Do Cellular Condensates Accelerate Biochemical Reactions? Lessons from Microdroplet Chemistry

Ultrafast Dual Activation of C(sp3)-H and C(sp2)-H Bonds in an Arc Plasma-Initiated Microdroplet

This study demonstrates a method that utilizes arc plasma-induced microdroplet reactions to synthesize dual-activated products with C(sp3)-N and C(sp2)-O bonds starting from C-H bonds. This innovative process utilizes arc- and microdroplet-generated hydroxyl radicals and water dimer radical cations, opening new possibilities for the multisite derivatization of small molecules.

Peptides for Liquid-Liquid Phase Separation: An Emerging Biomaterial

Liquid-liquid phase separation (LLPS) refers to a spontaneous separation behavior of biomacromolecules under specific physiological conditions, playing a crucial role in regulating various biological processes. Recent advances in synthetic peptides have greatly improved our understanding of peptide-based coacervate droplets and expanded their applications in biomedicine. Numerous peptide sequences have been reported that undergo phase separation, enabling the concentration and sequestration of different guest molecules for purposes such as drug delivery, catalytic performance, and bioanalytical techniques. Particularly, some of these peptides offer significant advantages in controlled drug release, efficient cell transfection, accelerated reaction kinetics, and selective biomarker detection. This review provides an overview of recent developments in peptide-based LLPS, exploring various strategies for designing peptide sequences and their biomedical applications. It also addresses the challenges and future directions for LLPS peptide vehicles as promising biomaterials.

Revealing nanoscale structure and interfaces of protein and polymer condensates via cryo-electron microscopy

Liquid-liquid phase separation (LLPS) is a ubiquitous demixing phenomenon observed in various molecular solutions, including in polymer and protein solutions. Demixing of solutions results in condensed, phase separated droplets which exhibit a range of liquid-like properties driven by transient intermolecular interactions. Understanding the organization within these condensates is crucial for deciphering their material properties and functions. This study explores the distinct nanoscale networks and interfaces in the condensate samples using a modified cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM) method. The method involves initiating condensate formation on electron microscopy grids to limit droplet growth as large droplet sizes are not ideal for cryo-EM imaging. The versatility of this method is demonstrated by imaging three different classes of condensates. We further investigate the condensate structures using cryo-electron tomography which provides 3D reconstructions, uncovering porous internal structures, unique core-shell morphologies, and inhomogeneities within the nanoscale organization of protein condensates. Comparison with dry-state transmission electron microscopy emphasizes the importance of preserving the hydrated structure of condensates for accurate structural analysis. We correlate the internal structure of protein condensates with their amino acid sequences and material properties by performing viscosity measurements that support that more viscous condensates exhibit denser internal assemblies. Our findings contribute to a comprehensive understanding of nanoscale condensate structure and its material properties. Our approach here provides a versatile tool for exploring various phase-separated systems and their nanoscale structures for future studies.

Mesoscale properties of biomolecular condensates emerging from protein chain dynamics

Biomolecular condensates form by phase separation of biological polymers. The cellular functions of the resulting membraneless organelles are closely linked to their physical properties over a wide range of length- and timescales: From the nanosecond dynamics of individual molecules and their interactions, to the microsecond translational diffusion of molecules in the condensates, to their viscoelastic properties at the mesoscopic scale. However, it has remained unclear how to quantitatively link these properties across scales. Here we address this question by combining single-molecule fluorescence, correlation spectroscopy, microrheology, and large-scale molecular dynamics simulations on different condensates that are formed by complex coacervation and span about two orders of magnitude in viscosity and their dynamics at the molecular scale. Remarkably, we find that the absolute timescale of protein chain dynamics in the dense phases can be quantitatively and accurately related to translational diffusion and condensate viscosities by Rouse theory of polymer solutions including entanglement. The simulations indicate that the observed wide range of dynamics arises from different contact lifetimes between amino acid residues, which in the mean-field description of the polymer model cause differences in the friction acting on the chains. These results suggest that remarkably simple physical principles can relate the mesoscale properties of biomolecular condensates to their dynamics at the nanoscale.

How Droplets Can Accelerate Reactions─Coacervate Protocells as Catalytic Microcompartments

ConspectusCoacervates are droplets formed by liquid-liquid phase separation (LLPS) and are often used as model protocells-primitive cell-like compartments that could have aided the emergence of life. Their continued presence as membraneless organelles in modern cells gives further credit to their relevance. The local physicochemical environment inside coacervates is distinctly different from the surrounding dilute solution and offers an interesting microenvironment for prebiotic reactions. Coacervates can selectively take up reactants and enhance their effective concentration, stabilize products, destabilize reactants and lower transition states, and can therefore play a similar role as micellar catalysts in providing rate enhancement and selectivity in reaction outcome. Rate enhancement and selectivity must have been essential for the origins of life by enabling chemical reactions to occur at appreciable rates and overcoming competition from hydrolysis.In this Accounts, we dissect the mechanisms by which coacervate protocells can accelerate reactions and provide selectivity. These mechanisms can similarly be exploited by membraneless organelles to control cellular processes. First, coacervates can affect the local concentration of reactants and accelerate reactions by copartitioning of reactants or exclusion of a product or inhibitor. Second, the local environment inside the coacervate can change the energy landscape for reactions taking place inside the droplets. The coacervate is more apolar than the surrounding solution and often rich in charged moieties, which can affect the stability of reactants, transition states and products. The crowded nature of the droplets can favor complexation of large molecules such as ribozymes. Their locally different proton and water activity can facilitate reactions involving a (de)protonation step, condensation reactions and reactions that are sensitive to hydrolysis. Not only the coacervate core, but also the surface can accelerate reactions and provides an interesting site for chemical reactions with gradients in pH, water activity and charge. The coacervate is often rich in catalytic amino acids and can localize catalysts like divalent metal ions, leading to further rate enhancement inside the droplets. Lastly, these coacervate properties can favor certain reaction pathways, and thereby give selectivity over the reaction outcome.These mechanisms are further illustrated with a case study on ribozyme reactions inside coacervates, for which there is a fine balance between concentration and reactivity that can be tuned by the coacervate composition. Furthermore, coacervates can both catalyze ribozyme reactions and provide product selectivity, demonstrating that coacervates could have functioned as enzyme-like catalytic microcompartments at the origins of life.

Biomolecular condensates can function as inherent catalysts

We report the discovery that chemical reactions such as ATP hydrolysis can be catalyzed by condensates formed by intrinsically disordered proteins (IDPs), which themselves lack any intrinsic ability to function as enzymes. This inherent catalytic feature of condensates derives from the electrochemical environments and the electric fields at interfaces that are direct consequences of phase separation. The condensates we studied were capable of catalyzing diverse hydrolysis reactions, including hydrolysis and radical-dependent breakdown of ATP whereby ATP fully decomposes to adenine and multiple carbohydrates. This distinguishes condensates from naturally occurring ATPases, which can only catalyze the dephosphorylation of ATP. Interphase and interfacial properties of condensates can be tuned via sequence design, thus enabling control over catalysis through sequence-dependent electrochemical features of condensates. Incorporation of hydrolase-like synthetic condensates into live cells enables activation of transcriptional circuits that depend on products of hydrolysis reactions. Inherent catalytic functions of condensates, which are emergent consequences of phase separation, are likely to affect metabolic regulation in cells.

