Placental transfer of and infantile exposure to perchlorate

Chlorate and perchlorate in tea leaves from major producing regions in China and related human exposure risk

Chlorate and perchlorate are emerging pollutants that may interfere with thyroid function. Since they are highly water soluble, chlorate and perchlorate in tea leaves cause health concerns but have scarcely been studied. In this study, chlorate and perchlorate concentrations in 216 tea samples from different regions of China were determined. Perchlorate was detected in all the samples with a median concentration of 44.1 μg kg-1, while the chlorate detection frequency was 15.7%. We observed regional differences in perchlorate contents in tea leaves, with the highest quantity found in the central region of China. Except for dark tea, the concentration of perchlorate in tea infusions decreased with the increased number of times the tea leaves were brewed. The hazard quotients (HQs) of chlorate and perchlorate in all the samples were less than 1, suggesting negligible health risks caused by these pollutants from tea consumption. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study to investigate chlorate and perchlorate contamination in tea infusions by simulating brewing behavior.

Urinary perchlorate, thiocyanate, and nitrate and their associated risk factors among Chinese pregnant women

Perchlorate, nitrate, and thiocyanate are well-known inhibitors of iodide uptake and thyroid-disrupting chemicals. Widespread human exposure to them has been identified, whereas studies on their internal exposure levels among Chinese pregnant women are scarce and factors associated with them are not well recognized. The objective of this study is to determine their levels and identify the associated factors among pregnant women (n = 1120), based on a prospective birth cohort in Wuhan, central China, using repeated urine samples of three trimesters. Urinary perchlorate, thiocyanate, and nitrate were 100% detected in the samples, and specific gravity-adjusted median concentrations of them in all the samples were 12.6 ng/mL, 367 ng/mL, and 63.7 μg/mL, respectively. Their concentrations were weakly-to-moderately correlated with each other, with Spearman correlation coefficients ranging from 0.27 to 0.54. Poor reproducibility were observed for the three analytes over the three trimesters, with intraclass correlation coefficient of 0.07, 0.19, 0.04 for perchlorate, thiocyanate, and nitrate, respectively. The women who were overweight or used tap water as drinking water had significantly higher perchlorate concentrations, while those with excessive gestational weight gain had significantly higher thiocyanate concentrations (p < 0.05). The women with a college degree or above had lower nitrate concentrations (p < 0.05). Meanwhile, the median concentration of perchlorate in urine samples collected in spring, thiocyanate in those collected in winter, and nitrate in those collected in autumn, was significantly higher compared to their median concentrations in the samples collected in other three seasons (p < 0.05), respectively. Urinary perchlorate and nitrate concentrations of pregnant women in this study were higher than the concentrations of pregnant women in other countries, while thiocyanate concentrations were lower than that of most other countries. This study suggested potential covariates for future epidemiological analyses.

Infantile Internal and External Exposure to Neonicotinoid Insecticides: A Comparison of Levels across Various Sources

Little is known about exposure of infants to neonicotinoid insecticides (NEOs). In this study, concentrations of six parent NEOs (p-NEOs) and N-desmethyl-acetamiprid (N-dm-ACE) were measured in urine and whole blood samples from infants, in addition to breast milk, infant formula, and tap water collected in South China. The p-NEO with the highest median concentration in urine (0.25 ng/mL) and blood (1.30) samples was dinotefuran (DIN), while imidacloprid (IMI) was abundant in breast milk (median: 0.27 ng/mL), infant formula (0.22), and tap water (0.028). The older infants (181-360 days) might face higher NEO and N-dm-ACE exposure than younger infants (0-180 days). Blood samples contained a significantly (p < 0.01) higher median concentration of ∑₆p-NEOs (2.03 ng/mL) than that of urine samples (0.41), similar to acetamiprid (ACE), IMI, thiacloprid (THD), DIN, and N-dm-ACE, suggesting that NEOs readily partition into blood. Furthermore, breast-fed infants tend to have higher exposure levels than formula-fed infants. Infant formula prepared with tap water augmented the daily intake of ∑NEOs. The external sources contributed 80% of the total dose to IMI and clothianidin (CLO) exposure, while other unknown sources contributed to ACE, THD, and DIN exposure in infants. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study to assess levels and sources of infantile exposure to NEOs through internal and external exposure assessment.

