three groups: participants in the program in parallel with their mothers, participants without their mothers, and control. Participants completed self-report questionnaires. Groups were tested three times: pre-intervention, post-intervention, and follow-up. For those girls who participated in parallel with their mothers, higher self-esteem was associated with fewer pathological diet behaviors. Findings deepen understanding of the risk factors involved in the development of DEP. The main study contribution is the important role mothers play in preventing DEP among their daughters.

Body perception in pregnant women: a qualitative study

BACKGROUND

Dramatic body changes in pregnancy cause severe concerns among pregnant women about their appearance. Therefore, this study aimed to explore body perception in pregnant women.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The qualitative study, using the conventional content analysis approach, was conducted on Iranian pregnant women who were in their second or third trimester of pregnancy. Participants were selected through purposeful sampling method. In-depth and semi-structured interviews were held with 18 pregnant women aged 22 to 36 years, using open-ended questions. Sampling was performed until data saturation was reached.

RESULTS

Three main categories were extracted from 18 interviews: (1) "symbols," with two subcategories, including 'motherhood' and 'vulnerability,' (2) "feelings toward body changes," with five subcategories, including 'negative feelings toward skin changes,' 'feeling unfit,' 'attention-drawing body shape,' 'the ridiculous body shape' and 'obesity,' and (3) "attraction and beauty," with two subcategories, including 'sexual attraction' and 'facial beauty.'

CONCLUSION

The results showed that pregnant women's body perception could be described as maternal feelings and feminine attitudes toward changes during pregnancy compared to mental ideals of facial and body beauty. It is recommended that Iranian women's body perception during pregnancy be evaluated using this study results and that counseling interventions be implemented for women with negative body perceptions.

Psychometric Properties of the Multidimensional Body-Self Relations Questionnaire-Appearance Scales (MBSRQ-AS) in Chilean Youth

The aim of this study is to analyze the factorial structure of the Multidimensional Body-Self Relations Questionnaire-Appearance Scales (MBSRQ-AS) to determine the adjustment of the study structure proposed in the Spanish short version in a young, non-clinical Chilean population and to evaluate the possible influence of sex, age, and BMI on body image measurement. The sample consisted of 614 Chilean youth (259 male and 355 female) between 15 and 28 years old (M = 18.81; SE = 2.46), from the Metropolitan Region, and four regions of the coast and south-central zone of the country. The average Body Mass Index (BMI) was 22.5 kg/m2 (SD = 3.16). The model fit was evaluated by confirmatory factor analysis (WLSMV) using the following: a model with a single general factor, a model with the five factors of the original version, a five-factor ESEM model, and a MIMIC model analyzed including sex, age, and BMI. The results show that the MIMIC sex, age, and BMI model presents an acceptable fit, observing that four factors, Appearance Orientation (AO), Body Areas Satisfaction (BAS), Overweight Preoccupation (OP), and Self-Classification Weight (SCW), are affected significantly for the sex variable, one for age, Appearance Evaluation (AE), and four for BMI (AE, BAS, OP, and SCW). In conclusion, MBSRQ-AS replicates the five-dimensional structure in a non-clinical sample of young Chileans; however, their scores are not invariant as they depend on sex, age, and BMI.

The development and validation of the Conscious Objectification Questionnaire

OBJECTIVE

Self-objectification is linked to disordered eating (DE) behaviors in women. However, the awareness of objectification by the self and others, not just the objectifying experiences themselves, may be differentially related to DE. The proposed study examines the development and validity of the Conscious Objectification Questionnaire (COQ), which seeks to evaluate awareness of objectification by others and intentional self-objectification.

METHOD

In Study 1, 24 participants who identify as women (≥18 years) will provide qualitative feedback on COQ items, and survey items will be updated based on participant feedback. In Study 2, separate participants will complete the COQ and questionnaires assessing DE, self-objectification, and mental health correlates. Exploratory factor analyses will be conducted on the COQ, and reliability and convergent and divergent validity will be assessed.

RESULTS

Results will clarify whether the COQ is a reliable and valid instrument that measures the distinct construct of awareness of objectification.

DISCUSSION

If proven psychometrically sound, the COQ may be useful for future research on the link between awareness of objectification and disordered eating.

PUBLIC SIGNIFICANCE

The novel Conscious Objectification Questionnaire (COQ) assesses the degree to which women recognize and act upon being objectified. The COQ will be reviewed by self-objectification experts and pilot participants before being psychometrically evaluated with data from a larger sample. The COQ is expected to differentially relate to disordered eating above and beyond existing self-objectification measures and accurately represent the distinct construct of conscious awareness of societal and self-objectification.

