Characterization of antibacterial bacterial cellulose composite membranes modified with chitosan or chitooligosaccharide

Materials based on biodegradable polymers chitosan/gelatin: a review of potential applications

Increased mass manufacturing and the pervasive use of plastics in many facets of daily life have had detrimental effects on the environment. As a result, these worries heighten the possibility of climate change due to the carbon dioxide emissions from burning conventional, non-biodegradable polymers. Accordingly, biodegradable gelatin and chitosan polymers are being created as a sustainable substitute for non-biodegradable polymeric materials in various applications. Chitosan is the only naturally occurring cationic alkaline polysaccharide, a well-known edible polymer derived from chitin. The biological activities of chitosan, such as its antioxidant, anticancer, and antimicrobial qualities, have recently piqued the interest of researchers. Similarly, gelatin is a naturally occurring polymer derived from the hydrolytic breakdown of collagen protein and offers various medicinal advantages owing to its unique amino acid composition. In this review, we present an overview of recent studies focusing on applying chitosan and gelatin polymers in various fields. These include using gelatin and chitosan as food packaging, antioxidants and antimicrobial properties, properties encapsulating biologically active substances, tissue engineering, microencapsulation technology, water treatment, and drug delivery. This review emphasizes the significance of investigating sustainable options for non-biodegradable plastics. It showcases the diverse uses of gelatin and chitosan polymers in tackling environmental issues and driving progress across different industries.

Tissue engineered multifunctional chitosan-modified polypropylene hernia mesh loaded with bioactive phyto-extracts

Surface modified tissue engineered polypropylene / PP hernia meshes were fabricated by incorporating Bacterial cellulose / BC and chitosan / CS and phytochemical extracts. Under current practice, hernia and other traumatic injuries to the abdominal organs are clinically treated with surgical meshes. Often the foreign body reaction and infections result in relapse in patients which dictates additional reparative surgical procedures and pain. To improve the outcome of clinical restorative procedures new biomaterials with improved characteristics are required. The functionalized meshes were physically and chemically characterized using SEM, mechanical testing, FTIR and XRD. The antimicrobial activity was qualitatively and quantitatively tested using E. coli and S. aureus strains of bacteria. In vitro biocompatibility and wound healing effect of the modified meshes were performed using NIH3T3 fibroblast cell lines. Furthermore, tissue engineering potential of the meshes was evaluated using confocal fluorescent microscopy. In vivo implantation of the meshes was performed in male wistar rats for 21 days. Therefore, PP meshes with sustained drug delivery system augmented with anti-inflammatory and anti-microbial characteristics were developed. The coatings hereby not only increased the tensile strength of meshes but also prevented the modified meshes from causing infection. Current study resulted in CS-BC bioactive PP meshes loaded with phytochemicals which showed anti-inflammatory, antibacterial and wound healing potential. These meshes can be valuable to lessen the post-surgical complications of implanted PP mesh and thus reduce rejection and recurrence.

Balancing mechanical property and swelling behavior of bacterial cellulose film by in-situ adding chitosan oligosaccharide and covalent crosslinking with γ-PGA

Bacterial cellulose (BC) is an ideal candidate material for drug delivery, but the disbalance between the swelling behavior and mechanical properties limits its application. In this work, covalent crosslinking of γ-polyglutamic acid (γ-PGA) with the chitosan oligosaccharide (COS) embedded in BC was designed to remove the limitation. As a result, the dosage, time, and batch of COS addition significantly affected the mechanical properties and the yield of bacterial cellulose complex film (BCCF). The addition of 2.25 % COS at the incubation time of 0.5, 1.5, and 2 d increased the Young's modulus and the yield by 5.65 and 1.42 times, respectively, but decreased the swelling behavior to 1774 %, 46 % of that of native BC. Covalent γ-PGA transformed the dendritic structure of BCCF into a spider network, decreasing the porosity and increasing the swelling behavior by 3.46 times. The strategy balanced the swelling behavior and mechanical properties through tunning hydrogen bond, electrostatic interaction, and amido bond. The modified BCCF exhibited a desired behavior of benzalkonium chlorides transport, competent for drug delivery. Thereby, the strategy will be a competent candidate to modify BC for such potential applications as wound dressing, artificial skin, scar-inhibiting patch, and so on.

Promising cellulose-based functional gels for advanced biomedical applications: A review

Novel biomedical materials provide a new horizon for the diagnosis/treatment of diseases and tissue repair in medical engineering. As the most abundant biomass polymer on earth, cellulose is characterized by natural biocompatibility, good mechanical properties, and structure-performance designability. Owing to these outstanding features, cellulose as a biomacromolecule can be designed as functional biomaterials via hydrogen bonding (H-bonding) interaction or chemical modification for human tissue repair, implantable tissue organs, and controlling drug release. Moreover, cellulose can also be used to construct medical sensors for monitoring human physiological signals. In this study, the structural characteristics, functionalization approaches, and advanced biomedical applications of cellulose are reviewed. The current status and application prospects of cellulose and its functional materials for wound dressings, drug delivery, tissue engineering, and electronic skin (e-skin) are discussed. Finally, the key technologies and methods used for designing cellulosic biomaterials and broadening their application prospects in biomedical fields are highlighted.

Protective Effect of the Naringin-Chitooligosaccharide Complex on Lipopolysaccharide-Induced Systematic Inflammatory Response Syndrome Model in Mice

Naringin is one of the common flavonoids in grapefruit, which has anti-cancer, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory activities. However, its poor solubility limits its wide application. Therefore, the aim of this study is to investigate the anti-inflammatory effect of naringin combined with chitooligosaccharides with good biocompatibility by constructing a mouse model of systemic inflammatory response syndrome (SIRS). The results showed that the naringin-chitooligosaccharide (NG-COS) complex significantly inhibited lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced weight loss, reduced food intake, tissue inflammatory infiltration, and proinflammatory cytokines IL-6, TNF-α, INF-γ, and IL-1β levels. The complex also significantly affected the content of malondialdehyde and the activities of MPO, SOD, and GSH in the liver, spleen, lungs, and serum of mice with systemic inflammation. In addition, NG-COS significantly inhibited the mRNA expression of inflammatory factors in the TLR4/NF-κB signaling pathway. Principal component analysis showed that the complexes could inhibit LPS-induced systemic inflammation in mice, and the effect was significantly better than that of naringin and chitooligosaccharides alone. This study explored the synergistic effects of chitosan and naringin in reducing inflammation and could contribute to the development of novel biomedical interventions.