Perchlorate removal by a combined heterotrophic and bio-electrochemical hydrogen autotrophic system

Here, a novel combined heterotrophic and bio-electrochemical hydrogen autotrophic (CHBHA) system was developed to remove perchlorate under low chemical dosages and energy consumption. The perchlorate removal performance at various hydraulic retention times (HRTs) and acetate dosages was investigated. For influent containing 10 ± 0.10 mg/L perchlorate, the optimal removal efficiency by the CHBHA system was 98.96 ± 1.62 %, 92.99 ± 2.99 %, 97.85 ± 0.41 %, and 98.24 ± 1.56 % at different operating stages. Perchlorate was mainly removed in the heterotrophic part (H-part) at a sufficient HRT (6 h) and acetate dosage (14.75 mg/L). At other stages, perchlorate was synergistically removed by the H-part and electrochemical hydrogen autotrophic part (E-part). Since the H-part removed some perchlorate, the E-part's applied current decreased, thus reducing energy costs. The maximum current efficiency of CHBHA system was 22.09 %. Compared with the single E-part system, the combined system used 65 % less energy. Perchlorate was converted into active chlorine in the E-part, which improved the effluent quality. The bacterial community structures of the two parts were significantly different. Comamonas, Dechloromonas, Acinetobacter, and Chryseobacterium were enriched in the H-part, and the dominant genera in the E-part were Thauera, Azonexus, Hydrogenophaga, and Tissierella.

Integration of probabilistic exposure assessment and risk characterization for perchlorate in infant formula and supplementary food

Infants are the primary susceptible population to perchlorate exposure-related adverse health effects, while information on their dietary intake of perchlorate via infant food remains limited. This study determined perchlorate in six categories of baby food commodities commonly consumed by 0-36 months infants. A probabilistic approach with Monte Carlo simulation was used to estimate perchlorate's daily intake (EDI) considering uncertainty and variability. Results showed that the average perchlorate concentration in infant food ranged from 3.42 to 22.26 μg/kg. The mean (SD) EDIs of perchlorate were 0.42(0.20), 0.62(0.20), and 0.46(0.14) μg/kg-bw/day for 0-6, 7-12, and 13-36-months infants, respectively. Infant formula was the major contributor (34%-74%) to EDIs of perchlorate in all age groups. Probabilistic risk characterization showed the cumulative probability of EDIs exceeding the RfD (0.70 μg/kg-bw/day) were 6.5%, 37.9%, and 4.5% for 0-6, 7-12, and 13-36-months infants, respectively. The cumulative risk of perchlorate exposure from different infant food intake should be noted.

Gestational Exposure to Perchlorate in the Rat: Thyroid Hormones in Fetal Thyroid Gland, Serum, and Brain

Iodine is essential for the production of thyroid hormones. Perchlorate is an environmental contaminant that interferes with iodine uptake into the thyroid gland to reduce thyroid hormone synthesis. As thyroid hormones are critical for brain development, exposure to perchlorate during pregnancy is of concern for the developing fetal brain. In this study, we (1) define profiles of thyroid hormone in the maternal and fetal compartments of pregnant rats in response to inhibition of the sodium-iodide symporter (NIS) by perchlorate and (2) expand inquiry previously limited to serum to include fetal thyroid gland and brain. Perchlorate was added to the drinking water (0, 1, 30, 300, and 1000 ppm) of pregnant rat dams from gestational days (GD) 6-20. On GD20, blood, thyroid gland, and brain were collected from the fetus and dam for thyroid hormone and molecular analyses. Thyroid gland and serum thyroid hormones were dose-dependently reduced, with steeper declines evident in the fetus than in the dam. The thyroid gland revealed perturbations of thyroid hormone-action with greater sensitivity in the fetus than the dam. Thyroid hormones and thyroid hormone-responsive gene expression were reduced in the fetal cortex portending effects on brain development. These findings are the first quantitative assessments of perchlorate-induced deficits in the fetal thyroid gland and fetal brain. We provide a conceptual framework to develop a quantitative NIS adverse outcome pathway for serum thyroid hormone deficits and the potential to impact the fetal brain. Such a framework may also serve to facilitate the translation of in vitro bioactivity to the downstream in vivo consequences of NIS inhibition in the developing fetus.

