Prophylactic role of phycocyanin: a study of oxalate mediated renal cell injury

Characterization of C-phycocyanin antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-tumour, and anti-HCoV-229E activities and encapsulation for implementation in an innovative functional yogurt

Functional bioactive ingredients isolated from microalgae as sustainable sources have become a new subject of pharmacology and functional foods. Thus, the work aims to produce crude phycocyanin (C-PC), define it, and investigate its pharmacological effects before warping it in a nanophytosome. Subsequently, the physicochemical properties of nanoparticles were evaluated. Both free and nanophytosomes of C-PC were incorporated into cow milk fermented with the probiotic Lactobacillus rhamnosus KU985435 to make functional yoghurt and the stability of C-PC of both phytosomes was assessed. The amino acid content of C-PC revealed the presence of eight of nine essential amino acids and eight of eleven non-essential amino acids. C-PC has a medium molecular weight (82.992 kDa). Some pharmacological effects like reducing inflammation (98.76 % ± 0.065), fighting free radicals (99.12 % ± 0.027), and being able to inhibit the human coronavirus 229 E with a selective index of 27.9 were observed. The maximum viral inhibitory activity was detected during the adsorption stage. Anti-human liver and colon carcinomas that exceeded Doxorubicin with very low cytotoxicity against normal cell lines were detected. C-PC is an unstable protein that could be degraded in the yoghurt during storage. Therefore, phytosome encapsulation can effectively stabilize C-PC (particle size 44.50 ± 12 nm and zeta-potential -32.4 ± 5 mV) and protect it from the acidic environment of the yoghurt. The produced yoghurt showed the desired physicochemical and functional properties and overall acceptance. The results prove that C-PC from spirulina algae is a renewable source of dyes. The encapsulation process using phytosomes gave it high stability against environmental influences, and therefore, it can be applied in the food and pharmaceutical industries in the future.

Himalayan Citrus jambhiri juice reduced renal crystallization in nephrolithiasis by possible inhibition of glycolate oxidase and matrix metalloproteinases

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Citrus fruits are a very rich source of electrolytes and citric acid. They have been used traditionally for treating urinary ailments and renal stones. Citrus jambhiri is indigenously used as a diuretic.

AIM OF THE STUDY

Present study aimed at establishing the antiurolithiatic potential of the juice of Citrus jambhiri fruits along with the elucidation of the mechanism involved in the urolithiasis disease defying activity.

METHODS

The antiurolithiatic activity was established by means of nucleation, growth and aggregation assay in the in vitro settings and by means of ethylene glycol mediated calcium oxalate urolithiasis in the male Wistar rats. Docking studies were performed in an attempt to determine the mechanism of the antiurolithiatic action.

RESULTS

Present study revealed the role of C. jambhiri fruit juice in reducing nucleation, growth and aggregation of calcium oxalate crystals by possible reduction in the urinary supersaturation relative to calcium oxalate and raising the zeta potential of the calcium oxalate crystals. C. jambhiri fruit juice treatment in experimental rats produced significant amelioration of hypercalciuria, hyperoxaluria, hyperphosphaturia, hyperproteinuria, hyperuricosuria, hypocitraturia and hypomagnesiuria and ion activity product of calcium oxalate. It exhibited nephroprotection against calcium oxalate crystals induced renal tubular dilation and renal tissue deterioration. Docking studies further revealed high binding potential of the phytoconstituents of C. jambhiri viz. narirutin, neohesperidin, hesperidin, rutin and citric acid with glycolate oxidase and matrix metalloproteinase-9.

CONCLUSION

C. jambhiri fruit juice possesses excellent antiurolithiatic activity. The study reveals antiurolithiatic mechanism that involves restoration of equilibrium between the promoters and inhibitors of stone formation; and inhibition of matrix metalloproteinases and glycolate oxidase.