Dyadic Predictors of Child Body Shame in a Polish and Italian Sample

The present study aimed at assessing the predictors (related to the functioning of a parent-child dyad) of child body shame. Therefore, in the main analysis we examined relationships among child body shame, child perfectionism, child body dissatisfaction, parent body shame, parent perfectionism, and parent body dissatisfaction. In our main hypothesis we assumed that higher levels of the abovementioned parent functioning-related variables would be associated with higher child body shame after accounting for the effects of the foregoing child functioning-related variables. The analysis finally included complete data from 420 participants, i.e., a 115 Polish and 95 Italian parent-child dyad. Participants completed: (a) child: the Objectified Body Consciousness Scale for Youth, the Child-Adolescent Perfectionism Scale, the Children's Body Image Scale/the Figure Rating Scale; (b) parent: the Objectified Body Consciousness Scale, the Frost Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale, and the Contour Drawing Rating Scale. The results of a correlational analysis show that in both the Polish and Italian samples, the higher the level of child body shame, the higher the level of the following variables: child perfectionism, child body dissatisfaction, parent perfectionism, and parent body dissatisfaction. Interestingly, the only insignificant relationship in both samples is the association between body shame in both members of the child-parent dyad. Moreover, all steps of the regressions were significant in both Polish and Italian samples. It turned out that only in the Italian sample were all predictors significantly associated with a child's body shame (in the Polish sample there was no significant association between child's body shame and parent's perfectionism). To sum up, the above studies show the importance of considering the functioning of the parent-child dyad in understanding child body shame. These findings suggest that parents' attitudes toward their bodies and their beliefs about an ideal self should be taken into account when planning interventions to improve children's and adolescents' attitudes toward their bodies. This is so because it is possible for children to internalize their parents' beliefs about how to look and how critical one should be of themselves, which can result in strong body shame when they are not perfect enough against the internalized ideal. Therefore, it is also necessary to make parents aware that children's attitude toward their body is often a reflection of parents' attitude toward the body.

Factor Structure of the Polish Version of Multidimensional Body-Self Relations Questionnaire-Appearance Scales (MBSRQ-PL)

In Poland, there is no tool for measuring the variable body image that would have standardization or Polish norms adjusted to the population of both women and men. The available Multidimensional Body-Self Relations Questionnaire (MBRSQ) validation developed in Poland was based on a small population of young women only. The aim of this article is to present Polish adaptation and standardization for polish adult women and men (MBSRQ-AS). In the study, the psychometric properties and factor structure of the Polish version of MBSRQ-AS were tested. The participants were 2688 people, including 1699 young women and 1089 young men. In order to investigate the psychometric properties of the adapted Polish tool, an exploratory factor analysis (EFA) was performed. Then, the reliability coefficients were calculated, and the descriptive statistics of individual subscales were checked. The separated subscales are characterized by high indexes of factor loadings, ranging most often from 0.47 to 0.78. Separate subscales of the MBRSQ-PL questionnaire were defined: (1) self-esteem of the body and its parts, (2) self-assessment of physical, (3) self-assessment of external appearance, (4) Negation of one’s own physical activity, (5) Self-assessment of health condition, (6) health anxiety, (7) fear of gaining weight, (8) neglecting health and appearance.

Self-reported Dermatological Manifestations, Perceived Stress, and Body Image of Young Adults During the Greek Lockdown Caused by the COVID-19 Outbreak

The aim of the study is to explore the perceived impact of social distancing measures due to COVID-19 on the manifestation of skin disorders and symptoms and their association with perceived stress and body image. For the purposes of this article, quantitative-driven mixed methods are used: the Greek versions of “Perceived Stress Scale” (Andreou et al., International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 8:3287–3298, 2011) to measure the stress levels among population, and “Multidimensional Body-Self Relations Questionnaire-Appearance Scales” (Argyrides and Kkeli, Psychological Reports 113:885–897, 2013) to examine body image satisfaction and assessment, along with open-ended questions are used. Questionnaires were distributed during the period of social distancing measures and 3 weeks following lockdown. Two hundred and fifty-three (N = 253) participants completed the survey: a control group of 164 participants without dermatological manifestations and a study group (N = 89) with dermatological manifestations.. Statistical analysis shows that adults with acne have a higher sense of self-efficacy in managing stressful situations than participants who have other skin disorders. Gender differences are observed as far as the perceived appearance is concerned. Thematic content analysis (Braun and Clarke, Qualitative Research in Psychology 3:77–101, 2006) shows that adults with skin symptoms associate their symptoms exacerbation with intrapersonal dimensions, such as stress and fear and environmental factors. The presence of skin disease is not necessarily associated with body satisfaction, body image, and cutaneous body image, although positively correlated with stress. The results are discussed and future recommendations are proposed.