Lopinavir enhances anoikis by remodeling autophagy in a circRNA-dependent manner

Macroautophagy/autophagy-mediated anoikis resistance is crucial for tumor metastasis. As a key autophagy-related protein, ATG4B has been demonstrated to be a prospective anti-tumor target. However, the existing ATG4B inhibitors are still far from clinical application, especially for tumor metastasis. In this study, we identified a novel circRNA, circSPECC1, that interacted with ATG4B. CircSPECC1 facilitated liquid-liquid phase separation of ATG4B, which boosted the ubiquitination and degradation of ATG4B in gastric cancer (GC) cells. Thus, pharmacological addition of circSPECC1 may serve as an innovative approach to suppress autophagy by targeting ATG4B. Specifically, the circSPECC1 underwent significant m6A modification in GC cells and was subsequently recognized and suppressed by the m6A reader protein ELAVL1/HuR. The activation of the ELAVL1-circSPECC1-ATG4B pathway was demonstrated to mediate anoikis resistance in GC cells. Moreover, we also verified that the above pathway was closely related to metastasis in tissues from GC patients. Furthermore, we determined that the FDA-approved compound lopinavir efficiently enhanced anoikis and prevented metastasis by eliminating repression of ELAVL1 on circSPECC1. In summary, this study provides novel insights into ATG4B-mediated autophagy and introduces a viable clinical inhibitor of autophagy, which may be beneficial for the treatment of GC with metastasis.

Femtoliter oil droplets act as CO2 micropumps for uninterrupted electrochemiluminescence at the water|oil interface

Interfacial effects are well-known to significantly alter chemical reactivity, especially in confined environments, where the surface to volume ratio increases. Here, we observed an inhomogeneity in the electrogenerated chemiluminescence (ECL) intensity decrease over time in a multiphasic system composed of femtoliter water droplets entrapping femtoliter volumes of the 1,2-dichloroethane (DCE) continuous phase. In usual electrochemiluminescence (ECL) reactions involving an ECL chromophore and oxalate ([C2O4]2-), the build-up of CO2 diminishes the ECL signal with time because of bubble formation. We hypothesised that relative solubilities of chemical species in these environments play a dramatic role in interfacial reactivity. Water droplets, loaded with the ECL luminophore [Ru(bpy)3]2+ and the coreactant [C2O4]2- were allowed to stochastically collide and adsorb at the surface of a glassy carbon macroelectrode. When water droplets coalesce on the surface, they leave behind femtoliter droplets of the DCE phase (inclusions). We report the surprising finding that the addition of multiple interfaces, due to the presence of continuous phase's femtoliter inclusions, allows sustained ECL over time after successive potential applications at the triple-phase boundary between water droplet|electrode|DCE inclusion. When femtoliter droplets of DCE form on the electrode surface, bright rings of ECL are observed during the simultaneous oxidation of [Ru(bpy)3]2+ and [C2O4]2-. Control experiments and finite element modelling allowed us to propose that these rings arise because CO2 that is generated near the 1,2-dichloroethane droplet partitions in due to relative solubility of CO2 in 1,2-dichloroethane and builds up and/or is expelled at the top of the droplet. The small droplets of the DCE phase act as micropumps, pumping away carbon dioxide from the interface. These results highlight the unexpected point that confined microenvironments and their geometry can tune chemical reactions of industrial importance and fundamental interest.

Coacervate Droplets for Synthetic Cells

The design and construction of synthetic cells - human-made microcompartments that mimic features of living cells - have experienced a real boom in the past decade. While many efforts have been geared toward assembling membrane-bounded compartments, coacervate droplets produced by liquid-liquid phase separation have emerged as an alternative membrane-free compartmentalization paradigm. Here, the dual role of coacervate droplets in synthetic cell research is discussed: encapsulated within membrane-enclosed compartments, coacervates act as surrogates of membraneless organelles ubiquitously found in living cells; alternatively, they can be viewed as crowded cytosol-like chassis for constructing integrated synthetic cells. After introducing key concepts of coacervation and illustrating the chemical diversity of coacervate systems, their physicochemical properties and resulting bioinspired functions are emphasized. Moving from suspensions of free floating coacervates, the two nascent roles of these droplets in synthetic cell research are highlighted: organelle-like modules and cytosol-like templates. Building the discussion on recent studies from the literature, the potential of coacervate droplets to assemble integrated synthetic cells capable of multiple life-inspired functions is showcased. Future challenges that are still to be tackled in the field are finally discussed.

Seeing Biomolecular Condensates Through the Lens of Viruses

Phase separation of viral biopolymers is a key factor in the formation of cytoplasmic viral inclusions, known as sites of virus replication and assembly. This review describes the mechanisms and factors that affect phase separation in viral replication and identifies potential areas for future research. Drawing inspiration from studies on cellular RNA-rich condensates, we compare the hierarchical coassembly of ribosomal RNAs and proteins in the nucleolus to the coordinated coassembly of viral RNAs and proteins taking place within viral factories in viruses containing segmented RNA genomes. We highlight the common characteristics of biomolecular condensates in viral replication and how this new understanding is reshaping our views of virus assembly mechanisms. Such studies have the potential to uncover unexplored antiviral strategies targeting these phase-separated states.

Phase separation of protein mixtures is driven by the interplay of homotypic and heterotypic interactions

Prion-like low-complexity domains (PLCDs) are involved in the formation and regulation of distinct biomolecular condensates that form via phase separation coupled to percolation. Intracellular condensates often encompass numerous distinct proteins with PLCDs. Here, we combine simulations and experiments to study mixtures of PLCDs from two RNA-binding proteins, hnRNPA1 and FUS. Using simulations and experiments, we find that 1:1 mixtures of A1-LCD and FUS-LCD undergo phase separation more readily than either of the PLCDs on their own due to complementary electrostatic interactions. Tie line analysis reveals that stoichiometric ratios of different components and their sequence-encoded interactions contribute jointly to the driving forces for condensate formation. Simulations also show that the spatial organization of PLCDs within condensates is governed by relative strengths of homotypic versus heterotypic interactions. We uncover rules for how interaction strengths and sequence lengths modulate conformational preferences of molecules at interfaces of condensates formed by mixtures of proteins.