Production of bacterial cellulose (BC)/nisin composite with enhanced antibacterial and mechanical properties through co-cultivation of Komagataeibacter xylinum and Lactococcus lactis subsp. lactis

By employing co-cultivation technique on Komagataeibacter xylinum and Lactococcus lactis subsp. lactis, bacterial cellulose (BC)/nisin films with improved antibacterial activity and mechanical properties were successfully produced. The findings demonstrated that increased nisin production is associated with an upregulation of gene expression. Furthermore, results from Scanning electronic microscopy (SEM), Fourier transform infrared (FTIR), X-ray diffraction (XRD), and Thermogravimetric analysis (TG) confirmed the integration of nisin within BC. While being biocompatible with human cells, the BC/nisin composites exhibited antimicrobial activity. Moreover, mechanical property analyses showed a noticeable improvement in Young's modulus, tensile strength, and elongation at break by 161, 271, and 195 %, respectively. Additionally, the nisin content in fermentation broth was improved by 170 % after co-culture, accompanied by an 8 % increase in pH as well as 10 % decrease in lactate concentration. Real-time reverse transcription PCR analysis revealed an upregulation of 11 nisin-related genes after co-cultivation, with the highest increase in nisA (5.76-fold). To our knowledge, this is the first study which demonstrates that an increase in secondary metabolites after co-culturing is modulated by gene expression. This research offers a cost-effective approach for BC composite production and presents a technique to enhance metabolite concentration through the regulation of relevant genes.

Electrospun Antimicrobial Drug Delivery Systems and Hydrogels Used for Wound Dressings

Wounds and chronic wounds can be caused by bacterial infections and lead to discomfort in patients. To solve this problem, scientists are working to create modern wound dressings with antibacterial additives, mainly because traditional materials cannot meet the general requirements for complex wounds and cannot promote wound healing. This demand is met by material engineering, through which we can create electrospun wound dressings. Electrospun wound dressings, as well as those based on hydrogels with incorporated antibacterial compounds, can meet these requirements. This manuscript reviews recent materials used as wound dressings, discussing their formation, application, and functionalization. The focus is on presenting dressings based on electrospun materials and hydrogels. In contrast, recent advancements in wound care have highlighted the potential of thermoresponsive hydrogels as dynamic and antibacterial wound dressings. These hydrogels contain adaptable polymers that offer targeted drug delivery and show promise in managing various wound types while addressing bacterial infections. In this way, the article is intended to serve as a compendium of knowledge for researchers, medical practitioners, and biomaterials engineers, providing up-to-date information on the state of the art, possibilities of innovative solutions, and potential challenges in the area of materials used in dressings.

Preparation of bacterial cellulose-based antibacterial membranes with prolonged release of drugs: Emphasis on the chemical structure of drugs

Bacterial cellulose (BC) based antibacterial membranes were synthesized, including BC-cefoperazone (BC-CEF) and BC-cefoperazone sodium (BC-CEF/Na). To examine the various drug loading processes, the structure, morphology, and physical-chemical characteristics of membranes were evaluated. Results demonstrated that both types of medicines were successfully absorbed into membranes, and membranes displayed identical morphology and FT-IR peaks. BC-CEF showed lower crystalline of XRD, which was likely caused by the combination of carboxyl and hydroxyl. However, there were no drug peaks seen in the membranes, indicating no alteration of ribbon crystallization of BC. Two types of antibacterial membranes have significantly distinct drug-loading traits and drug-releasing profiles. The drug loading rate of CEF (46.4 mg/g) was significantly greater than CEF/Na (30.3 mg/g). The cumulative drug-releasing profiles showed that only BC-CEF continues to release drugs for a lengthy period up to 48 h and exhibited good antimicrobial activity against S. aureus and E. coli until 48 h. The cytotoxicity assay demonstrated the great biocompatibility of all membranes. Findings indicated that BC-CEF has the potential use as a prolonged biocide in the biomedical. The idea that BC membranes can naturally incorporate the carboxyl groups from antibiotics is also innovative and can be useful in developing of drug delivery systems.

Biosynthesis and characterization of antibacterial bacterial cellulose composite membrane composed of montmorillonite and exopolysaccharides

Bacterial cellulose (BC), as a natural renewable polymer material, has the advantages of porous nanonetwork structure, high degree of polymerization, high purity, high crystallinity, excellent mechanical properties and biocompatibility. However, BC lacks antibacterial properties, which leads to the limitation of BC material in food packaging and medical materials. In this study, a new antibacterial material using the combination of montmorillonite (MMT), BC and exopolysaccharides (EPS) produced by Weissella confusa H2 was synthesized. Fourier infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR) and X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis showed that BC-EPS, BC-MMT and BC-EPS-MMT composite membranes conformed to the typical type I cellulose structure. Compared to BC membrane, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) showed that the porosity of BC-EPS, BC-MMT and BC-EPS-MMT composite membranes was low and compact. The physical properties of BC-EPS, BC-MTT and BC-EPS-MTT composite membranes showed lower water vapor transmittance. The BC-MTT and BC-EPS-MTT composite membranes exhibit a lower swelling ratio in 120 min. The thermal properties show that BC-EPS, BC-MTT and BC-EPS-MTT composite membranes have higher thermal stability (352 °C, 310 °C, 314 °C). Additionally, both BC-MMT and BC-EPS-MMT demonstrated strong inhibitory effects against various bacterial strains, including Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Salmonella paratyphi A, and Bacillus subtilis. The exceptional properties exhibited by composite membranes establishes them as a highly promising option in the field of food packaging and medical material applications.