Perceptions of the Body and Body Dissatisfaction in Primary Education Children According to Gender and Age. A Cross-Sectional Study

Body image (BI) is a trending topic of study since health problems derived from a negative perception of the body are increasing and affecting people of all ages, with an increasing incidence among children from the age of eight. The objective of this study was to evaluate the current perception of the body against the desired body and the degree of body satisfaction of Galician primary education students. A total of 355 students (167 boys (47%)) between 9 and 12 years old participated (mean = 10.53; SD = 0.84). Sociodemographic data (sex, age, height, and weight) were collected, and the Figure Rating Scale was used. There are statistically significant differences between boys and girls in the current perceived figure (p = 0.003) and in the desired figure (p < 0.001). Depending on age, the differences were in current (p = 0.010) and desired (p = 0.021) body perception. In conclusion, boys perceive themselves as having a larger figure than girls do, but this perception is far from reality according to the body mass index. For the desired figure, both boys and girls want to be slimmer, but girls want a slimmer figure. Regarding age, the current perceived figure size increases with age as it increases in those students dissatisfied with their body.

A systematic review of instruments for the assessment of eating disorders among adults

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

The availability of psychometrically sound assessment instruments for assessing eating disorder symptomatology is crucial for both clinical practice and research. The purpose of the current review is to provide the reader with a list of psychometrically validated assessments for adults that are available within the field of eating disorders. Eating disorder interviews and self-report questionnaires were identified using online literature searches, reviewing previous review articles, and via research and/or clinical experience of the authors. The focus of the review was on (1) standard assessments that were frequently used in eating disorder research (such as the Eating Disorder Examination and Eating Attitudes Test), and (2) newer assessments that were developed over the past 5 years. Information compiled on each instrument included the purpose of the assessment, scores that can be derived, psychometric information, translations in other languages, and availability for use in research and clinical settings.

RECENT FINDINGS

Several recent trends in assessment instruments were identified including updates based upon Diagnostic and Statistical Manual criteria, briefer assessments, assessments for specific populations, and assessment of specific clinical features observed in people with eating disorders.

SUMMARY

The current review provides eating disorder clinicians and researchers a guide for making informed decisions about the selection of eating disorder assessments.

Breastfeeding, body image, and weight control behavior among postpartum women

The goal of this study was to examine breastfeeding behavior and attitudes as predictors of women's body image and weight control behavior. This study extends past research by focusing on positive body image variables including body appreciation and perceived body functionality. Women (N = 597) from the United States who had recently birthed biological babies ages 0-12 months participated in an online study. Current breastfeeding rates were high (86 %), and average breastfeeding duration was approximately 3 months. Women who were currently breastfeeding indicated more positive body images and less likelihood of engaging in maladaptive weight control behaviors than women who were no longer breastfeeding or had never breastfed their baby. Women's positive attitudes toward breastfeeding were associated with awareness and appreciation of body functionality and fewer maladaptive weight control behaviors. These findings extend research on the health benefits of positive body image and suggest that breastfeeding may occur within a constellation of beliefs and behaviors indicative of positive body image.

Can Parental Body Dissatisfaction Predict That of Children? A Study on Body Dissatisfaction, Body Mass Index, and Desire to Diet in Children Aged 9-11 and Their Families