Reaction acceleration in microdroplet mass spectrometry: Inlet capillary and solvent composition effects

RATIONALE

Microdroplet chemistry has attracted tremendous interest in recent years. We have previously reported that microdroplet mass spectrometry (MS) achieves reaction acceleration. Here we systematically investigated the effect of capillary heating of MS inlet and solvent polarity of microdroplets on the conversion ratios of dehydration and phosphorylation reactions.

METHODS

The micron-sized droplets generated by high-speed gas encapsulated the compounds. The conversion ratios of dehydration and phosphorylation reactions were investigated at different capillary temperatures of MS inlet between 30°C and 300°C. Subsequently, the effects of solvent polarity of different microdroplets (acetonitrile, acetonitrile/water [v/v: 9:1], and water) on microdroplet reactions were investigated.

RESULTS

The microdroplets could be used as reaction vessels for rapid dehydration and phosphorylation reactions. Microdroplet MS is characterized by the completion of the reaction in microseconds. The increase in capillary temperature increased the conversion ratio of dehydration reactions but had little effect on phosphorylation reactions. The stability of compounds supports this phenomenon. In addition, the increase in solvent polarity in microdroplets promoted the dehydration reaction but inhibited the nucleophilic substitution reaction (phosphorylation reaction).

CONCLUSIONS

Microdroplet MS achieved an acceleration of the reaction, which was attributed to capillary temperature, microdroplet solvents, and the stability of reaction products. This finding suggested that the inlet capillary and solvent system should be considered in the study and interpretation of microdroplet MS.

Water Self-Dissociation is Insensitive to Nanoscale Environments

Nanoconfinement effects on water dissociation and reactivity remain controversial, despite their importance to understand the aqueous chemistry at interfaces, pores, or aerosols. The pKw in confined environments has been assessed from experiments and simulations in a few specific cases, leading to dissimilar conclusions. Here, with the use of carefully designed ab initio simulations, we demonstrate that the energetics of bulk water dissociation is conserved intact to unexpectedly small length-scales, down to aggregates of only a dozen molecules or pores of widths below 2 nm. The reason is that most of the free-energy involved in water autoionization comes from breaking the O-H covalent bond, which has a comparable barrier in the bulk liquid, in a small droplet of nanometer size, or in a nanopore in the absence of strong interfacial interactions. Thus, dissociation free-energy profiles in nanoscopic aggregates or in 2D slabs of 1 nm width reproduce the behavior corresponding to the bulk liquid, regardless of whether the corresponding nanophase is delimited by a solid or a gas interface. The present work provides a definite and fundamental description of the mechanism and thermodynamics of water dissociation at different scales with broader implications on reactivity and self-ionization at the air-liquid interface.

Control of Enzyme Reactivity in Response to Osmotic Pressure Modulation Mimicking Dynamic Assembly of Intracellular Organelles

In response to variations in osmotic stress, in particular to hypertonicity associated with biological dysregulations, cells have developed complex mechanisms to release their excess water, thus avoiding their bursting and death. When water is expelled, cells shrink and concentrate their internal bio(macro)molecular content, inducing the formation of membraneless organelles following a liquid-liquid phase separation (LLPS) mechanism. To mimic this intrinsic property of cells, functional thermo-responsive elastin-like polypeptide (ELP) biomacromolecular conjugates are herein encapsulated into self-assembled lipid vesicles using a microfluidic system, together with polyethylene glycol (PEG) to mimic cells' interior crowded microenvironment. By inducing a hypertonic shock onto the vesicles, expelled water induces a local increase in concentration and a concomitant decrease in the cloud point temperature (Tcp ) of ELP bioconjugates that phase separate and form coacervates mimicking cellular stress-induced membraneless organelle assemblies. Horseradish peroxidase (HRP), as a model enzyme, is bioconjugated to ELPs and is locally confined in coacervates as a response to osmotic stress. This consequently increases local HRP and substrate concentrations and accelerates the kinetics of the enzymatic reaction. These results illustrate a unique way to fine-tune enzymatic reactions dynamically as a response to a physiological change in isothermal conditions.

Phase Transitions of Associative Biomacromolecules

Multivalent proteins and nucleic acids, collectively referred to as multivalent associative biomacromolecules, provide the driving forces for the formation and compositional regulation of biomolecular condensates. Here, we review the key concepts of phase transitions of aqueous solutions of associative biomacromolecules, specifically proteins that include folded domains and intrinsically disordered regions. The phase transitions of these systems come under the rubric of coupled associative and segregative transitions. The concepts underlying these processes are presented, and their relevance to biomolecular condensates is discussed.

Biomolecular condensates - extant relics or evolving microcompartments?

Unprecedented discoveries during the past decade have unearthed the ubiquitous presence of biomolecular condensates (BCs) in diverse organisms and their involvement in a plethora of biological functions. A predominant number of BCs involve coacervation of RNA and proteins that demix from homogenous solutions by a process of phase separation well described by liquid-liquid phase separation (LLPS), which results in a phase with higher concentration and density from the bulk solution. BCs provide a simple and effective means to achieve reversible spatiotemporal control of cellular processes and adaptation to environmental stimuli in an energy-independent manner. The journey into the past of this phenomenon provides clues to the evolutionary origins of life itself. Here I assemble some current and historic discoveries on LLPS to contemplate whether BCs are extant biological hubs or evolving microcompartments. I conclude that BCs in biology could be extant as a phenomenon but are co-evolving as functionally and compositionally complex microcompartments in cells alongside the membrane-bound organelles.

The formation and function of plant metabolons

Metabolons are temporary structural-functional complexes of sequential enzymes of a metabolic pathway that are distinct from stable multi-enzyme complexes. Here we provide a brief history of the study of enzyme-enzyme assemblies with a particular focus on those that mediate substrate channeling in plants. Large numbers of protein complexes have been proposed for both primary and secondary metabolic pathways in plants. However, to date only four substrate channels have been demonstrated. We provide an overview of current knowledge concerning these four metabolons and explain the methodologies that are currently being applied to unravel their functions. Although the assembly of metabolons has been documented to arise through diverse mechanisms, the physical interaction within the characterized plant metabolons all appear to be driven by interaction with structural elements of the cell. We therefore pose the question as to what methodologies could be brought to bear to enhance our knowledge of plant metabolons that assemble via different mechanisms? In addressing this question, we review recent findings in non-plant systems concerning liquid droplet phase separation and enzyme chemotaxis and propose strategies via which such metabolons could be identified in plants. We additionally discuss the possibilities that could be opened up by novel approaches based on: (i) subcellular-level mass spectral imaging, (ii) proteomics, and (iii) emergent methods in structural and computational biology.