Perchlorate and chlorate in breast milk, infant formulas, baby supplementary food and the implications for infant exposure

Perchlorate and chlorate are ubiquitous pollutants in various types of foodstuffs, drinking water and environmental compartments. They have raised great concerns due to potential adverse effects on human thyroid functions. Dietary intake is considered as the predominant pathway for human exposure to perchlorate and chlorate. Nevertheless, data on human exposure to the chemicals above remain limited, particularly for the most vulnerable populations such as infants. In the present study, 62 breast milks, 53 infant formulas, 88 baby supplementary food and 50 tap water samples were collected in South China and the levels of perchlorate and chlorate were measured in these samples. Perchlorate and chlorate were frequently detected in more than 90% of measured samples. In these different types of samples, the median concentrations of perchlorate were 0.65 μg/L, 0.61 μg/kg, 0.56 μg/kg and 1.18 μg/L, respectively, while the median concentrations of chlorate were 1.73 μg/L, 2.48 μg/kg, 2.67 μg/kg and non-detected, respectively. Health risk assessment using hazard quotient suggested that perchlorate and chlorate exposure in the sampled baby food are not expected to increase the risk of an adverse health effect. To our knowledge, this is the first study simultaneously investigating perchlorate and chlorate exposure in Chinese infants via food intake.

The contamination and estimation of dietary intake for perchlorate and chlorate in infant formulas in China

The contents of perchlorate and chlorate were determined in a total of 278 samples of infant formulas marketed in China. The associated health risk via infant and young child formulas consumption for 0-36 month old children in China was also assessed. The contents of perchlorate and chlorate were measured by a validated method with LC-MS and the limit of detection (LOD) was 1.5 μg kg^-1 and 3.0 μg kg^-1 for perchlorate and chlorate, respectively. Perchlorate and chlorate were detected in about 85.8% (median 6.92 μg kg^-1, maximum 74.20 μg kg^-1) and 99.3% (median 52.80 μg kg^-1, maximum 2780 μg/kg) of the samples. The exposures of infant and young children to perchlorate from formulas were lower than the provisional maximum tolerable daily intake (PMTDI, 0.7 μg/kg bw/day), which was established by U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) in 2015 also proposed a tolerable daily intake (TDI) of 3 μg/kg bw/day for chlorate based on the mean and average concentrations. Only for infants 0-6 month at the 95th percentile did exposures exceed the TDI of 3 μg/day for chlorate. Therefore, the safety of infant and young child formulas is excellent. To our knowledge, this is the first report to assess the exposure of infant and young child formulas in China to perchlorate and chlorate.

Dietary exposure and risk assessment of perchlorate in diverse food from Wuhan, China

The perchlorate levels in 330 foods belonging to 5 varieties obtained from Wuhan were monitored. An ultra-high performance liquid chromatography coupled with triple quadrupoles mass spectrometry in combination with Cl¹⁸O₄^- internal standard method was performed to determine the level of perchlorate in various foods. Hereafter, dietary exposure and risk assessment of perchlorate was evaluated. The results revealed that the average level of perchlorate was 15.04 µg/kg with a detection of 95% among the whole food groups. The level of perchlorate in vegetables was the highest among the 5 varieties of food with an average content of 27.39 µg/kg, which in meat was the lowest with an average of 3.65 µg/kg. Estimated dietary intake results illustrated that males showed exposure in the range 0.004-0.18 µg/kg bw/day, which for females was 0.01-0.21 µg/kg bw/day. The results indicated that exposure to perchlorate via the food consumption for Wuhan people was evaluated as safe.

Apoptotic endocrinal toxic effects of perchlorate in human placental cells

BACKGROUND

Perchlorate is a strong oxidizing agent and has many adverse health effects. This study investigated the potential oxidative, apoptotic, and endocrinal toxic effects of perchlorate in human placenta-derived mesenchymal stem cells (HP-MSCs).

METHODS

HP-MSCs were treated with two doses of perchlorate (5 and 15 μg/L) for three days. The perchlorate's effects were detected by histopathological examination, aromatase/CYP19 A1 activity, reactive oxygen species production (ROS), and Caspase-3 expression.

RESULTS

The highest perchlorate concentration (15 μg/L) caused significant placental histopathological changes. The placental cell viability was significantly affected by a significant increase in ROS generation; caspase-3 expression, and a significant reduction of CYP 19 activity. Despite the slight induction effect of the lowest perchlorate concentration (5 μg/L) on caspase 3 expression, CYP 19 activity, and ROS generation, it did not affect placental cellular viability.

CONCLUSION

This study suggested that perchlorate could modulate aromatase activity and placental cytotoxicity. The continuous monitoring of the actual perchlorate exposure is needed and could be cost-effective.