Eco-benign synthesis of nano‑gold chitosan-bacterial cellulose in spent ground coffee kombucha consortium: Characterization, microbiome community, and biological performance

Biomaterials that are mediocre for cell adhesion have been a concern for medical purposes. In this study, we fabricated nano‑gold chitosan-bacterial cellulose (CBC-Au) via a facile in-situ method using spent ground coffee (SGC) in a kombucha consortium. The eco-benign synthesis of monodispersed gold nanoparticles (Au NPs) in modified bacterial cellulose (BC) was successfully achieved in the presence of chitosan (CHI) and a symbiotic culture of bacteria and yeast (SCOBY). The dominant microbiome community in SGC kombucha were Lactobacillaceae and Saccharomycetes. Chitosan-bacterial cellulose (CBC) and CBC-Au affected the microfibril networks in the nano cellulose structures and decreased the porosity. The modified BC maintained its crystallinity up to 80 % after incorporating CHI and Au NPs. Depth profiling using X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) indicated that the Au NPs were distributed in the deeper layers of the scaffolds and a limited amount on the surface of the scaffold. Aspergillus niger fungal strains validated the biodegradability of each scaffold as a decomposer. Bacteriostatically CBC-Au showed better antimicrobial activity than BC, in line with the adhesion of NIH-3T3 fibroblast cells and red blood cells (RBCs), which displayed good biocompatibility performance, indicating its potential use as a medical scaffold.

Packaging films based on biopolymers from seafood processing wastes: Preparation, properties, and their applications for shelf-life extension of seafoods-A comprehensive review

Biopolymers derived from seafood processing byproducts are used to prepare active and biodegradable films as the packaging of food products. These films possess bioactivities to enhance the shelf life of packed foods by proactively releasing antimicrobial/antioxidative agents into the foods and providing sufficient barrier properties. Seafood processing byproducts are an eminent source of valuable compounds, including biopolymers and bioactive compounds. These biopolymers, including collagen, gelatin, chitosan, and muscle proteins, could be used to prepare robust and sustainable food packaging with some antimicrobial agents or antioxidants, for example, plant extracts rich in polyphenols or essential oils. These active packaging are not only biodegradable but also prevent the deterioration of packed foods caused by spoilage microorganisms as well as chemical deterioration. Seafood discards have a promising benefit for the development of environmentally friendly food packaging systems via the appropriate preparation methods or techniques. Therefore, the green packaging from seafood leftover can be better exploited and replace the synthetic counterpart.

Nano Ag/PPy Biocomposites Based on Graphene Oxide Modified Bacterial Cellulose from the Juice of Xinhui Citrus and Its Antibacterial Activity

Bacterial cellulose (BC) is a green, natural biopolymer with excellent biocompatibility and a film-forming ability. However, its lack of inherent antibacterial activity restricts its application in medical materials and food preservation. In this study, BC derived from the juice of discarded Xinhui citrus was obtained through fermentation and further modified in situ with graphene oxide (GO) to obtain BC(GO). Subsequently, BC(GO) was loaded with cell-compatible polypyrrole (PPy) and antibacterial agent silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) to prepare Ag-PPy/BC(GO) composite films. Composite films were characterized using Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and scanning electron microscopy-energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM-EDS) to evaluate their chemical structure and morphology. The results demonstrate effective adsorption of PPy and AgNPs onto the surface of BC nanofibers modified with GO. Antibacterial experiments reveal synergistic antibacterial effects of PPy and AgNPs. The Ag-PPy/BC(GO) membranes exhibit strong antibacterial activity against both Escherichia coli (E. coli) and Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus), with 48-h growth inhibition rates of 75-84% and 82-84%, respectively.

Development of antibacterial nanocomposites by combination of bacterial cellulose/chitin nanofibrils and all-natural bioactive nanoparticles

In this study, a functional composite membrane was facilely fabricated by using a dual nanofibril system of bacterial cellulose (BC) and chitin (CH) nanofibrils as bio-based building blocks. The BC-CH membranes with enhanced antibacterial activity were constructed by incorporation of all-natural bioactive nanoparticles (GBTPs), which were formed by spontaneous molecular interactions of three naturally occurring active small molecules, i.e., glycyrrhizic acid (GA), berberine (BR), and tannic acid (TA). The microstructure, physicochemical properties, and antibacterial behaviors of the resulting BC-CH-GBTPs nanocomposites were then characterized. The obtained results showed that the GBTPs with a diameter of around 50-100 nm and membrane matrix were bound by non-covalent interactions, and the addition of GBTPs did not compromise the structural integrity and thermal stability of the composites, which retained good mechanical properties. Furthermore, the addition of GBTPs led to a rougher surface structure and increased the water contact angle of the membrane surfaces from 48.13° to 59.80°. The antimicrobial tests indicate that the BC-CH-GBTPs nanocomposites exhibited significant inhibitory effects against Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus, showing a satisfactory antibacterial ability. These results suggest that the BC-CH-GBTPs nanocomposites based on all-natural, plant-based building blocks, hold promising potentials as active packaging materials for sustainable applications.

Homogeneous silver nanoparticle loaded polydopamine/polyethyleneimine-coated bacterial cellulose nanofibers for wound dressing

Utilizing mussel-inspired chemistry is an advanced strategy for surface modification, because dopamine (DA) can form a material-independent adhesive coating and further functionalization can be achieved, including the production of silver nanoparticles (AgNPs). Nevertheless, DA easily aggregates in the nanofiber network structure of bacterial cellulose (BC), which not only blocks the pores in the BC structure but also leads to the formation of large silver particles and the burst release of highly cytotoxic silver ions. Herein, a homogeneous AgNP-loaded polydopamine (PDA)/polyethyleneimine (PEI) coated BC was constructed via a Michael reaction between PDA and PEI. Under the action of PEI, the PDA/PEI coating was uniformly attached to the BC fiber surface with a thickness of approximately 4 nm, and homogeneous AgNPs were produced on the uniform PDA/PEI/BC (PPBC) fiber surface. The sustained release of silver ions was better from AgNPs@PPBC than from AgNPs@PDA/BC. The obtained AgNPs@PPBC exhibited excellent antibacterial activities and cytocompatibility. The results of the in vivo assay indicated that the AgNPs@PPBC dressing could inhibit S. aureus infection and inflammation, promote hair follicle growth, enhance collagen deposition, and accelerate wound healing within 12 days compared with BC. These results illustrate that the homogeneous AgNPs@PPBC dressing has great potential for treating infected wounds.