Potential protective effects of Spirulina platensis on liver, kidney, and brain acrylamide toxicity in rats

Acrylamide (AA) is a hazardous chemical that is widely used in industrial practices. Spirulina platensis (SP) is a blue green alga that is rich in bioactive compounds with many medicinal benefits. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the ameliorative effect of SP against AA toxicity in rats. Animals were divided into six groups: Group (1) was normal rats, groups (2) and (3) received SP at 500 and 1000 mg/kg BW orally respectively for 21 days, group (4) was administered 20 mg/kg BW AA daily for 14 days, while groups (5) and (6) were given orally SP at the same doses of groups (2) and (3), then AA at similar dose of group (4). Rats that received AA alone displayed markedly increased serum levels of liver enzymes (ALT, AST, and ALP), kidney function parameters (urea and creatinine), DNA damage marker (8-OHdG), and proinflammatory cytokines (IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α), compared to control rats. Furthermore, tissue analysis revealed marked increases in hepatic, renal, and brain MDA and NO, as well as marked reductions in the antioxidant biomarkers (GSH, GSH-Px, SOD, and CAT) in acrylamide-intoxicated rats. Spirulina ameliorated the alterations in serum biochemical parameters and reduced MDA and NO, as well as improved antioxidant biomarkers in AA-intoxicated rats in a dose-dependent manner. Our results show that SP has a powerful protective effect on serum biochemistry and liver, kidney, and brain antioxidant machinery in AA-intoxicated rats.

Potential protective effects of the edible alga Arthrospira platensis against lead-induced oxidative stress, anemia, kidney injury, and histopathological changes in adult rats

Oxidative damage has been proposed as a possible mechanism involved in lead toxicity. This study investigated the possible protective effect of dietary Arthrospira platensis supplementation against lead acetate-induced kidney injury in adult male rats. Rats were divided into 4 groups: normal rats (control rats), rats treated with spirulina, rats treated with lead (Pb) (0.344 g/kg body weight), and rats treated with Pb and spirulina. The exposure of rats to Pb for 30 days provoked renal damage with significant increases in hematological parameters, oxidative stress-related parameters (i.e., thiobarbituric acid reactive substances, protein carbonyl content, advanced oxidation protein products, and hydrogen peroxide), creatinine and urea levels in plasma, and uric acid level in urine. Conversely, antioxidant enzyme activities (i.e., catalase, glutathione peroxidase, and superoxide dismutase) and levels of nonprotein thiols, plasma uric acid, and urinary creatinine and urea decreased. The administration of spirulina to Pb-treated rats significantly improved weight, peripheral blood parameters, oxidative stress-related parameters, renal biomarker levels, and antioxidant enzyme activities. Also, rats treated with Pb and spirulina had normal kidney histology. These healing effects are likely the result of the high phenol content and significant antioxidant capacity of A. platensis. Our data strongly suggest that spirulina supplementation improves kidney function and plays an important role in the prevention of complications of Pb intoxication.

Ameliorative effects of Spirulina platensis against lead-induced nephrotoxicity in newborn rats: Modulation of oxidative stress and histopathological changes

Our experimental work was aimed at evaluating the safety and protective effects of dietary spirulina supplementation on the kidney of newborn rats, the offspring of lead contaminated lactating mothers. Female rats were randomly divided into four groups: group I (control) was given a normal diet, group II (positive control, S) received a diet enriched with spirulina, group III received only lead through drinking water (Pb), and group IV received both a diet enriched with spirulina and lead contaminated water (S Pb). The treatment of pregnant rats with lead administrated in drinking water, from the 5^th day of pregnancy until day 14 after delivery, induced an increased level of renal lipid peroxidation, protein carbonyl, hydrogen peroxide and advanced oxidation protein product, a decreased renal content of glutathione and antioxidant enzyme activities such as superoxide dismutase, catalase and glutathione peroxidase in newborns. A statistically significant increase of renal DNA, mRNA, hematological parameters as well as in plasma urea and creatinine serum levels and lactate dehydrogenase was seen in pups, while those of uric acid declined. Interestingly, these biochemical modifications were accompanied by a significant decrease of lactate dehydrogenase in kidney, plasma alkaline phosphatase and gamma glutamyl-transpeptidase levels, urinary levels of creatinine and urea. Conversely, supplementation of lead-treated mother's with spirulina alleviated hematotoxicity induced by lead as evidenced, by restoring the biochemical markers cited above to near normal levels. Nevertheless, the distorted histoarchitecture in rat kidney attenuated following spirulina supplementation. It can be then concluded that spirulina is an important protective source against kidney impairments.