Phase Separation in Mixtures of Prion-Like Low Complexity Domains is Driven by the Interplay of Homotypic and Heterotypic Interactions

Prion-like low-complexity domains (PLCDs) are involved in the formation and regulation of distinct biomolecular condensates that form via coupled associative and segregative phase transitions. We previously deciphered how evolutionarily conserved sequence features drive phase separation of PLCDs through homotypic interactions. However, condensates typically encompass a diverse mixture of proteins with PLCDs. Here, we combine simulations and experiments to study mixtures of PLCDs from two RNA binding proteins namely, hnRNPA1 and FUS. We find that 1:1 mixtures of the A1-LCD and FUS-LCD undergo phase separation more readily than either of the PLCDs on their own. The enhanced driving forces for phase separation of mixtures of A1-LCD and FUS-LCD arise partly from complementary electrostatic interactions between the two proteins. This complex coacervation-like mechanism adds to complementary interactions among aromatic residues. Further, tie line analysis shows that stoichiometric ratios of different components and their sequence-encoded interactions jointly contribute to the driving forces for condensate formation. These results highlight how expression levels might be tuned to regulate the driving forces for condensate formation in vivo . Simulations also show that the organization of PLCDs within condensates deviates from expectations based on random mixture models. Instead, spatial organization within condensates will reflect the relative strengths of homotypic versus heterotypic interactions. We also uncover rules for how interaction strengths and sequence lengths modulate conformational preferences of molecules at interfaces of condensates formed by mixtures of proteins. Overall, our findings emphasize the network-like organization of molecules within multicomponent condensates, and the distinctive, composition-specific conformational features of condensate interfaces.

Phase Separation in Mixtures of Prion-Like Low Complexity Domains is Driven by the Interplay of Homotypic and Heterotypic Interactions

Prion-like low-complexity domains (PLCDs) are involved in the formation and regulation of distinct biomolecular condensates that form via coupled associative and segregative phase transitions. We previously deciphered how evolutionarily conserved sequence features drive phase separation of PLCDs through homotypic interactions. However, condensates typically encompass a diverse mixture of proteins with PLCDs. Here, we combine simulations and experiments to study mixtures of PLCDs from two RNA binding proteins namely, hnRNPA1 and FUS. We find that 1:1 mixtures of the A1-LCD and FUS-LCD undergo phase separation more readily than either of the PLCDs on their own. The enhanced driving forces for phase separation of mixtures of A1-LCD and FUS-LCD arise partly from complementary electrostatic interactions between the two proteins. This complex coacervation-like mechanism adds to complementary interactions among aromatic residues. Further, tie line analysis shows that stoichiometric ratios of different components and their sequence-encoded interactions jointly contribute to the driving forces for condensate formation. These results highlight how expression levels might be tuned to regulate the driving forces for condensate formation in vivo . Simulations also show that the organization of PLCDs within condensates deviates from expectations based on random mixture models. Instead, spatial organization within condensates will reflect the relative strengths of homotypic versus heterotypic interactions. We also uncover rules for how interaction strengths and sequence lengths modulate conformational preferences of molecules at interfaces of condensates formed by mixtures of proteins. Overall, our findings emphasize the network-like organization of molecules within multicomponent condensates, and the distinctive, composition-specific conformational features of condensate interfaces.

Significance Statement

Biomolecular condensates are mixtures of different protein and nucleic acid molecules that organize biochemical reactions in cells. Much of what we know about how condensates form comes from studies of phase transitions of individual components of condensates. Here, we report results from studies of phase transitions of mixtures of archetypal protein domains that feature in distinct condensates. Our investigations, aided by a blend of computations and experiments, show that the phase transitions of mixtures are governed by a complex interplay of homotypic and heterotypic interactions. The results point to how expression levels of different protein components can be tuned in cells to modulate internal structures, compositions, and interfaces of condensates, thus affording distinct ways to control the functions of condensates.

Peptide-based coacervates in therapeutic applications

Coacervates are droplets formed by liquid‒liquid phase separation. An increasing number of studies have reported that coacervates play an important role in living cells, such as in the generation of membraneless organelles, and peptides contribute to condensate droplet formation. Peptides with versatile functional groups and special secondary structures, including α-helices, β-sheets and intrinsically disordered regions, provide novel insights into coacervation, such as biomimetic protocells, neurodegenerative diseases, modulations of signal transmission, and drug delivery systems. In this review, we introduce different types of peptide-based coacervates and the principles of their interactions. Additionally, we summarize the thermodynamic and kinetic mechanisms of peptide-based coacervates and the associated factors, including salt, pH, and temperature, affecting the phase separation process. We illustrate recent studies on modulating the functions of peptide-based coacervates applied in biological diseases. Finally, we propose their promising broad applications and describe the challenges of peptide-based coacervates in the future.

Condensates formed by prion-like low-complexity domains have small-world network structures and interfaces defined by expanded conformations

Biomolecular condensates form via coupled associative and segregative phase transitions of multivalent associative macromolecules. Phase separation coupled to percolation is one example of such transitions. Here, we characterize molecular and mesoscale structural descriptions of condensates formed by intrinsically disordered prion-like low complexity domains (PLCDs). These systems conform to sticker-and-spacers architectures. Stickers are cohesive motifs that drive associative interactions through reversible crosslinking and spacers affect the cooperativity of crosslinking and overall macromolecular solubility. Our computations reproduce experimentally measured sequence-specific phase behaviors of PLCDs. Within simulated condensates, networks of reversible inter-sticker crosslinks organize PLCDs into small-world topologies. The overall dimensions of PLCDs vary with spatial location, being most expanded at and preferring to be oriented perpendicular to the interface. Our results demonstrate that even simple condensates with one type of macromolecule feature inhomogeneous spatial organizations of molecules and interfacial features that likely prime them for biochemical activity.

Chemical Kinetics and Mass Action in Coexisting Phases

The kinetics of chemical reactions are determined by the law of mass action, which has been successfully applied to homogeneous, dilute mixtures. At nondilute conditions, interactions among the components can give rise to coexisting phases, which can significantly alter the kinetics of chemical reactions. Here, we derive a theory for chemical reactions in coexisting phases at phase equilibrium. We show that phase equilibrium couples the rates of chemical reactions of components with their diffusive exchanges between the phases. Strikingly, the chemical relaxation kinetics can be represented as a flow along the phase equilibrium line in the phase diagram. A key finding of our theory is that differences in reaction rates between coexisting phases stem solely from phase-dependent reaction rate coefficients. Our theory is key to interpreting how concentration levels of reactive components in condensed phases control chemical reaction rates in synthetic and biological systems.