A wash-free, elution-free and low protein adsorption paper-based material for nucleic acid extraction

Nucleic acid detection technologies have been widely utilized for various diseases. Conventional laboratory tests are less suitable for use in resource-limited settings as they are time-consuming, high-cost, complex, and heavily dependent on benchtop equipment. Rapid nucleic acid detection methods that consist of rapid nucleic acid extraction steps could overcome these challenges. A paper-based platform has been utilized to develop various rapid nucleic acid extraction methods owing to its cost-effectiveness, portability, and easy-modification. However, the existing paper-based nucleic acid extraction technologies mainly focus on improving the adsorption capacity of nucleic acids without reducing the non-specific adsorption capacity of proteins. In this study, paper-based nucleic acid extraction technology with wash-free, elution-free, and low protein adsorption was developed. The fabrication of paper involves the mixing of polyethylene glycol (PEG)-modified cotton fiber, chitosan (COS)-modified cotton fiber, and cotton fiber to form PEG-modified cotton fiber/chitosan-modified cotton fiber/cotton fiber (PEG-CF/COS-CF/CF) paper by the wet molding method. The result showed that PEG-CF/COS-CF/CF paper has a desirable pore size (23.9 ± 4.03 μm), good mechanical strength (dry: 9.37 Mpa and wet: 0.28 Mpa), and hydrophilicity (contact angle: 42.6° ± 0.36°). NH₃⁺ groups of COS and OH^- groups of PEG were observed on its surface and the adsorption efficiency of nucleic acid in TE buffer was 42.48% ± 0.30%. The limit of detection of pure DNA with this PEG-CF/COS-CF/CF paper by qPCR was as low as 25 ng. Additionally, this platform could successfully extract nucleic acid from 30 μL of a saliva sample, highlighting its potential use for clinical sample testing. The proposed paper-based nucleic acid extraction platform shows tremendous potential for disease diagnosis in resource-limited settings.

Fabrication of Cu2+-loaded phase-transited lysozyme nanofilm on bacterial cellulose: Antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, and pro-angiogenesis for bacteria-infected wound healing

Bacterial overgrowth in injured wounds causes wound infection and excessive inflammation, leading to delayed wound healing. Successful treatment of delayed infected wound healing demands dressings, which can inhibit bacterial growth and inflammation and simultaneously induce vascularization, collagen deposition, and re-epithelialization of wounds. In this study, bacterial cellulose (BC) deposited with Cu²⁺-loaded phase-transited lysozyme (PTL) nanofilm (BC/PTL/Cu) was prepared for healing infected wounds. The results confirm that PTL were successfully self-assembled on BC matrix, and Cu²⁺ were loaded into PTL through electrostatic coordination. The tensile strength and the elongation at break of the membranes were not significantly changed after modification with PTL and Cu²⁺. Compared with BC, the surface roughness of BC/PTL/Cu significantly increased while the hydrophilicity decreased. Moreover, BC/PTL/Cu displayed slower release rate of Cu²⁺ compared with BC directly loaded with Cu²⁺. BC/PTL/Cu exhibited good antibacterial activity against Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Bacillus subtilis, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. By controlling copper concentration, BC/PTL/Cu were not cytotoxic to mouse fibroblast cell line L929. In vivo, BC/PTL/Cu accelerated wound healing and promoted re-epithelialization, collagen deposition, and angiogenesis while inhibiting inflammation of the infected full-thickness skin wounds of rats. Collectively, these results demonstrate that BC/PTL/Cu composites are promising dressings for healing infected wounds.

Crude Enzyme Concentrate of Filamentous Fungus Hydrolyzed Chitosan to Obtain Oligomers of Different Sizes

Chitosan is a non-cytotoxic polysaccharide that, upon hydrolysis, releases oligomers of different sizes that may have antioxidant, antimicrobial activity and the inhibition of cancer cell growth, among other applications. It is, therefore, a hydrolysis process with great biotechnological relevance. Thus, this study aims to use a crude enzyme concentrate (C_EC) produced by a filamentous fungus to obtain oligomers with different molecular weights. The microorganism was cultivated in a liquid medium (modified Czapeck-with carboxymethylcellulose as enzyme inducer). The enzymes present in the C_EC were identified by LC-MS/MS, with an emphasis on cellobiohydrolase (E.C 3.2.1.91). The fungus of the Aspergillus genus was identified by amplifying the ITS1-5.8S-ITS2 rDNA region and metaproteomic analysis, where the excreted enzymes were identified with sequence coverage greater than 84% to A. nidulans. Chitosan hydrolysis assays compared the C_EC with the commercial enzyme (Celluclast 1.5 L^®). The ability to reduce the initial molecular mass of chitosan by 47.80, 75.24, and 93.26% after 2.0, 5.0, and 24 h of reaction, respectively, was observed. FTIR analyses revealed lower absorbance of chitosan oligomers' spectral signals, and their crystallinity was reduced after 3 h of hydrolysis. Based on these results, we can conclude that the crude enzyme concentrate showed a significant technological potential for obtaining chitosan oligomers of different sizes.

Bacterial Cellulose-Based Materials as Dressings for Wound Healing

Bacterial cellulose (BC) is produced by several microorganisms as extracellular structures and can be modified by various physicochemical and biological strategies to produce different cellulosic formats. The main advantages of BC for biomedical applications can be summarized thus: easy moldability, purification, and scalability; high biocompatibility; and straightforward tailoring. The presence of a high amount of free hydroxyl residues, linked with water and nanoporous morphology, makes BC polymer an ideal candidate for wound healing. In this frame, acute and chronic wounds, associated with prevalent pathologies, were addressed to find adequate therapeutic strategies. Hence, the main characteristics of different BC structures-such as membranes and films, fibrous and spheroidal, nanocrystals and nanofibers, and different BC blends, as well as recent advances in BC composites with alginate, collagen, chitosan, silk sericin, and some miscellaneous blends-are reported in detail. Moreover, the development of novel antimicrobial BC and drug delivery systems are discussed.