Spirulina (Arthrospira platensis) supplementation improves growth performance, feed utilization, immune response, and relieves oxidative stress in Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) challenged with Pseudomonas fluorescens

One hundred and eighty Nile tilapia fish were used in eighty-three-day growth trial. Fish were divided into three treatment groups. The first group T0 was given the basal diet without any supplementation and served as the control group. The second group T1 was given the basal diet supplemented by 1% Spirulina. The third group T2 was given the basal diet supplemented by 2% Spirulina. At the end of the growth performance trial, a challenge trial was conducted using virulent strain of Pseudomonas fluorescens. Clinical signs, mortalities, postmortem lesions and histopathological alterations were recorded. Hematological, biochemical, oxidative stress and immunological parameters were measured after challenge with Pseudomonas fluorescens. Growth performance was non significantly improved in tilapia fed the diet with 1% Spirulina supplementation (T1). There were neither signs nor mortalities among fishes belonging to 1% Spirulina challenged group. The results showed that Spirulina has a positive effect on hematological, biochemical parameters, MDA, SOD and CAT at T1 (1% spirulia) rather than T2 (2%spirulia). Moreover, the results indicate that Spirulina 1% enhanced bactericidal, phagocytic and lysozyme activities conferring protection against infection. Our results demonstrated a significant up-regulation of pro-inflammatory cytokine (IL-1β and TNF-α) and a down-regulation of anti-inflammatory cytokine (IL-10). We concluded that 1% Spirulina supplementation significantly improved immunity of Nile tilapia against Pseudomonas fluorescence than 2% Spirulina supplementation.

Hypolipidemic effect and activation of Lecithin Cholesterol Acyl Transferase (LCAT) by aqueous extract of Spirulina platensis during toxicological investigation

BACKGROUND

Spirulina platensis produced in Nomayos (Cameroon) is used as a dietary supplement. S. platensis is known as a neutraceutical with many beneficial effects on humans like lipid-lowering action. This study aims to investigate the mechanism of hypolipidemic action of aqueous extract of Spirulina platensis (S. platensis) through the toxicological studies.

METHODS

In this study, we included two month old Wistar rats, weighing between 180 and 200 g. Aqueous S. platensis was extracted and prepared using standard methods. The rats received a supplementation of S. platensis at 5000 mg/Kg of body weight as single dose in acute toxicity whereas different doses (250, 500, 1000 mg / kg body weight) were administered in subacute toxicity compared to control. Acute and subacute toxicities were determined according to the guidelines 420 (14 days) and 407 (28 days) of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) respectively. Biochemical parameters such as urea, creatinine, total and direct bilirubin, lipid profile and transaminases; and histopathological analysis of the liver and kidneys were used to evaluate the toxicity of S. platensis on these Wistar rats. Plasmatic hydroxymethyl glutaryl coenzyme A reductase (HMG CoA reductase) and lecithine cholesterol acyl transferase (LCAT) were performed to explain the lipid-lowering action of S. platensis. Histopathological analysis of the liver and kidneys was performed.

RESULTS

Our results show a decrease in total cholesterol for male rats (from 84 to 74 mg/dl) when the dose of S. platensis increased; this reduction of the total cholesterol level in male rats was significant at 500 mg/kg. There was also a significant inhibition of HMG CoA reductase in a dose dependent manner between 25 and 84.5 fold compared to the control in both male and female groups. At the dose of 250 mg/kg bw, the level of LCAT was higher compared with other groups and control, but the difference was not statistically significant. A slight inflammation in the liver and the mesangial hyperplasia of the renal glomeruli was revealed by the histopathological investigation in subacute toxicity.

CONCLUSION

Spirulina platensis from Cameroon appears to have little toxic effects and may demonstrate hypolipidemic activity through the activation of LCAT.