Body image has been associated with self-care and the assumption of either healthy habits or poor diets and eating disorders. As a vital element in the formation of a positive body image, the role of the family in childhood has been highlighted by a few studies. This study aimed to assess whether children’s body dissatisfaction could be predicted by their parents’ body dissatisfaction, body mass index (BMI), and approach to change. The sample consisted of 581 participants (366 parents and 215 children). The following instruments were used: anthropometric data, the Brief Scale of Body Dissatisfaction for Children, the IMAGE questionnaire (approach to change and drive for muscularity subscales), and the Eating Disorder Inventory-2 (body dissatisfaction and drive for thinness subscales). The results indicated that 19% of children, 22.8% of mothers, and 70.2% of fathers were overweight or obese. The multiple regression models developed for boys and girls explained 60 and 57% of the variance in body dissatisfaction, respectively. Several variables attributable to the mother (higher approach to change, higher drive for thinness, and higher BMI) and to the boys themselves (drive for muscularity, approach to change, and having a high BMI percentile) predicted a higher level of body dissatisfaction. For girls, only variables regarding themselves (approach to change, age, and BMI percentile) explained their body dissatisfaction. Relationships with the traits of the father were not detected for both models. The influence of sociocultural factors on the construction of gender and the negative consequences of mothers’ dieting for aesthetic purposes, on the development of children’s body image, are discussed.

A Brief Assessment of Body Image Perception: Norm Values and Factorial Structure of the Short Version of the FKB-20

The Body Image Questionnaire-20 (FKB-20) is one of the most applied self-report measures in the context of body image assessment in German-speaking regions. A version of the FKB-20 capturing an ideal concept of body image is also available. A special property of the scale is its high sensitivity for individuals suffering from anorexia nervosa. The present research provided a short version of this scale (for both variants) and examined its validity in a representative sample (N = 2,347) of the German population. We utilized factor analysis methods to identify the optimal short scale of the measure, finding excellent model fit and reliability for a two-factor model (FKB-6) for both real and ideal body image. Both versions of the FKB-6 can be considered invariant across sex and age groups. Good reliability indices were shown for both versions of the FKB-6. The reliability indices were similar to those mentioned in previous studies. Our study also revealed, that large discrepancies between the real and an ideal body image are correlated with somatic and body dysmorphic symptoms. Finally, we provided norm values for comparisons of individual scores with the general population. The FKB-6 is a valid and a reliable measure that economizes assessments by clinicians and researchers.

Taking it apart and putting it back together again: Using Item Pool Visualisation to summarise complex data patterns in (positive) body image research

Issues of construct commonality and distinguishability in body image research are typically addressed using structural equal models, but such methods can sometimes present problems of interpretation when data patterns are complex. One recent-developed tool that could help in summarising complex data patterns is Item Pool Visualisation (IPV), an illustrative method that locates item pools from within the same dataset and illustrates these in the form of single or nested radar charts. Here, we demonstrate the utility of IPV in visualising data patterns vis-à-vis positive body image. Five-hundred-and-one adults from the United Kingdom completed seven widely-used measures of positive body image and data were subjected IPV. Results demonstrated that, of the included measures, the Body Appreciation Scale-2 provided the closest and most precise measurement of a core positive body image construct. The Functionality Appreciation Scale and the Authentic Pride subscale of the Body and Appearance Self-Conscious Emotions Scale tapped more distal aspects. Our results also highlight possible limitations with the use of several other instruments as measures of positive body image. We discuss implications for research aimed at better understanding the nature of positive body image and interpreting complex data patterns in body image research more generally.

A quantitative systematic review assessing the impact of burn injuries on body image

This study systematically reviewed the quantitative evidence for the impact of burn injuries on body image. Primary research assessing body image using standardized scales published in peer-reviewed journals were systematically searched using the electronic databases PubMed, Scopus, CINHAL, and PsycINFO in January 2020. Studies reporting relationships between characteristics related to burn injury and body image outcomes were included. Quality was assessed using the JBI Critical Appraisal Checklist for Analytical Cross-Sectional Studies. Included studies varied in comparison methods and body image measures, with most reporting cross-sectional relationships. Among the 33 included studies, 12 reported a negative association between burn severity and body image, 14 reported no significant association, six showed mixed (negative and null) results across the burn injury measures, and one reported more positive body image among burn survivors compared to those without burns. This review identified evidence supporting the association between burn severity and lower satisfaction with body image. Individuals with body image concerns, particularly those with higher burn severity and women, may benefit most from interventions that address self-acceptance and coping mechanisms. Further cross-sectional studies with representative control groups and longitudinal studies with longer follow-up periods are required.