Perchlorate Contamination: Sources, Effects, and Technologies for Remediation

Perchlorate is a persistent pollutant, generated via natural and anthropogenic processes, that possesses a high potential for endocrine disruption in humans and biota. It inhibits iodine fixation, a major reason for eliminating this pollutant from ecosystems. Remediation of perchlorate can be achieved with various physicochemical treatments, especially at low concentrations. However, microbiological approaches using microorganisms, such as those from the genera Dechloromonas, Serratia, Propionivibrio, Wolinella, and Azospirillum, are promising when perchlorate pollution is extensive. Perchlorate-reducing bacteria, isolated from harsh environments, for example saline soils, mine sediments, thermal waters, wastewater treatment plants, underground gas storage facilities, and remote areas, including the Antarctica, can provide removal yields from 20 to 100%. Perchlorate reduction, carried out by a series of enzymes, such as perchlorate reductase and superoxide chlorite, depends on pH, temperature, salt concentration, metabolic inhibitors, nutritional conditions, time of contact, and cellular concentration. Microbial degradation is cost-effective, simple to implement, and environmentally friendly, rendering it a viable method for alleviating perchlorate pollution in the environment.

Study on the bioaccessibility and bioavailability of perchlorate in different food matrices in vitro

Perchlorate, a persistent pollutant, interferes with iodine uptake by the thyroid. Perchlorate exposure mainly occurs through ingested food; understanding the bioaccessibility and bioavailability of perchlorate in foods facilitate more accurate human health risk assessments. An in vitro digestion/Caco-2 cell model was used for this research. The bioaccessibility of perchlorate in the control group, lettuce, rice and formula was 93.45%, 70.14%, 70.25%, and 63.68%, respectively. The bioavailability of perchlorate was as follows: control group, 43.45%; rice, 37.17%; lettuce, 35.13%; and formula, 30.72%. The absorptive apparent permeability coefficient (Papp) of the control, lettuce, rice, and formula was 30-101 nm/s, 32-65 nm/s, 54-161 nm/s, and 41-88 nm/s, respectively. The results suggested that the risk from perchlorate was overestimated only when considering the content of perchlorate in foods and that the presence of food matrices reduced perchlorate bioavailability by differing degrees.

Interference on Iodine Uptake and Human Thyroid Function by Perchlorate-Contaminated Water and Food

BACKGROUND

Perchlorate-induced natrium-iodide symporter (NIS) interference is a well-recognized thyroid disrupting mechanism. It is unclear, however, whether a chronic low-dose exposure to perchlorate delivered by food and drinks may cause thyroid dysfunction in the long term. Thus, the aim of this review was to overview and summarize literature results in order to clarify this issue.

METHODS

Authors searched PubMed/MEDLINE, Scopus, Web of Science, institutional websites and Google until April 2020 for relevant information about the fundamental mechanism of the thyroid NIS interference induced by orally consumed perchlorate compounds and its clinical consequences.

RESULTS

Food and drinking water should be considered relevant sources of perchlorate. Despite some controversies, cross-sectional studies demonstrated that perchlorate exposure affects thyroid hormone synthesis in infants, adolescents and adults, particularly in the case of underlying thyroid diseases and iodine insufficiency. An exaggerated exposure to perchlorate during pregnancy leads to a worse neurocognitive and behavioral development outcome in infants, regardless of maternal thyroid hormone levels.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

The effects of a chronic low-dose perchlorate exposure on thyroid homeostasis remain still unclear, leading to concerns especially for highly sensitive patients. Specific studies are needed to clarify this issue, aiming to better define strategies of detection and prevention.

Simultaneous bio-electrochemical reduction of perchlorate and electro-disinfection in a novel Moving-Bed Biofilm Reactor (MBBR) based on proton-exchange membrane electrolysis