Protective Effects of Degraded Soybean Polysaccharides on Renal Epithelial Cells Exposed to Oxidative Damage

This study aimed to investigate the protective effects of degraded soybean polysaccharides (DSP) on oxidatively damaged African green monkey kidney epithelial (Vero) cells. Low DSP concentration (10 μg/mL) elicited an evident protective effect on H₂O₂-induced cell injury (0.3 mmol/L). The cell viabilities of the H₂O₂-treated group and the DSP-protected group were 57.3 and 93.1%, respectively. The cell viability decreased to 88.3% when the dosage was increased to 100 μg/mL. DSP protected Vero cells from H₂O₂-mediated oxidative damage by enhancing cellular superoxide dismutase activity and total antioxidant capacity and by decreasing malonaldehyde content and lactate dehydrogenase release. The H₂O₂-treated cells stimulated the aggregation of calcium oxalate monohydrate crystals. DSP could also reduce the crystal size, decrease the attached crystal content, and prevent the cell aggregation by alleviating oxidative injury and lipid peroxidation, enhancing antioxidant capacity, and decreasing hyaluronan expression on cellular surfaces. The internalization ability of the injured cells was improved after these cells were exposed to DSP solution. The regulation ability of DSP-repaired cells on calcium oxalate dihydrate formation, crystal attachment, aggregation, and internalization was lower than that of normal cells but was higher than that of the injured cells. DSP may be a potential green drug to prevent calcium oxalate (CaOx) stone formation because DSP could protect cells from oxidative damage and inhibit CaOx crystal formation.

Rottlerin, a polyphenolic compound from the fruits of Mallotus phillipensis (Lam.) Müll.Arg., impedes oxalate/calcium oxalate induced pathways of oxidative stress in male wistar rats

BACKGROUND

Oxalate and/or calcium oxalate, is known to induce free radical production, subsequently leading to renal epithelial injury. Oxidative stress and mitochondrial dysfunction have emerged as new targets for managing oxalate induced renal injury.

HYPOTHESIS

Plant products and antioxidants have gained tremendous attention in the prevention of lithiatic disease. Rottlerin, a polyphenolic compound from the fruits of Mallotus phillipensis (Lam.) Müll.Arg., has shown free radical scavenging, antioxidant activity and has been reported to interfere in signaling pathways leading to inflammation and apoptosis. In this study, the potential role of rottlerin, in rats exposed to hyperoxaluric environment was explored.

METHODS

Hyperoxaluria was induced by administering 0.4% ethylene glycol and 1% ammonium chloride in drinking water to male wistar rats for 9 days. Rottlerin was administered intraperitoneally at 1mg/kg/day along with the hyperoxaluric agent. Prophylactic efficacy of rottlerin to diminish hyperoxaluria induced renal dysfunctionality and crystal load was examined along with its effect on free radicals generating pathways in hyperoxaluric rats.

RESULTS

0.4% ethylene glycol and 1% ammonium chloride led to induction of hyperoxaluria, oxiadtive stress and mitochondrial damage in rats. Rottlerin treatment reduced NADPH oxidase activity, prevented mitochondrial dysfunction and maintained antioxidant environment. It also refurbished renal functioning, tissue integrity and diminished urinary crystal load in hyperoxaluric rats treated with rottlerin.

CONCLUSIONS

Thus, the present investigation suggests that rottlerin evidently reduced hyperoxaluric consequences and the probable mechanism of action of this drug could be attributed to its ability to quench free radicals by itself and interrupting signaling pathways involved in pathogenesis of stone formation.

The Remedial Efficacy of Spirulina platensis versus Chromium-Induced Nephrotoxicity in Male Sprague-Dawley Rats

This study was conducted to investigate the possible protective effect of Spirulina platensis against chromium-induced nephrotoxicity. A total of 36 adult male Sprague-Dawley rats were divided into 4 equal groups (Gps). Gp1 served as control, rats of Gps 2, 3, and 4 were exposed to Spirulina platensis (300 mg/kg b.wt per os) and sodium dichromate dihydrate (SDD) via drinking water at concentration of 520 mg /l respectively. Chromium administration caused alterations in the renal function markers as evidenced by significant increase of blood urea and creatinine levels accompanied with significant increase in kidney’s chromium residues and MDA level as well as decreased catalase activity and glutathion content in kidney tissue. Histologically, Cr provoked deleterious changes including: vascular congestion, wide spread tubular epithelium necrobiotic changes, atrophy of glomerular tuft and proliferative hyperplasia. The latter was accompanied with positive PCNA expression in kidney tissues as well as DNA ploidy interpretation of major cellular population of degenerated cells, appearance of tetraploid cells, high proliferation index and high DNA index. Morphometrical measurements revealed marked glomerular and tubular lumen alterations. On contrary, spirulina co-treatment with Cr significantly restored the histopathological changes, antioxidants and renal function markers and all the previously mentioned changes as well.