Aqueous microdroplets enable abiotic synthesis and chain extension of unique peptide isomers from free amino acids

Amide bond formation, the essential condensation reaction underlying peptide synthesis, is hindered in aqueous systems by the thermodynamic constraints associated with dehydration. This represents a key difficulty for the widely held view that prebiotic chemical evolution leading to the formation of the first biomolecules occurred in an oceanic environment. Recent evidence for the acceleration of chemical reactions at droplet interfaces led us to explore aqueous amino acid droplet chemistry. We report the formation of dipeptide isomer ions from free glycine or L-alanine at the air-water interface of aqueous microdroplets emanating from a single spray source (with or without applied potential) during their flight toward the inlet of a mass spectrometer. The proposed isomeric dipeptide ion is an oxazolidinone that takes fully covalent and ion-neutral complex forms. This structure is consistent with observed fragmentation patterns and its conversion to authentic dipeptide ions upon gentle collisions and for its formation from authentic dipeptides at ultra-low concentrations. It also rationalizes the results of droplet fusion experiments that show that the dipeptide isomer facilitates additional amide bond formation events, yielding authentic tri- through hexapeptides. We propose that the interface of aqueous microdroplets serves as a drying surface that shifts the equilibrium between free amino acids in favor of dehydration via stabilization of the dipeptide isomers. These findings offer a possible solution to the water paradox of biopolymer synthesis in prebiotic chemistry.

Model biomolecular condensates have heterogeneous structure quantitatively dependent on the interaction profile of their constituent macromolecules

Biomolecular condensates play numerous roles in cells by selectively concentrating client proteins while excluding others. These functions are likely to be sensitive to the spatial organization of the scaffold proteins forming the condensate. We use coarse-grained molecular simulations to show that model intrinsically-disordered proteins phase separate into a heterogeneous, structured fluid characterized by a well-defined length scale. The proteins are modelled as semi-flexible polymers with punctate, multifunctional binding sites in good solvent conditions. Their dense phase is highly solvated with a spatial structure that is more sensitive to the separation of the binding sites than their affinity. We introduce graph theoretic measures to quantify their heterogeneity, and find that it increases with increasing binding site number, and exhibits multi-timescale dynamics. The model proteins also swell on passing from the dilute solution to the dense phase. The simulations predict that the structure of the dense phase is modulated by the location and affinity of binding sites distant from the termini of the proteins, while sites near the termini more strongly affect its phase behaviour. The relations uncovered between the arrangement of weak interaction sites on disordered proteins and the material properties of their dense phase can be experimentally tested to give insight into the biophysical properties, pathological effects, and rational design of biomolecular condensates.

Enzyme Trafficking and Co-Clustering Precede and Accurately Predict Human Breast Cancer Recurrences: An Interdisciplinary Review

Although great effort has been expended to understand cancer's origins, less attention has been given to the primary cause of cancer deaths - cancer recurrences and their sequelae. This interdisciplinary review addresses mechanistic features of aggressive cancer by studying metabolic enzyme patterns within ductal carcinoma in situ (DCIS) of the breast lesions. DCIS lesions from patients who did or did not experience a breast cancer recurrence were compared. Several proteins, including phospho-Ser226-glucose transporter type 1, phosphofructokinase type L and phosphofructokinase/fructose 2,6-bisphosphatase type 4 are found in nucleoli of ductal epithelial cells in samples from patients who will not subsequently recur, but traffic to the cell periphery in samples from patients who will experience a cancer recurrence. Large co-clusters of enzymes near plasmalemmata will enhance product formation because enzyme concentrations in clusters are very high while solvent molecules and solutes diffuse through small channels. These structural changes will accelerate aerobic glycolysis. Agglomerations of pentose phosphate pathway and glutathione synthesis enzymes enhance GSH formation. As aggressive cancer lesions are incomplete at early stages, they may be unrecognizable. We have found that machine learning provides superior analyses of tissue images and may be used to identify biomarker patterns associated with recurrent and non-recurrent patients with high accuracy. This suggests a new prognostic test to predict DCIS patients who are likely to recur and those who are at low risk for recurrence. Mechanistic interpretations provide a deeper understanding of anti-cancer drug action and suggest that aggressive metastatic cancer cells are sensitive to reductive chemotherapy.

Peptide Isomerization is Suppressed at the Air-Water Interface

We use molecular dynamics simulations to study the thermodynamics and kinetics of alanine dipeptide isomerization at the air-water interface. Thermodynamically, we find an affinity of the dipeptide to the interface. This affinity arises from stabilizing intramolecular interactions that become unshielded as the dipeptide is desolvated. Kinetically, we consider the rate of transitions between the α_L and β conformations of alanine dipeptide and evaluate it as a continuous function of the distance from the interface using a recent extension of transition path sampling, TPS+U. The rate of isomerization at the Gibbs dividing surface is suppressed relative to the bulk by a factor of 3. Examination of the ensemble of transition states elucidates the role of solvent degrees of freedom in mediating favorable intramolecular interactions along the reaction pathway of isomerization. Near the air-water interface, water is less effective at mediating these intramolecular interactions.

Photoswitchable single-stranded DNA-peptide coacervate formation as a dynamic system for reaction control

In cells, segregation allows for diverse biochemical reactions to take place simultaneously. Such intricate regulation of cellular processes is achieved through the dynamic formation and disassembly of membraneless organelles via liquid-liquid phase separation (LLPS). Herein, we demonstrate the light-controlled formation and disassembly of liquid droplets formed from a complex of polylysine (pLys) and arylazopyrazole (AAP)-conjugated single-stranded DNA. Photoswitchablility of droplet formation was also shown to be applicable to the control of chemical reactions; imine formation and a DNAzyme-catalyzed oxidation reaction were accelerated in the presence of droplets. These outcomes were reversed upon droplet disassembly. Our results demonstrate that the photoswitchable droplet formation system is a versatile model for the regulation of reactions through dynamic LLPS.

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Incorporating AAP enabled light-controlled droplet formation with ssDNA and pLys

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Droplets were reversibly formed or disassembled without altering sample composition

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Photoswitchability depended on sequence and ionic interactions but not flexibility

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Photoswitchable droplet formation accelerated uncatalyzed and catalyzed reactions

Understanding How Coacervates Drive Reversible Small Molecule Reactions to Promote Molecular Complexity

Liquid-liquid phase-separated coacervate droplets give rise to membraneless compartments that play an important role in the spatial organization and reactivity in cells. Due to their molecularly crowded nature and ability to sequester biomolecules, coacervate droplets create distinct environments for enzymatic reaction kinetics and reaction mechanisms that markedly differ from bulk solution. In this work, we use a combination of experiments and quantitative modeling to understand how coacervate droplets promote reversible small molecule reaction chemistry. In particular, we study a model condensation reaction generating an unstable fluorescent imine in polyacrylic acid-polyethylene glycol coacervate droplets over a range of conditions. At equilibrium, the concentration of the imine product in coacervate droplets is approximately 140-fold larger than that in bulk solution, which arises due to preferential partitioning of reactants and products into coacervate droplets and a reaction equilibrium constant that is roughly threefold larger in coacervate droplets than in solution. A reaction-diffusion model is developed to quantitatively describe how competing reaction and partitioning equilibria govern the spatial distribution of the imine product inside coacervate droplets. Overall, our results show that compartmentalization stabilizes kinetically labile reaction products, which enables larger reactant concentrations in coacervate droplets compared to bulk solution. Broadly, these results provide an improved understanding of how biomolecular condensates promote multistep reaction pathways involving unstable reaction intermediates and suggest how coacervates provide a potential abiotic mechanism to promote molecular complexity.