A novel static cultivation of bacterial cellulose production from sugar beet molasses: Series static culture (SSC) system

In bacterial cellulose (BC) production, we developed a new static cultivation system named series static culture (SSC) to eliminate air limitation problem encountered in conventional static culture (CSC). In SSC system, the fermentation broth at the bottom of BC pellicle produced in initial culture medium is transferred to the next empty sterile culture medium at the end of a certain fermentation period. This procedure was performed until BC production ceased. Fermentation experiments were carried out using Gluconacetobacter xylinus NRRL B-759 and sugar beet molasses at 30 °C and initial pH 5. Also, some quality parameters of produced BC pellicles were determined. Final pH at the stages of SSC system was higher that of the initial pH due to sugar content (sucrose) of molasses and microorganism used. Total BC production increased with increasing sugar concentration in SSC. As a result, an increase of 22.02 % in BC production was achieved using developed SSC. FT-IR spectra of all BC pellicles produced were typical spectra. The absorption bands at the relevant wavenumbers identify the mode of vibrations of the created chemical bonds arising at the BC surface such as OH, CH, H-O-H, C-O-C, and C-OH. XRD analyses showed that the crystallinity index values of BC obtained from CCS and SSC were high. The form of produced all BC pellicles is generally Cellulose I. Removal of surface moisture and depolymerisation of carbon skeleton were determined from TGA-DTA thermograms. SEM images showed that the BC samples produced had nano-sized cellulose fibrils which were aggregated in fermentation media containing molasses. Finally, the BC samples, especially in molasses media, having high mechanical strength and WHC were found.

Chitooligosaccharide Maintained Cell Membrane Integrity by Regulating Reactive Oxygen Species Homeostasis at Wounds of Potato Tubers during Healing

Chitooligosaccharide (COS) is a degradation product of chitosan. Although COS increased fruit resistance by regulating the metabolism of reactive oxygen species (ROS), few reports are available on whether COS regulates ROS homeostasis at wounds of potato tubers during healing. In this study, COS increased gene expression and activities of NADPH oxidase and superoxide dismutase, and promoted the generation of O₂^●- and H₂O₂. Moreover, COS increased gene expression and activities of catalase, peroxidase, and AsA-GSH cycle-related enzymes, as well as the levels of ascorbic acid and glutathione levels. In addition, COS elevated the scavenging ability of DPPH, ABTS⁺, and FRAP, and reduced cell membrane permeability and malondialdehyde content. Taken together, COS could maintain cell membrane integrity by eliminating excessive H₂O₂ and improving the antioxidant capacity in vitro, which contributes to the maintainance of cell membrane integrity at wounds of potato tubers during healing.

Antibacterial Films Made of Bacterial Cellulose

Bacterial cellulose (BC) is naturally degradable, highly biocompatible, hydrophilic, and essentially non-toxic, making it potentially useful as a base for creating more sophisticated bio-based materials. BC is similar to plant-derived cellulose in terms of chemical composition and structure but has a number of important differences in microstructure that could provide some unique opportunities for use as a scaffold for other functions. In this study, bacterial cellulose was alkylated and then esterified to produce a carboxymethyl bacterial cellulose (CMBC) that was then used to produce six different composite films with potential antibacterial properties. The films were assessed for antibacterial activity against Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli, pyrolysis characteristics using thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), microstructure using scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and mechanical properties. The addition of nano-silver (nano-Ag) markedly improved the antimicrobial activity of the films while also enhancing the physical and mechanical properties. The results indicate that the three-dimensional reticulated structure of the bacterial cellulose provides an excellent substrate for scaffolding other bioactive materials. Thus, the nano-BC was added into the CMBC/nano-Ag composites furthermore, and then the antibacterial and mechanical properties were improved 44% for E. coli, 59% for S. aureus, and 20% for tensile strength, respectively.

Biomedical engineering aspects of nanocellulose: a review

Cellulose is one of the most abundant renewable biopolymer in nature and is present as major constituent in both plant cell walls as well as synthesized by some microorganisms as extracellular products. In both the systems, cellulose self-assembles into a hierarchical ordered architecture to form micro to nano-fibrillated structures, on basis of which it is classified into various forms. Nanocellulose (NCs) exist as rod-shaped highly crystalline cellulose nanocrystals to high aspect ratio cellulose nanofibers, micro-fibrillated cellulose and bacterial cellulose (BC), depending upon the origin, structural and morphological properties. Moreover, NCs have been processed into diversified products ranging from composite films, coatings, hydrogels, aerogels, xerogels, organogels, rheological modifiers, optically active birefringent colored films using traditional-to-advanced manufacturing techniques. With such versatility in structure-property, NCs have profound application in areas of healthcare, packaging, cosmetics, energy, food, electronics, bioremediation, and biomedicine with promising commercial potential. Herein this review, we highlight the recent advancements in synthesis, fabrication, processing of NCs, with strategic chemical modification routes to tailor its properties for targeted biomedical applications. We also study the basic mechanism and models for biosynthesis of cellulose in both plant and microbial systems and understand the structural insights of NC polymorphism. The kinetics study for both enzymatic/chemical modifications of NCs and microbial growth behavior of BC under various reactor configurations are studied. The challenges associated with the commercial aspects as well as industrial scale production of pristine and functionalized NCs to meet the growing demands of market are discussed and prospective strategies to mitigate them are described. Finally, post chemical modification evaluation of biological and inherent properties of NC are important to determine their efficacy for development of various products and technologies directed for biomedical applications.

Chitosan: A Sustainable Material for Multifarious Applications

Due to the versatility of its features and capabilities, chitosan generated from marine crustacean waste is gaining importance and appeal in a wide variety of applications. It was initially used in pharmaceutical and medical applications due to its antibacterial, biocompatible, and biodegradable properties. However, as the demand for innovative materials with environmentally benign properties has increased, the application range of chitosan has expanded, and it is now used in a variety of everyday applications. The most exciting aspect of the chitosan is its bactericidal properties against pathogens, which are prevalent in contaminated water and cause a variety of human ailments. Apart from antimicrobial and water filtration applications, chitosan is used in dentistry, in water filtration membranes to remove metal ions and some heavy metals from industrial effluents, in microbial fuel cell membranes, and in agriculture to maintain moisture in fruits and leaves. It is also used in skin care products and cosmetics as a moisturizer, in conjunction with fertilizer to boost plant immunity, and as a bi-adhesive for bonding woods and metals. As it has the capacity to increase the life span of food items and raw meat, it is an unavoidable component in food packing and preservation. The numerous applications of chitosan are reviewed in this brief study, as well as the approaches used to incorporate chitosan alongside traditional materials and its effect on the outputs.