The most potent antilithiatic agent ameliorating renal dysfunction and oxidative stress from Bergenia ligulata rhizome

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

The rhizome of Bergenia ligulata is referred by the Ayurvedic system for the treatment of kidney stone since decades and a few, in vitro and in vivo studies also support it. To identify the main phytochemical constituent(s) responsible for antilithiatic activity of its rhizome.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

In order to identify the most potent antilithiatic metabolite, the crude extract of rhizome was fractionated using in vitro Calcium oxalate (CaOx) crystal growth inhibitory activity guided fractionation followed by its characterization via LC-MS, FTIR and NMR. Further, the antioxidant potential of purified molecule was assessed using in vitro assays (FRAP and H2O2 scavenging). In vivo activity of the metabolite was evaluated in hyperoxaluric rats given 0.4% ethylene glycol (EG) and 1.0% ammonium chloride (NH4Cl) for 9 days.

RESULTS

Activity guided fractionation led to the isolation of most potent antilithiatic metabolite from the rhizome of Bergenia ligulata and spectroscopic analysis revealed it as bergenin. Bergenin showed reducing ability and H2O2 scavenging activity comparable with commercially available anitioxidant, α-tocopherol. At a dose of 10mg/kg body weight of the treated rat, it protected against deleterious effects of lithogenic treatment including weight loss, impaired renal function and oxidative stress, manifested as increased malondialdehyde, reduced redox ratio and decreased antioxidant enzyme activities in the kidneys of hyperoxaluric rats. The creatinine clearance and kidney damage were more improved by bergenin as compared to crude extract of rhizome.

CONCLUSIONS

Since, bergenin maintained oxidant/antioxidant balance in hyperoxaluric rats, thus mechanistic insight of its antilithiatic activity was attributed to the antioxidant capability of bergenin. The results of the present study provide significant evidence that bergenin is an active component present in the rhizome of Bergenia ligulata for managing CaOx calculi.

C-phycocyanin confers protection against oxalate-mediated oxidative stress and mitochondrial dysfunctions in MDCK cells

Oxalate toxicity is mediated through generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) via a process that is partly dependent on mitochondrial dysfunction. Here, we investigated whether C-phycocyanin (CP) could protect against oxidative stress-mediated intracellular damage triggered by oxalate in MDCK cells. DCFDA, a fluorescence-based probe and hexanoyl-lysine adduct (HEL), an oxidative stress marker were used to investigate the effect of CP on oxalate-induced ROS production and membrane lipid peroxidation (LPO). The role of CP against oxalate-induced oxidative stress was studied by the evaluation of mitochondrial membrane potential by JC1 fluorescein staining, quantification of ATP synthesis and stress-induced MAP kinases (JNK/SAPK and ERK1/2). Our results revealed that oxalate-induced cells show markedly increased ROS levels and HEL protein expression that were significantly decreased following pre-treatment with CP. Further, JC1 staining showed that CP pre-treatment conferred significant protection from mitochondrial membrane permeability and increased ATP production in CP-treated cells than oxalate-alone-treated cells. In addition, CP treated cells significantly decreased the expression of phosphorylated JNK/SAPK and ERK1/2 as compared to oxalate-alone-treated cells. We concluded that CP could be used as a potential free radical-scavenging therapeutic strategy against oxidative stress-associated diseases including urolithiasis.

Protective role of Spirulina platensis against acute deltamethrin-induced toxicity in rats

Deltamethrin is a broad-spectrum synthetic pyrethroid insecticide and acaricide widely used for agricultural and veterinary purposes. However, its human and animal exposure leads to hepatonephrotoxicity. Therefore, the present study was undertaken to examine the hepatonephroprotective and antioxidant potential of Spirulina platensis against deltamethrin toxicity in male Wistar albino rats. Deltamethrin treated animals revealed a significant increase in serum biochemical parameters as well as hepatic and renal lipid peroxidation but caused an inhibition in antioxidant biomarkers. Spirulina normalized the elevated serum levels of AST, ALT, APL, uric acid, urea and creatinine. Furthermore, it reduced deltamethrin-induced lipid peroxidation and oxidative stress in a dose dependent manner. Therefore, it could be concluded that spirulina administration able to minimize the toxic effects of deltamethrin by its free radical-scavenging and potent antioxidant activity.