The Development of a BMI-Guided Shape Morphing Technique and the Effects of an Individualized Figure Rating Scale on Self-Perception of Body Size

The creation of personalized avatars that may be morphed to simulate realistic changes in body size is useful when studying self-perception of body size. One drawback is that these methods are resource intensive compared to rating scales that rely upon generalized drawings. Little is known about how body perception ratings compare across different methods, particularly across differing levels of personalized detail in visualizations. This knowledge is essential to inform future decisions about the appropriate tradeoff between personalized realism and resource availability. The current study aimed to determine the impact of varying degrees of personalized realism on self-perception of body size. We explored this topic in young adult women, using a generalized line drawing scale, as well as several types of personalized avatars, including 3D textured images presented in immersive virtual reality (VR). Body perception ratings using generalized line drawings were often higher than responses using individualized visualization methods. While the personalized details seemed to help with identification, there were few differences among the three conditions containing different amounts of individualized realism (e.g., photo-realistic texture). These results suggest that using scales based on personalized texture and limb dimensions are beneficial, although presentation in immersive VR may not be essential.

Measurement invariance of the SATAQ-4 in Black and White undergraduate women

The Sociocultural Attitudes Towards Appearance Questionnaire-4 (SATAQ-4) is a widely used measure of sociocultural factors affecting body image. Despite evidence sociocultural appearance ideals and pressures might differ between White and Black women, the SATAQ-4's invariance has not been formally evaluated. The current study examined its measurement invariance across White and Black college women. Women (N = 730; 68.5 % White, 31.5 % Black), recruited from a large, public university in the United States completed measures online. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) showed the original five-factor structure was adequate in each group, and it appeared equivalent across groups. However, full metric invariance was not supported. Factor loadings on one item differed, suggesting differences in how this item contributed to thin-ideal internalization between groups. Similarly, one threshold differed, suggesting Black women who mostly agreed they wanted a "very thin" body had more thin-ideal internalization than White women with the same rating. These results suggest comparisons between these groups on the thin-ideal internalization subscale should be interpreted cautiously, as group differences could reflect some measurement bias. Given appearance pressures and ideals extend beyond thinness, particularly for Black women, future research should consider refining or developing culturally sensitive measures, to enhance relevance between and within racial/ethnic groups.

A network analysis comparison of central determinants of body dissatisfaction among pregnant and non-pregnant women

The objective of the present study was to compare body dissatisfaction of pregnant (n = 1245 overall; n = 320 trimester 1, n = 497 trimester 2, n = 428 trimester 3) and non-pregnant (n = 547) women in terms of: (a) global dissatisfaction, (b) dissatisfaction with specific body parts/features, and (c) strength of inter-relation among these areas of dissatisfaction. While ANOVAs revealed small group differences in overall body dissatisfaction ratings for appearance and function, more sizable differences were observed at the item level. Network analysis showed that the dissatisfaction items clustered together in similar ways across groups, but that the relative importance of these items for the networks differed by group. In particular, dissatisfaction with chest was much less connected to other areas of dissatisfaction for pregnant women, whilst dissatisfaction with shape and/or weight were more strongly connected to other items for this group. Body function items were less important in the network for non-pregnant women. Findings support earlier qualitative findings suggesting that pregnant women are concerned with both appearance and functioning of their bodies. More broadly, information gleaned at the item level highlights the value in exploring areas of dissatisfaction that may increase understanding of global dissatisfaction ratings.

Body image during sexual activity in the population of Polish adult women

Introduction

Recently it has been shown that body image during sexual activities is a better predictor of the diversity of sexual experience than body image as a psychological trait. To measure contextual body image (as a state) the Body Exposure During Sexual Activity Questionnaire (BESAQ) was developed.

Material and methods

845 women aged 18-55 years were included in the study. The original model was first translated into Polish and consulted to create the version to be further validated. The original model was tested using confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). The population was divided in two equal groups – group 1 was used for exploratory factor analysis. Discriminant and convergent validity were checked. Sexual function was assessed by the Changes in Sexual Function Questionnaire.

Results

The Polish model of BESAQ (BESAQ-PL) consisted of 28 items with 2 lower-order factors. It had a satisfactory goodness of fit – comparative fit index (CFI) = 0.93, Tucker-Lewis index (TLI) = 0.94, root-mean-square error of approximation (RMSEA) = 0.06 and χ² = 1360.0, df = 337, p< 0.001, excellent internal consistency measured by Cronbach’s α = 0.88 and satisfactory discriminate validity. State body image (BESAQ-PL) did not predict sexual functioning. Face was the most important for self-consciousness during sexual contact in the population of Polish women.

Conclusions

State body image correlates with sexual functions but is not a major factor influencing sexual performance. Women in Poland are not anxious about body exposure during sexual activity. The BESAQ-PL may be used in the population of Polish women between 18 and 55 years of age.