Nanocatalysis under Nanoconfinement: A Metal-Free Hybrid Coacervate Nanodroplet as a Catalytic Nanoreactor for Efficient Redox and Photocatalytic Reactions

Nature utilizes cellular and subcellular compartmentalization to efficiently drive various complex enzymatic transformations via spatiotemporal control. In this context, designing of artificial nanoreactors for efficient catalytic transformations finds tremendous importance in recent times. One key challenge remains the design of multiple catalytic centers within the confined space of a nanoreactor without unwanted agglomeration and accessibility barrier for reactants. Herein, we report a unique blend of nanoscience and chemical catalysis using a metal-free hybrid synthetic protocell as a catalytic nanoreactor for redox and photocatalytic transformations, which are otherwise incompatible in bulk aqueous medium. Hybrid coacervate nanodroplets (NDs) fabricated from 2.5 nm-sized carbon dots (CDs) and poly(diallyldimethyl)ammonium chloride have been utilized toward reductive hydrogenation of nitroarenes in the presence of sodium borohydride (NaBH₄). It has been found that the reduction mechanism follows the classical Langmuir-Hinshelwood (LH) model at the surface of embedded CDs inside the NDs via the generation of reactive surface hydroxyl groups. These NDs show excellent recyclability without any compromise on reaction kinetics and conversion yield. Importantly, spatiotemporal control over the hydrogenation reaction has been achieved using two mixed populations of coacervates. Moreover, efficient visible light-induced photoredox conversion of ferricyanide to ferrocyanide and artificial peroxidase-like activity have also been demonstrated inside these catalytic NDs. Our findings indicate that the individual polymer-bound CD inside the NDs acts as the catalytic center for both the redox and photocatalytic reactions. The present study highlights the unprecedented catalytic activity of the metal-free CD-based coacervate NDs and paves the way for next-generation catalytic nanoreactors for a wide range of chemical and enzymatic transformations.

Acceleration of the thermal degradation of PETN in the microdroplets flow reactor

Thermal degradation of pentaerythritol tetranitrate (PETN) was investigated in microdroplets within a heated capillary used as a flow reactor. The thermal degradation was monitored by aerodynamic thermal breakup droplet ionization mass spectrometry. It was shown that the PETN degradation in microdroplets occurs much faster than the bulk reaction (by 4-5 orders of magnitude). The effect of the capillary material [stainless steel (Fe, Cr), copper (Cu), or fused quartz (SiO₂)] on the thermal PETN degradation in microdroplets of water or acetonitrile was studied next. The capillary material affected the rate of thermal PETN degradation much more weakly than did the use of microdroplets (pure Cu was most conducive to the degradation). Kinetic parameters (activation energy and the frequency factor) of the PETN degradation for all the studied materials of the flow-through reactor and the solvents were estimated under the assumption that the thermal degradation is a first-order reaction. Implications of the acceleration of PETN degradation in microdroplets are discussed.

Therapeutics-how to treat phase separation-associated diseases

Liquid-liquid phase separation has drawn attention as many neurodegeneration or cancer-associated proteins are able to form liquid membraneless compartments (condensates) by liquid-liquid phase separation. Furthermore, there is rapidly growing evidence that disease-associated mutation or post-translational modification of these proteins causes aberrant location, composition or physical properties of the condensates. It is ambiguous whether aberrant condensates are always causative in disease mechanisms, however they are likely promising potential targets for therapeutics. The conceptual framework of liquid-liquid phase separation provides opportunities for novel therapeutic approaches. This review summarises how the extensive recent advances in understanding control of nucleation, growth and composition of condensates by protein post-translational modification has revealed many possibilities for intervention by conventional small molecule enzyme inhibitors. This includes the first proof-of-concept examples. However, understanding membraneless organelle formation as a physical chemistry process also highlights possible physicochemical mechanisms of intervention. There is huge demand for innovation in drug development, especially for challenging diseases of old age including neurodegeneration and cancer. The conceptual framework of liquid-liquid phase separation provides a new paradigm for thinking about modulating protein function and is very different from enzyme lock-and-key or structured binding site concepts and presents new opportunities for innovation.

Single-molecule imaging of epigenetic complexes in living cells: insights from studies on Polycomb group proteins

Chromatin-associated factors must locate, bind to, and assemble on specific chromatin regions to execute chromatin-templated functions. These dynamic processes are essential for understanding how chromatin achieves regulation, but direct quantification in living mammalian cells remains challenging. Over the last few years, live-cell single-molecule tracking (SMT) has emerged as a new way to observe trajectories of individual chromatin-associated factors in living mammalian cells, providing new perspectives on chromatin-templated activities. Here, we discuss the relative merits of live-cell SMT techniques currently in use. We provide new insights into how Polycomb group (PcG) proteins, master regulators of development and cell differentiation, decipher genetic and epigenetic information to achieve binding stability and highlight that Polycomb condensates facilitate target-search efficiency. We provide perspectives on liquid-liquid phase separation in organizing Polycomb targets. We suggest that epigenetic complexes integrate genetic and epigenetic information for target binding and localization and achieve target-search efficiency through nuclear organization.

Protein Phase Separation Arising from Intrinsic Disorder: First-Principles to Bespoke Applications

The phase separation of biomolecules has become the focus of intense research in the past decade, with a growing body of research implicating this phenomenon in essentially all biological functions, including but not limited to homeostasis, stress responses, gene regulation, cell differentiation, and disease. Excellent reviews have been published previously on the underlying physical basis of liquid-liquid phase separation (LLPS) of biological molecules (Nat. Phys. 2015, 11, 899-904) and LLPS as it occurs natively in physiology and disease (Science 2017, 357, eaaf4382; Biochemistry 2018, 57, 2479-2487; Chem. Rev. 2014, 114, 6844-6879). Here, we review how the theoretical physical basis of LLPS has been used to better understand the behavior of biomolecules that undergo LLPS in natural systems and how this understanding has also led to the development of novel synthetic systems that exhibit biomolecular phase separation, and technologies that exploit these phenomena. In part 1 of this Review, we explore the theory behind the phase separation of biomolecules and synthetic macromolecules and introduce a few notable phase-separating biomolecules. In part 2, we cover experimental and computational methods used to study phase-separating proteins and how these techniques have uncovered the mechanisms underlying phase separation in physiology and disease. Finally, in part 3, we cover the development and applications of engineered phase-separating polypeptides, ranging from control of their self-assembly to create defined supramolecular architectures to reprogramming biological processes using engineered IDPs that exhibit LLPS.