Purification of the photosynthetic pigment C-phycocyanin from heterotrophic Galdieria sulphuraria

BACKGROUND

The phycobiliprotein C-phycocyanin (C-PC) is used in cosmetics, diagnostics and foods and also as a nutraceutical or biopharmaceutical. It is produced in the cyanobacterium Arthrospira platensis grown phototrophically in open cultures. C-PC may alternatively be produced heterotrophically in the unicellular rhodophyte Galdieria sulphuraria at higher productivities and under improved hygienic standards if it can be purified as efficiently as C-PC from A. platensis.

RESULTS

Ammonium sulfate fractionation, aqueous two-phase extraction, tangential flow ultrafiltration and anion exchange chromatography were evaluated with respect to the purification of C-PC from G. sulphuraria extracts. Galdieria sulphuraria C-PC showed similar properties to those described for cyanobacterial C-PC with respect to separation by all methodologies. The presence of micelles in G. sulphuraria extracts influenced the different procedures. Only chromatography was able to separate C-PC from a second phycobiliprotein, allophycocyanin.

CONCLUSION

C-PC from heterotrophic G. sulphuraria shows similar properties to cyanobacterial C-PC and can be purified to the same standards, despite initial C-PC concentrations being low and impurity concentrations high in G. sulphuraria extracts.

Purification and characterization of selenium-containing phycocyanin from selenium-enriched Spirulina platensis

A fast protein liquid chromatographic method for purification of selenium-containing phycocyanin (Se-PC) from selenium-enriched Spirulina platensis was described in this study. The purification procedures involved fractionation by ammonium sulfate precipitation, DEAE-Sepharose ion-exchange chromatography and Sephacry S-300 size exclusion chromatography. The purity ratio (A620/A280) and the separation factor (A620/A655) of the purified Se-PC were 5.12 and 7.92, respectively. The Se concentration of purified Se-PC was 496.5 microg g(-1) protein, as determined by ICP-AES analysis. The purity of the Se-PC was further characterized by UV-VIS and fluorescence spectrometry, SDS-PAGE, RP-HPLC and gel filtration HPLC. The apparent molecular mass of the native Se-PC determined by gel filtration HPLC was 109 kDa, indicating that the protein existed as a trimer. SDS-PAGE of the purified Se-PC yielded two major bands corresponding to the alpha and beta subunits. A better separation of these two subunits was obtained by RP-HPLC. Identification of the alpha and beta subunits separated by SDS-PAGE and RP-HPLC was achieved by peptide mass fingerprinting (PMF) using MALDI-TOF-TOF mass spectrometry.

Protective effect ofSpirulina against doxorubicin-induced cardiotoxicity

The generation of reactive oxygen species and mitochondrial dysfunction has been implicated in doxorubicin (DOX)-induced cardiotoxicity. The aim of the present study was to determine whether Spirulina, a blue-green algae, could serve as a cardioprotective agent during DOX treatment in a mouse model. Mice were treated with DOX (4 mg/kg bw, intraperitoneally), weekly, for 4 weeks. Spirulina was administered orally for 3 days twice daily, then for 7 weeks along with the four equal injections of DOX. Cardiotoxicity was assessed, at 3 weeks after the end of the DOX-treatment period, by mortality, volume of ascites, liver congestion, oxidative stress and ultrastructural changes of heart tissue. The DOX-treated animals showed higher mortality (53%) and more ascites. Myocardial damage, as assessed by ultrastructural changes, showed loss of myofibrils, cytoplasmic vacuolization and mitochondrial swelling. Myocardial superoxide dismutase and glutathione peroxidase activities were decreased and lipid peroxidation was increased. Pretreatment with Spirulina significantly protected the mice from DOX-induced cardiotoxic effects as evidenced from lower mortality (26%), less ascites, lower levels of lipid peroxidation, normalization of antioxidant enzymes and ultrastructural studies showing minimal damage to the heart. In vitro cytotoxic studies using ovarian cancer cells demonstrated that Spirulina did not compromise the anti-tumor activity of doxorubicin. These results suggest that Spirulina has a protective effect against cardiotoxicity induced by DOX and it may, therefore, improve the therapeutic index of DOX.