Efficient fabrication, antibacterial and catalytic performance of Ag-NiO loaded bacterial cellulose paper

This study reports the synthesis of bacterial cellulose (BC) hydrogel sheets and their utilization as a support for silver‑nickel oxide nanocomposites (Ag/NiO). A two-step facile hydrothermal method was employed for the preparation of Ag/NiO, followed by impregnation into BC hydrogel sheets. A 20% Ag/NiO composition was revealed by dry weight analysis. The stability of nanocomposites-Hydrogel was confirmed by Ag⁺ and Ni²⁺ ion release study. The catalytic activity of the BC-Ag/NiO was evaluated against chemical reduction of congo red, methyl orange and methylene blue. The reduction reaction followed pseudo first order kinetics and k_app values of 0.1147 min^-1, 0.1323 min^-1 and 0.12989 min^-1 were obtained for CR, MO, and MB dyes, respectively. The BC-Ag/NiO catalyst could be easily recovered and re-used in another reaction without centrifugation. The synthesized nanocomposites hydrogel was also tested for its antibacterial activity against Gram-negative bacteria, Escherichia coli (E.coli) and Gram-positive bacteria, Staphylococcus aureus (S.aureus).

Preparation, investigation and storage application of thymol-chitooligosaccharide complex with enhanced antioxidant and antibacterial properties

BACKGROUND

Thymol (Thy) is a natural bioactive agent which possesses various properties and has been widely used in medicine and food industries. However, its poor bioavailability can limit its application.

RESULTS

In this study, Thy was interacted with chitooligosaccharide (COS) as Thy-COS complex via an ionic crosslinking method using sodium tripolyphosphate as a crosslinker. The characteristics and thermal stability of Thy-COS were evaluated by ultraviolet-visible (UV-vis), Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, proton nuclear magnetic resonance (¹ H-NMR) and thermogravimetric analysis, and its antioxidant and antibacterial properties were also evaluated. The highest loading capacity of Thy (52.3%) in Thy-COS formed at mass ratio of 1:5. Results indicated the Thy-COS complex was formed mainly by hydrophobic interactions and hydrogen bonds. Upon complexation, the thermal stability, antioxidant and antibacterial activity of Thy were significantly improved. Thy-COS complex was made into a coated film for Nanguo pears and greatly improved its storage quality. Thy-COS delayed the weight loss and softening of Nanguo pears and kept more vitamin-C content (2.12 mg (100 g)^-1 ).

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, Thy-COS was successfully prepared and improved antioxidant and antibacterial properties of Thy, which has great potential in the food industry. © 2021 Society of Chemical Industry.

Characterization of Bioactive Colored Materials Produced from Bacterial Cellulose and Bacterial Pigments

A Bacterial Cellulose (BC) film was developed and characterized as a potential functional bioactive material. BC films, obtained from a microbial consortium of bacteria and yeast species, were functionalized with the bacterial pigment prodigiosin, produced by Serratia plymuthica, and flexirubin-type pigment, from Chryseobacterium shigense, which exhibit a wide range of biological properties. BC was successfully functionalized at 15% over the weight of the fiber at 40 °C during 60 min, and a color strength of 1.00 ± 0.01 was obtained for BC_prodigiosin and 0.38 ± 0.02 for BC_flexirubin-type pigment. Moreover, the BC films showed moderate hydrophilic character following alkaline treatment, which was maintained after both pigments were incorporated. The porosity and mechanical performance of the functionalized BC samples also remained unaffected. Furthermore, the BC samples functionalized with prodigiosin presented antibacterial activity and were able to inhibit the growth of pathogenic bacteria Staphylococcus aureus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa, with inhibition rates of 97.89 ± 0.60% and 85.12 ± 0.17%, respectively, while BC samples functionalized with flexirubin-type pigment exhibited the highest antioxidant activity, at 38.96 ± 0.49%. This research provides an eco-friendly approach to grant BC film-based material with color and advantageous bioactive properties, which can find application in several fields, especially for medical purposes.

Both chitosan and chitooligosaccharide treatments accelerate wound healing of pear fruit by activating phenylpropanoid metabolism

This study aimed to compare the effects of chitosan (CTS) and chitooligosaccharide (COS) treatments on wound healing of pear fruits and to investigate the related mechanisms during postharvest storage under ambient conditions. The results revealed that CTS and COS treatments reduced the weight loss and disease index of the wounded pears (Pyrus bretschneideri cv. Dongguo), and accelerated suberin polyphenolic and lignin deposition at wounds during 7 d of investigation. Furthermore, CTS and COS elevated the level of the genes expression and activities of key enzymes and increased product contents of phenylpropanoid metabolism. Collectively, these treatments at a concentration of 1 g/L could promote wound healing in pears by activating phenylpropanoid metabolism. Comparatively, COS treatment presented better effects to CTS and could be useful as a preservative method to enhance storability of fresh produce.

Chitosan with pendant (E)-5-((4-acetylphenyl) diazenyl)-6-aminouracil groups as synergetic antimicrobial agents

Conventional antimicrobial agents are losing the war against drug resistance day-by-day. Chitosan biopolymer is one of the alternative materials that lends itself well to this application by fine-tuning its bioactivity...

Ecofriendly green biosynthesis and characterization of novel bacteriocin-loaded bacterial cellulose nanofiber from Gluconobacter cerinus HDX-1

A new strain of bacterial cellulose (BC)-producing Gluconobacter cerinus HDX-1 was isolated and identified, and a simple, low-cost complexation method was used to biosynthesis Lactobacillus paracasei 1∙7 bacteriocin BC (BC-B) nanofiber. The structure and antibacterial properties of the nanofibers were evaluated. Solid-state nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR) and x-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis showed that BC and BC-B nanofibers had typical crystalline form of the cellulose I. X-ray photoelectron spectrometer (XPS), scanning electron microscope (SEM) and atomic force microscopy (AFM) revealed that the bacteriocin and BC were successfully compounded, and the structure of BC-B nanofiber was tighter than BC nanofiber, with lower porosity, swelling ratio and water vapor transmission rate (WVTR). The tensile strength and Young's modulus of BC-B nanofibers were 13.28 ± 1.26 MPa and 132.10 ± 4.92 MPa, respectively, higher than that of BC nanofiber (6.12 ± 0.87 MPa and 101.59 ± 5.87 MPa), indicating that bacteriocin enhance the mechanical properties of BC nanofiber. Furthermore, the BC-B nanofibers exhibited significant thermal stability, antioxidant capacity and antibacterial activity than BC nanofiber. Therefore, bacteriocin-loaded BC nanofiber may be used as antimicrobial agents in active food packaging and medical material.