Mechanistic dissection of increased enzymatic rate in a phase-separated compartment

Biomolecular condensates concentrate macromolecules into discrete cellular foci without an encapsulating membrane. Condensates are often presumed to increase enzymatic reaction rates through increased concentrations of enzymes and substrates (mass action), although this idea has not been widely tested and other mechanisms of modulation are possible. Here we describe a synthetic system where the SUMOylation enzyme cascade is recruited into engineered condensates generated by liquid-liquid phase separation of multidomain scaffolding proteins. SUMOylation rates can be increased up to 36-fold in these droplets compared to the surrounding bulk, depending on substrate KM. This dependency produces substantial specificity among different substrates. Analyses of reactions above and below the phase-separation threshold lead to a quantitative model in which reactions in condensates are accelerated by mass action and changes in substrate KM, probaby due to scaffold-induced molecular organization. Thus, condensates can modulate reaction rates both by concentrating molecules and physically organizing them.

Reaction acceleration at air-solution interfaces: Anisotropic rate constants for Katritzky transamination

To disentangle the factors controlling the rates of accelerated reactions in droplets, we used mass spectrometry to study the Katritzky transamination in levitated Leidenfrost droplets of different yet constant volumes over a range of concentrations while holding concentration constant by adding back the evaporated solvent. The set of concentration and droplet volume data indicates that the reaction rate in the surface region is much higher than that in the interior. These same effects of concentration and volume were also seen in bulk solutions. Three pyrylium reagents with different surface activity showed differences in transamination reactivity. The conclusion is drawn that reactions with surface-active reactants are subject to greater acceleration, as seen particularly at lower concentrations in systems of higher surface-to-volume ratios. These results highlight the key role that air-solution interfaces play in Katritzky reaction acceleration. They are also consistent with the view that reaction-increased rate constant is at least in part due to limited solvation of reagents at the interface.

Peptide-based coacervates as biomimetic protocells

Coacervates are condensed liquid-like droplets formed by liquid-liquid phase separation of molecules through multiple weak associative interactions. In recent years it has emerged that not only long polymers, but also short peptides are capable of forming simple and complex coacervates. The coacervate droplets they form act as compartments that sequester and concentrate a wide range of solutes, and their spontaneous formation make coacervates attractive protocell models. The main advantage of peptides as building blocks lies in the functional diversity of the amino acid residues, which allows for tailoring of the peptide's phase separation propensity, their selectivity in guest molecule uptake and the physicochemical and catalytic properties of the compartments. The aim of this tutorial review is to illustrate the recent developments in the field of peptide-based coacervates in a systematic way and to deduce the basic requirements for both simple and complex coacervation of peptides. We review a selection of peptide coacervates that illustrates the essentials of phase separation, the limitations, and the properties that make peptide coacervates biomimetic protocells. Finally, we provide some perspectives of this novel research field in the direction of active droplets, moving away from thermodynamic equilibrium.

Phosphorylation-dependent regulation of messenger RNA transcription, processing and translation within biomolecular condensates

Regulation of messenger RNA (mRNA) transcription, processing and translation occurs in the context of biomolecular condensates. How the physical properties of condensates connect with their biological regulatory functions is an ongoing area of interest, particularly for RNA metabolic pathways. Phosphorylation has emerged as an important mechanism for regulating protein phase separation propensities and localization patterns into different condensates, affecting compositions and dynamics. Key factors in transcription, mRNA processing and translation exhibit such phosphorylation-dependent changes in their roles within condensates, including their catalytic activities. Phosphorylation is increasingly understood to regulate the exchange of proteins through functionally linked condensates to fulfil their mRNA metabolic functions.

Liquid-liquid phase separation driven compartmentalization of reactive nucleoplasm

The nucleus of eukaryotic cells harbors active and out of equilibrium environments conducive to diverse gene regulatory processes. On a molecular scale, gene regulatory processes take place within hierarchically compartmentalized sub-nuclear bodies. While the impact of nuclear structure on gene regulation is widely appreciated, it has remained much less clear whether and how gene regulation is impacting nuclear order itself. Recently, the liquid-liquid phase separation emerged as a fundamental mechanism driving the formation of biomolecular condensates, including membrane-less organelles, chromatin territories, and transcriptional domains. The transience and environmental sensitivity of biomolecular condensation are strongly suggestive of kinetic gene-regulatory control of phase separation. To better understand kinetic aspects controlling biomolecular phase-separation, we have constructed a minimalist model of the reactive nucleoplasm. The model is based on the Cahn-Hilliard formulation of ternary protein-RNA-nucleoplasm components coupled to non-equilibrium and spatially dependent gene expression. We find a broad range of kinetic regimes through an extensive set of simulations where the interplay of phase separation and reactive timescales can generate heterogeneous multi-modal gene expression patterns. Furthermore, the significance of this finding is that heterogeneity of gene expression is linked directly with the heterogeneity of length-scales in phase-separated condensates.

Dynamic regulation of CTCF stability and sub-nuclear localization in response to stress

The nuclear protein CCCTC-binding factor (CTCF) has diverse roles in chromatin architecture and gene regulation. Functionally, CTCF associates with thousands of genomic sites and interacts with proteins, such as cohesin, or non-coding RNAs to facilitate specific transcriptional programming. In this study, we examined CTCF during the cellular stress response in human primary cells using immune-blotting, quantitative real time-PCR, chromatin immunoprecipitation-sequence (ChIP-seq) analysis, mass spectrometry, RNA immunoprecipitation-sequence analysis (RIP-seq), and Airyscan confocal microscopy. Unexpectedly, we found that CTCF is exquisitely sensitive to diverse forms of stress in normal patient-derived human mammary epithelial cells (HMECs). In HMECs, a subset of CTCF protein forms complexes that localize to Serine/arginine-rich splicing factor (SC-35)-containing nuclear speckles. Upon stress, this species of CTCF protein is rapidly downregulated by changes in protein stability, resulting in loss of CTCF from SC-35 nuclear speckles and changes in CTCF-RNA interactions. Our ChIP-seq analysis indicated that CTCF binding to genomic DNA is largely unchanged. Restoration of the stress-sensitive pool of CTCF protein abundance and re-localization to nuclear speckles can be achieved by inhibition of proteasome-mediated degradation. Surprisingly, we observed the same characteristics of the stress response during neuronal differentiation of human pluripotent stem cells (hPSCs). CTCF forms stress-sensitive complexes that localize to SC-35 nuclear speckles during a specific stage of neuronal commitment/development but not in differentiated neurons. We speculate that these particular CTCF complexes serve a role in RNA processing that may be intimately linked with specific genes in the vicinity of nuclear speckles, potentially to maintain cells in a certain differentiation state, that is dynamically regulated by environmental signals. The stress-regulated activity of CTCF is uncoupled in persistently stressed, epigenetically re-programmed "variant" HMECs and certain cancer cell lines. These results reveal new insights into CTCF function in cell differentiation and the stress-response with implications for oxidative damage-induced cancer initiation and neuro-degenerative diseases.