A novel Moving-Bed Biofilm Reactor (MBBR), based on proton-exchange membrane electrolysis, was developed and tested for perchlorate transformation. The bacteria growing on the carrier in the cathode chamber could use in situ-generated hydrogen to reduce perchlorate to chloride via electrolysis; the resulting chloride ions and chloride ions in raw water were then oxidized into chlorine by anode reaction to disinfect the final effluent and improve water quality. For a ClO₄^- concentration of 10.00 ± 0.08 mg/L in the influent, at hydraulic retention times (HRTs) of 4.0, 2.0, and 1.5 h, the optimal applied currents (OACs) were 130, 240, and 270 mA, with a corresponding removal efficiencies of 99.90 ± 0.21, 96.70 ± 0.36, and 78.50 ± 0.24%, respectively. Active chlorine concentration was in the range of 0.063-0.096 mg/L, contributing to simultaneous electro-disinfection. Along the water flow direction, OH^- generated by the cathode could be neutralized in the anode chamber; thus, the final effluent pH was kept a balance with the influent pH. Proteobacteria, Bacteroidetes, and Firmicutes were the dominant bacteria in the MBBR. The maximum value of current efficiency (13.32 ± 0.69%) was obtained at 100 mA and an HRT of 4.0 h, which was in accordance with the abundance of Thauera.

Contamination of water resources of a small island state by fireworks-derived perchlorate: A case study from Malta

We have previously reported on the ubiquitous presence of perchlorate in the deposited and airborne fine dusts of Malta and shown that the source of the chemical in the dusts of this small central Mediterranean island is fireworks. There are no local geologic or anthropogenic sources of perchlorate other than firework manufacture and display. The hypothesis was tested that ground-deposited perchlorate will be mobilized in runoff and would partly migrate to the water table and eventually also affect tap water, one third of which being derived from groundwater. Forty four percent of 36 groundwater samples contained perchlorate above detection limit with mean and median values of 1.09 and 1.1 μg L^-1. Sixty-two percent of 16 runoff samples collected during storms contained perchlorate above detection limit with mean and maximum concentrations, respectively, of 50.8 and 129 μg L^-1, values which are far too high to be explained by atmospheric inputs given that rainwater perchlorate levels are typically <3 μg L^-1. Between 42 and 89% of the tap waters analyzed in three sampling campaigns contained perchlorate above detection limit and had mean concentrations ranging from 0.4 to 1.6 μg L^-1 suggesting contamination levels similar to those reported from China but lower than levels reported from the USA. The phenomenon of contamination of the water resources of Malta by perchlorate is probably unique in that it results not from geologic or industrial inputs but from an intense and prolonged pyrotechnic activity that is deeply rooted in the popular culture of the islanders.

One-step sample processing method for the determination of perchlorate in human urine, whole blood and breast milk using liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry

A one-step sample processing was developed to determine the levels of perchlorate in human urine, whole blood and breast milk by using liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). Athena C18-WP column was used to separate and analyze perchlorate. Perchlorate and isotope-labeled perchlorate (Cl¹⁸O₄^-) internal standards were spiked in the sample matrix through vortex mixing, centrifugation, and filtration. The filtrate was collected and subjected to LC analysis. The developed method was validated for its reproducibility, linearity, trueness, and recovery. Satisfactory recovery of perchlorate ranged from 81% to 117% with intraday relative standard deviations (RSDs) (n = 3) and inter-day RSDs (n = 9) of 5-18% and of 5-16%, respectively. Good linearity (R² ≥ 0.99) was observed. Limits of detection and quantification for perchlorate ranged from 0.06 µg/L to 0.3 µg/L and from 0.2 µg/L to 1 µg/L, respectively. Perchlorate concentrations were found in human urine (n = 38) and whole blood (n = 8) samples with the range of 6.5-288.6 µg/L and 0.3-2.8 µg/L, respectively. These results indicate the applicability of our developed method in determining perchlorate level in real samples. Moreover, this method is also highly reliable, sensitive and selective in detecting perchlorate in human urine, whole blood and breast milk samples and may be applicable to other matrixes i.e. saliva, serum, plasma, milk powder and dairy milk.

An advanced human in vitro co-culture model for translocation studies across the placental barrier

Although various drugs, environmental pollutants and nanoparticles (NP) can cross the human placental barrier and may harm the developing fetus, knowledge on predictive placental transfer rates and the underlying transport pathways is mostly lacking. Current available in vitro placental transfer models are often inappropriate for translocation studies of macromolecules or NPs and do not consider barrier function of placental endothelial cells (EC). Therefore, we developed a human placental in vitro co-culture transfer model with tight layers of trophoblasts (BeWo b30) and placental microvascular ECs (HPEC-A2) on a low-absorbing, 3 µm porous membrane. Translocation studies with four model substances and two polystyrene (PS) NPs across the individual and co-culture layers revealed that for most of these compounds, the trophoblast and the EC layer both demonstrate similar, but not additive, retention capacity. Only the paracellular marker Na-F was substantially more retained by the BeWo layer. Furthermore, simple shaking, which is often applied to mimic placental perfusion, did not alter translocation kinetics compared to static exposure. In conclusion, we developed a novel placental co-culture model, which provides predictive values for translocation of a broad variety of molecules and NPs and enables valuable mechanistic investigations on cell type-specific placental barrier function.