Surface-modified polylactic acid nanospheres with chitosan for antibacterial activity of 1, 2-benzisothiazolin-3-one

The primary purpose of this study was to develop an innovative chitosan (CS) modified polylactic acid (PLA) nanospheres for enhancing the bioavailability of 1, 2-benzisothiazolin-3-one (BIT). The cellular uptake efficiency was corresponded positively to the quantity of CS coated on BIT-PLA nanospheres against E. coli and S. aureus. The membrane potentials of E.coli and S. aureus treated with BIT-PLA, BIT-PLA-0.1%CS and BIT-PLA-0.5%CS were reduced with the extension of incubation time and the ratio of coated CS. The enhancement of CS modified on BIT-PLA nanospheres was reduced antioxidase activities and generated excessive reactive oxygen species. The lowest EC₅₀ value of the modified BIT-PLA-0.5%CS suggested that its toxicity index was around 2.95-fold and 2.11-fold that of non-modified BIT-PLA against E. coli and S. aureus, respectively. These results revealed that the CS modified BIT-PLA nanospheres had a bright prospect in antibacterial formulation delivery system and improving the bioavailability.

Bacterial Cellulose: Functional Modification and Wound Healing Applications

Significance: Wound dressings are frequently used for wound covering and healing. Ideal wound dressings should provide a moist environment for wounds and actively promote wound healing and skin recovery. The materials used as ideal wound dressings should possess specific properties, thus accelerating skin tissue regeneration process. Recent Advances: Bacterial cellulose (BC) is a natural polymer synthesized by some bacteria. As a kind of natural biopolymer, BC shows good biological activity, biodegradability, and biological adaptability. It has many unique physical, chemical, and biological properties, such as ultrafine nanofiber network, high crystallinity, high water absorption and retention capacity, and high tensile strength and elastic modulus. These excellent properties of BC have laid the foundation for its application as dressing in wound healing. Critical Issues: To optimize the biocompatibility and antimicrobial activity of BC, different methods including microbial fermentation, physical modification, chemical modification, and compound modification have been adopted to modify BC to ensure a better application in wound healing. BC-based wound dressings have been applied in infected wounds, acute traumatic injuries, burns, and diabetic wounds, showing remarkable therapeutic effects on promoting wound healing. Furthermore, there have been some commercial BC-based dressings and they have been utilized in clinical practice. Future Directions: Because of its excellent physicochemical characteristics and biological properties, BC shows high clinical value to be used as a wound dressing for skin tissue regeneration.

Bacterial cellulose and its potential for biomedical applications

Bacterial cellulose (BC) is an important polysaccharide synthesized by some bacterial species under specific culture conditions, which presents several remarkable features such as microporosity, high water holding capacity, good mechanical properties and good biocompatibility, making it a potential biomaterial for medical applications. Since its discovery, BC has been used for wound dressing, drug delivery, artificial blood vessels, bone tissue engineering, and so forth. Additionally, BC can be simply manipulated to form its derivatives or composites with enhanced physicochemical and functional properties. Several polymers, carbon-based nanomaterials, and metal nanoparticles (NPs) have been introduced into BC by ex situ and in situ methods to design hybrid materials with enhanced functional properties. This review provides comprehensive knowledge and highlights recent advances in BC production strategies, its structural features, various in situ and ex situ modification techniques, and its potential for biomedical applications.

Biosynthesis of Bacterial Cellulose by Extended Cultivation with Multiple Removal of BC Pellicles

Extended cultivation with multiple removal of BC pellicles is proposed herein as a new biosynthetic process for bacterial cellulose (BC). This method enhances the BC surface area by 5-11 times per unit volume of the growth medium, improving the economic efficiency of biosynthesis. The resultant BC gel-films were thin, transparent, and congruent. The degree of polymerization (DP) and elastic modulus (EM) depended on the number of BC pellicle removals, vessel shape, and volume. The quality of BC from removals II-III to VII was better than from removal I. The process scale-up of 1:40 by volume increased DP by 1.5 times and EM by 5 times. A fact was established that the symbiotic Medusomyces gisevii Sa-12 was adaptable to exhausted growth medium: the medium was able to biosynthesize BC for 60 days, while glucose ran low at 24 days. On extended cultivation, DP and EM were found to decline by 39-64% and 57-65%, respectively. The BC gel-films obtained upon removals I-VI were successfully trialed in experimental tension-free hernioplasty.

The novel nanocomplexes containing deoxycholic acid-grafted chitosan and oleanolic acid displays the hepatoprotective effect against CCl4-induced liver injury in vivo

Chemical liver injury threatens seriously human health, along with the shortage of efficiency and low-toxicity drugs. Herein, the novel oral nanocomplexes composed of deoxycholic acid-grafted chitosan and oleanolic acid were constructed to reverse the CCl₄-induced acute liver damage in mice. Results indicated core-shell nanocomplexes, maintained by the hydrophobic interaction between deoxycholic acid and oleanolic acid, could be dissociated in the intestine. Notably, the nanocomplexes possessed superior hepatoprotective effect in vivo, possibly due to the synergistic effect between grafted chitosan and oleanolic acid. Mechanism investigations suggested that nanocomplexes reversed CCl₄-induced liver injury through improving hepatic antioxidant capacity via NrF2/Keap1 pathway and regulating inflammation response via NF-κB signaling pathway. The novel oral nanocomplexes represent an effective strategy for chemical liver injury therapy.

Physical and antibacterial properties of bacterial cellulose films supplemented with cell-free supernatant enterocin-producing Enterococcus faecium TJUQ1

In this study, a composite film was prepared with bacterial cellulose (BC) of Gluconacetobacter xylinus and cell-free supernatant (CFS) of Enterococcus faecium TJUQ1, which was named BC-E. The optimum conditions for the preparation of the composite film with a minimal antibacterial activity were the soak of BC in 80 AU/mL CFS for 6 h. By scanning electron microscope observation, the surface network structure of BC-E was denser than that of BC. The tensile strength of BC and BC-E was 4.65 ± 0.88 MPa and 16.30 ± 0.92 MPa, the elongation at break of BC and BC-E was 3.33 ± 0.89% and 31.60 ± 1.15%, respectively, indicating the mechanical properties of BC-E were significantly higher than that of BC (P < 0.05). The swelling ratio of BC-E (456.67 ± 7.20%) was lower than that of BC (1377.78 ± 9.07%), demonstrating BC-E films presented better water resistance. BC-E films were soaked with 320 AU/mL CFS, and then used to pack the ground meat with 6.55 log₁₀ CFU/g of Listeria monocytogenes. After 8 days of storage, the number of bacteria decreased by 3.16 log₁₀ CFU/g. Similarly, total mesophilic bacterial levels in the ground meat decreased by 2.41 log₁₀ CFU/g compared to control groups.