Accelerated Reaction Kinetics in Microdroplets: Overview and Recent Developments

Various organic reactions, including important synthetic reactions involving C-C, C-N, and C-O bond formation as well as reactions of biomolecules, are accelerated when the reagents are present in sprayed or levitated microdroplets or in thin films. The reaction rates increase by orders of magnitude with decreasing droplet size or film thickness. The effect is associated with reactions at the solution-air interface. A key factor is partial solvation of the reagents at the interface, which reduces the critical energy for reaction. This phenomenon is of intrinsic interest and potentially of practical value as a simple, rapid method of performing small-scale synthesis.

Interface Engineering in Multiphase Systems toward Synthetic Cells and Organelles: From Soft Matter Fundamentals to Biomedical Applications

Synthetic cells have a major role in gaining insight into the complex biological processes of living cells; they also give rise to a range of emerging applications from gene delivery to enzymatic nanoreactors. Living cells rely on compartmentalization to orchestrate reaction networks for specialized and coordinated functions. Principally, the compartmentalization has been an essential engineering theme in constructing cell-mimicking systems. Here, efforts to engineer liquid-liquid interfaces of multiphase systems into membrane-bounded and membraneless compartments, which include lipid vesicles, polymer vesicles, colloidosomes, hybrids, and coacervate droplets, are summarized. Examples are provided of how these compartments are designed to imitate biological behaviors or machinery, including molecule trafficking, growth, fusion, energy conversion, intercellular communication, and adaptivity. Subsequently, the state-of-art applications of these cell-inspired synthetic compartments are discussed. Apart from being simplified and cell models for bridging the gap between nonliving matter and cellular life, synthetic compartments also are utilized as intracellular delivery vehicles for nuclei acids and nanoreactors for biochemical synthesis. Finally, key challenges and future directions for achieving the full potential of synthetic cells are highlighted.

A Condensed View of the Chromosome Passenger Complex

The inner centromere is a region on the mitotic chromosome that serves as a platform for mitotic signaling and possesses unique biophysical properties that enable it to withstand relatively large pulling forces that are generated by kinetochores (KTs) during chromosome segregation. The chromosomal passenger complex (CPC) localizes to and is the key regulator of inner centromere organization and function during mitosis. Recently, we demonstrated that in addition to its kinase and histone code-reading activities, the CPC also can undergo liquid-liquid phase separation (LLPS) and proposed that the inner centromere is a membraneless organelle scaffolded by the CPC. In this perspective, we explore mechanisms that can allow the formation and dissolution of this membraneless body. The cell-cycle-regulated spatially defined assembly and disassembly of the CPC condensate at the inner centromere can reveal general principles about how histone modifications control chromatin-bound membraneless organelles. We further explore how the ability of the CPC to undergo LLPS may contribute to the organization and function of the inner centromere during mitosis.

CDK-Regulated Phase Separation Seeded by Histone Genes Ensures Precise Growth and Function of Histone Locus Bodies

Many membraneless organelles form through liquid-liquid phase separation, but how their size is controlled and whether size is linked to function remain poorly understood. The histone locus body (HLB) is an evolutionarily conserved nuclear body that regulates the transcription and processing of histone mRNAs. Here, we show that Drosophila HLBs form through phase separation. During embryogenesis, the size of HLBs is controlled in a precise and dynamic manner that is dependent on the cell cycle and zygotic histone gene activation. Control of HLB growth is achieved by a mechanism integrating nascent mRNAs at the histone locus, which facilitates phase separation, and the nuclear concentration of the scaffold protein multi-sex combs (Mxc), which is controlled by the activity of cyclin-dependent kinases. Reduced Cdk2 activity results in smaller HLBs and the appearance of nascent, misprocessed histone mRNAs. Thus, our experiments identify a mechanism linking nuclear body growth and size with gene expression.

Ultrafast enzymatic digestion of proteins by microdroplet mass spectrometry

Enzymatic digestion for protein sequencing usually requires much time, and does not always result in high sequence coverage. Here we report the use of aqueous microdroplets to accelerate enzymatic reactions and, in particular, to improve protein sequencing. When a room temperature aqueous solution containing 10 µM myoglobin and 5 µg mL⁻¹ trypsin is electrosonically sprayed (−3 kV) from a homemade setup to produce tiny (∼9 µm) microdroplets, we obtain 100% sequence coverage in less than 1 ms of digestion time, in sharp contrast to 60% coverage achieved by incubating the same solution at 37 °C for 14 h followed by analysis with a commercial electrospray ionization source that produces larger (∼60 µm) droplets. We also confirm the sequence of the therapeutic antibody trastuzumab (∼148 kDa), with a sequence coverage of 100% for light chains and 85% for heavy chains, demonstrating the practical utility of microdroplets in drug development.

Mass spectrometry (MS)-based protein sequencing usually relies on in-solution proteolytic digestion, which is time-consuming and inefficient for certain proteins. Here, the authors achieve full protein sequence coverage in less than 1 ms by subjecting protein-protease mixtures to electrosonic spray ionization-MS.

High-yield gram-scale organic synthesis using accelerated microdroplet/thin film reactions with solvent recycling

A closed system has been designed to perform microdroplet/thin film reactions with solvent recycling capabilities for gram-scale chemical synthesis. Claisen-Schmidt, Schiff base, Katritzky and Suzuki coupling reactions show acceleration factors relative to bulk of 15 to 7700 times in this droplet spray system. These values are much larger than those reported previously for the same reactions in microdroplet/thin film reaction systems. The solvent recycling mode of the new system significantly improves the reaction yield, especially for reactions with smaller reaction acceleration factors. The microdroplet/thin film reaction yield improved on recycling from 33% to 86% and from 32% to 72% for the Katritzky and Suzuki coupling reactions, respectively. The Claisen-Schmidt reaction was chosen to test the capability of this system in gram scale syntheses and rates of 3.18 g per h and an isolated yield of 87% were achieved.

Mechanisms for Active Regulation of Biomolecular Condensates

Liquid-liquid phase separation is a key organizational principle in eukaryotic cells, on par with intracellular membranes. It allows cells to concentrate specific proteins into condensates, increasing reaction rates and achieving switch-like regulation. We propose two active mechanisms that can explain how cells regulate condensate formation and size. In both, the cell regulates the activity of an enzyme, often a kinase, that adds post-translational modifications to condensate proteins. In enrichment inhibition, the enzyme enriches in the condensate and weakens interactions, as seen in stress granules (SGs), Cajal bodies, and P granules. In localization-induction, condensates form around immobilized enzymes that strengthen interactions, as observed in DNA repair, transmembrane signaling, and microtubule assembly. These models can guide studies into the many emerging roles of biomolecular condensates.