Effect of thiosulfate on rapid start-up of sulfur-based reduction of high concentrated perchlorate: A study of kinetics, extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) and bacterial community structure

Perchlorate (ClO₄^-) contamination is more and more concerned due to the hazards to humans. Based on the common primary bacterium (Helicobacteraceae) of both thiosulfate-acclimated sludge (T-Acc) and sulfur-acclimated sludge (S-Acc) for perchlorate reduction, the rapid start-up of sulfur-based perchlorate reduction reactor (SBPRR) was hypothesized by inoculating T-Acc. Furthermore, the performance of SBPRR, the SO₄^2- yield, kinetics of ClO₄^- reduction and the extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) of biofilm confirmed the hypothesis. The start-up time of R3 (reactor inoculating T-Acc) was 0.18 and 0.21 times that of R1 (control) and R2 (reactor with the influent containing thiosulfate), respectively. The SO₄^2- yield of R3 was lower than that of R2 and R1 with perchlorate removal rate 166.7mg/(Lh). The kinetic study and EPS demonstrated that inoculating T-Acc was beneficial for the development of biofilm. Consequently, the present study indicated that SBPRR can be rapidly and successfully started-up via inoculation of T-Acc.

A review of perchlorate (ClO4-) occurrence in fruits and vegetables

Since the 1990s, a large number of studies around the world have reported the presence of perchlorate in different types of environmental matrices. In view of their inherent characteristics, such as high solubility, mobility, persistence, and low affinity for the surface of soil, perchlorates are mobilized through the water-soil system and accumulate in edible plant species of high human consumption. However, the ingestion of food products containing perchlorate represents a potential health risk to people due to their adverse effects on thyroid, hormone, and neuronal development, mainly in infants and fetuses. At present, research has been centered on determining sources, fates, and remediation methods and not on its real extension in vegetables under farming conditions. This review presents a comprehensive overview and update of the frequent detection of perchlorate in fruits and vegetables produced and marketed around the world. Additionally, the impact of fertilizer on the potential addition of perchlorate to soil and its mobility in the water-soil-plant system is discussed. This review is organized into the following sections: sources of perchlorate, mobility in the water-soil system, presence in fruits and vegetables in different countries, international regulations, and toxicological studies. Finally, recommendations for future studies concerning perchlorate in fruits and vegetables are presented.

Perchlorate and Diet: Human Exposures, Risks, and Mitigation Strategies

Perchlorate is an endocrine-disrupting chemical that interferes with the normal functioning of the thyroid gland. Maternal thyroid dysfunction during gestation may alter fetal brain development. Perchlorate contamination is widespread: it is present in the body of all Americans tested and the majority of foods tested. The main sources of food contamination appear to be hypochlorite bleach, a disinfectant and sanitizer, that when poorly managed quickly degrades to perchlorate and perchlorate-laden plastic food packaging for dry food or localized contamination from manufacturing or processing of the chemical. Eliminating perchlorate from food packaging and improving bleach management, such as reducing concentration and storage time and temperature, would result in reduced perchlorate contamination of food and water.

Food contaminants and programming of type 2 diabetes: recent findings from animal studies

It is now accepted that the way our health evolves with aging is intimately linked to the quality of our early life. The present review highlights the emerging data of Developmental Origins of Health and Disease field on developmental disruption by toxicants and their subsequent effect on type 2 diabetes. We report adverse neonatal effects of several food contaminants during pregnancy and lactation, among them bisphenol A, chlorpyrifos, perfluorinated chemicals on pancreas integrity and functionality in later life. The described alterations, in conjunction with disruption of β cell mass in early life, can lead to dysregulation of glucose metabolism, insulin synthesis, which facilitates the development of insulin resistance and progression of diabetes in the adult. Despite limited and often inconclusive epidemiologic and experimental data, more recent data clearly show that infants appear to be at increased risk of type 2 diabetes in later life. This may be a result of continued exposure to chemical food contaminants during the critical window of pancreas development. In societies already burdened with increased incidence of non-communicable chronic diseases, there is a clear need for information regarding the potential harmful effects of chemical food contaminants on adult health diseases.