Heparinization and hybridization of electrospun tubular graft for improved endothelialization and anticoagulation

Constructing biomimetic structure and immobilizing antithrombus factors are two effective methods to ensure rapid endothelialization and long-term anticoagulation for small-diameter vascular grafts. However, few literatures are available regarding simultaneous implementation of these two strategies. Herein, a nano-micro-fibrous biomimetic graft with a heparin coating was prepared via a step-by-step in situ biosynthesis method to improve potential endothelialization and anticoagulation. The 4-mm-diameter tubular graft consists of electrospun cellulose acetate (CA) microfibers and entangled bacterial nanocellulose (BNC) nanofibers with heparin coating on dual fibers. The hybridized and heparinized graft possesses suitable pore structure that facilitates endothelia cells adhesion and proliferation but prevents infiltration of fibrous tissue and blood leakage. In addition, it shows higher mechanical properties than those of bare CA and hybridized CA/BNC grafts, which match well with native blood vessels. Moreover, this dually modified graft exhibits improved blood compatibility and endothelialization over the counterparts without hybridization or heparinization according to the testing results of platelet adhesion, cell morphology, and protein expression of von Willebrand Factor. This novel graft with dual modifications shows promising as a new small-diameter vascular graft. This study provides a guidance for promoting endothelialization and blood compatibility by dual modifications of biomimetic structure and immobilized bioactive molecules.

Chitosan grafted/cross-linked with biodegradable polymers: A review

Public perception of polymers has been drastically changed with the improved plastic management at the end of their life. However, it is widely recognised the need of developing biodegradable polymers, as an alternative to traditional petrochemical polymers. Chitosan (CH), a biodegradable biopolymer with excellent physiological and structural properties, together with its immunostimulatory and antibacterial activity, is a good candidate to replace other polymers, mainly in biomedical applications. However, CH has also several drawbacks, which can be solved by chemical modifications to improve some of its characteristics such as solubility, biological activity, and mechanical properties. Many chemical modifications have been studied in the last decade to improve the properties of CH. This review focussed on a critical analysis of the state of the art of chemical modifications by cross-linking and graft polymerization, between CH or CH derivatives and other biodegradable polymers (polysaccharides or proteins, obtained from microorganisms, synthetized from biomonomers, or from petrochemical products). Both techniques offer the option of including a wide variety of functional groups into the CH chain. Thus, enhanced and new properties can be obtained in accordance with the requirements for different applications, such as the release of drugs, the improvement of antimicrobial properties of fabrics, the removal of dyes, or as scaffolds to develop bone tissues.

Antimicrobial Activity of Chitosan Oligosaccharides with Special Attention to Antiparasitic Potential

The global rise of infectious disease outbreaks and the progression of microbial resistance reinforce the importance of researching new biomolecules. Obtained from the hydrolysis of chitosan, chitooligosaccharides (COSs) have demonstrated several biological properties, including antimicrobial, and greater advantage over chitosan due to their higher solubility and lower viscosity. Despite the evidence of the biotechnological potential of COSs, their effects on trypanosomatids are still scarce. The objectives of this study were the enzymatic production, characterization, and in vitro evaluation of the cytotoxic, antibacterial, antifungal, and antiparasitic effects of COSs. NMR and mass spectrometry analyses indicated the presence of a mixture with 81% deacetylated COS and acetylated hexamers. COSs demonstrated no evidence of cytotoxicity upon 2 mg/mL. In addition, COSs showed interesting activity against bacteria and yeasts and a time-dependent parasitic inhibition. Scanning electron microscopy images indicated a parasite aggregation ability of COSs. Thus, the broad biological effect of COSs makes them a promising molecule for the biomedical industry.

Bactericidal and antioxidant bacterial cellulose hydrogels doped with chitosan as potential urinary tract infection biomedical agent

Therapy of bacterial urinary tract infections (UTIs) and catheter associated urinary tract infections (CAUTIs) is still a great challenge because of the resistance of bacteria to nowadays used antibiotics and encrustation of catheters. Bacterial cellulose (BC) as a biocompatible material with a high porosity allows incorporation of different materials in its three dimensional network structure. In this work a low molecular weight chitosan (Chi) polymer is incorporated in BC with different concentrations. Different characterization techniques are used to investigate structural and optical properties of these composites. Radical scavenging activity test shows moderate antioxidant activity of these biocompatible composites whereas in vitro release test shows that 13.3% of chitosan is released after 72 h. Antibacterial testing of BC–Chi composites conducted on Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria causing UTIs and CAUTIs (Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Klebsiella pneumoniae) and encrustation (Proteus mirabilis) show bactericidal effect. The morphology analysis of bacteria after the application of BC–Chi shows that they are flattened with a rough surface, with a tendency to agglomerate and with decreased length and width. All obtained results show that BC–Chi composites might be considered as potential biomedical agents in treatment of UTIs and CAUTIs and as a urinary catheter coating in encrustation prevention.

Bacterial cellulose–chitosan composite with antibacterial and moderate antioxidant activity for potential UTI/CAUTI treatment and catheter coating in encrustation prevention.

In Situ Alignment of Bacterial Cellulose Using Wrinkling

A scalable method for the assembly of oriented bacterial cellulose (BC) films is presented based on using wrinkled thin silicone substrates of meter-square size as templates during biotechnological syntheses of BC. Control samples, including flat templated and template-free bacterial cellulose, along with the oriented BC, are morphologically characterized using scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Multiple functional properties including wettability, birefringence, mechanical strength, crystallinity, water retention, thermal stability, etc., are being characterized for the BC samples, where the wrinkling-induced in situ BC alignment not only significantly improved material mechanical properties (both strength and toughness) but also endowed unique material surface characteristics such as wettability, crystallinity, and thermal stability. Owing to the enhanced properties observed, potential applications of wrinkle templated BC in printing and cell culture are being demonstrated as a proof of concept, which renders their approach promising for various biomedical and packaging applications.