Ecological risk estimation of organophosphorus pesticides in riverine ecosystems

Spatiotemporal distribution, ecological risk assessment, and human health implications of currently used pesticide (CUP) residues in the surface water of Feni River, Bangladesh

Spatiotemporal monitoring of pesticide residues in river water is urgently needed due to its negative environmental and human health consequences. The present study is to investigate the occurrence of multiclass pesticide residue in the surface water of the Feni River, Bangladesh, using an optimized salting-out assisted liquid-liquid microextraction (SALLME) coupled with liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). The optimized SALLME method was developed and validated following the SANTE/11312/2021 guidelines. A total of 42 water samples were collected and analyzed to understand the spatiotemporal distribution of azoxystrobin (AZ), buprofezin (BUP), carbofuran (CAR), pymetrozine (PYM), dimethoate (DMT), chlorantraniliprole (CLP), and difenoconazole (DFN). At four spike levels (n = 5) of 20, 40, 200, and 400 μg/L, the recovery percentages were satisfactory, ranging between 71.1 % and 107.0 % (RSD ≤13.8 %). The residues ranged from below the detection level (BDL) to 14.5 μg/L. The most frequently detected pesticide was DMT (100 %), followed by CLP (52.3809-57.1429), CAR (4.7619-14.2867), and PYM (4.7619-9.5238). However, AZ and BUP were below the detection limit in the analyzed samples of both seasons. Most pesticides and the highest concentrations were detected in March 2023, while the lowest concentrations were present in August 2023.Furthermore, ecological risk assessment based on the general-case scenario (RQm) and worst-case scenario (RQex) indicated a high (RQ > 1) risk to aquatic organisms, from the presence of PYM and CLP residue in river water. Human health risk via dietary exposure was estimated using the hazard quotient (HQ). Based on the detected residues, the HQ (<1) value indicated no significant health risk. This report provides the first record of pesticide residue occurrences scenario and their impact on the river environment of Bangladesh.

Distribution and risk assessment of pesticide pollution in small streams adjoining paddy fields

The present investigation was planned to bridge the knowledge gap on spatiotemporal variations of pesticide pollution in small streams adjacent to paddy fields, and to visualize the associated risks in the aquatic ecosystems. We screened 106 pesticides using GCMSMS and LCMSMS from 10 small streams (n = 212, surface water samples) adjacent to paddy fields over seven months. Fifty-five pesticides were detected across different streams and months. The highest mean concentration was detected for fenobucarb (272 ng L-1), followed by thiamethoxam (199 ng L-1). The highest maximum concentration was detected for thiamethoxam ( 13,264 ng L-1), followed by triflumezopyrim ( 11,505 ng L-1). The highest detection frequency was recorded for fenobucarb (80.00%), followed by pretilachlor (79.00%). Out of the ten streams, Attabira stream had the highest mean number of pesticides detected in each sample. Maximum number of pesticides were detected in October followed by September. Pesticides namely, hexaconazole, pretilachlor, tricyclazole, fenobucarb and thiamethoxam were consistently detected across all streams. The risk assessment against the fishes, micro-invertebrates and algae were measured by risk quotient index (RQ). Twenty-five pesticides out of the detected pesticides (n = 55) had risk quotient values greater than 1. The highest RQmax values were observed in case of fenpropathrin followed by cyfluthrin-3. The highest RQmean value was observed in case of cyfluthrin, indicating its higher toxicity to fishes. The present study reveals that small streams are polluted with pesticides and there is a need to develop strategies and policy interventions in regularizing the pesticide uses for reducing the pesticide pollution in aquatic systems.

Organochlorine, organophosphorus, and carbamate pesticide residues in an Ethiopian Rift Valley Lake Hawassa: occurrences and possible ecological risks

Currently, pesticide production and use are on the rise globally. This trend is certain to continue in the coming decades with residues posing risks to the environment and human health even at low levels. Although various aspects of pesticides and their possible implications have widely been studied, such studies have mostly been carried out in developed countries leaving the rest of the world with little scientific information. We present here the results of a study on the occurrences, concentrations, and ecological risks of 30 pesticide residues (PRs) in water and sediment samples from a tropical freshwater Lake Hawassa in the Ethiopian Rift Valley. A total of 54 composite samples of water and sediment were collected from three sampling sites on three occasions. The samples were prepared by quick, easy, cheap, effective, rugged, and safe (QuEChERS) technique, and analyzed using GC-MS at Bless Agri Food Laboratory Service located in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. The study applied the risk quotient (RQ) method to scrutinize the risks posed to aquatic biota by the detected PRs. The results showed occurrences of 18 and 20 PRs in the water and sediment samples, respectively. The majority, 78 and 75% of the detected PRs in water and sediment samples, respectively represent the organochlorine chemical class. Concentrations of heptachlor epoxide were significantly (p ≤ 0.001) higher than those of the remaining pesticides in both matrices. Of the pesticides detected, 77% were present in water and 83% in sediment samples and pose a serious risk (RQ ≥ 1) to the Lake Hawassa biota. This calls for further research to investigate the risks to human health posed by the PRs. The findings of this study can contribute to the development of global protocols, as they support the concerns raised about the ecological and public health impacts of PRs on a global level.

Distribution, sources, and eco-risk of Current-Use Pesticides (CUPs) in the coastal waters of the northern Shandong Peninsula, China

This study investigated the spatial distributions and seasonal variations of 19 CUPs in the coastal areas of the Shandong Peninsula and its surrounding rivers and assessed their ecological risk. In freshwater and seawater, insecticides (chlorpyrifos, methoxychlor, and pyridaben), as well as fungicides (fenarimol) and herbicides (dichlobenil) were the main pollutants (Detection Frequency: 100 %). Spatially, during winter, the regional pollution levels of Σ19CUPs in seawater showed a trend of Laizhou Bay (LZB, mean:4.13 ng L-1) > Yellow River Estuary (YRE, mean:2.57 ngL-1) > Bohai Bay (BHB, mean:2.21 ng L-1) > Yanwei Area (YWA, mean:1.94 ng L-1). The similarities of major substances between rivers and the marine environment suggest that river discharge is the main source of CUPs pollution in coastal areas. In summer, CUPs in rivers posed a high risk. In winter, the risk significantly decreased, indicating a moderate overall risk. Seawater exhibited a low risk in winter.

Rhizosphere bacteria G-H27 significantly promoted the degradation of chlorpyrifos and fosthiazate

Microbial remediation of polluted environments is the most promising and significant research direction in the field of bioremediation. In this study, chlorpyrifos and fosthiazate were selected as representative organophosphorus pesticides, wheat was the tested plant, and fluorescently labeled degrading Bacillus cereus G-H27 were the film-forming bacteria. Exogenous strengthening technology was used to establish degrading bacterial biofilms on the root surface of wheat. The influence of root surface-degrading bacterial biofilms on the enrichment of chlorpyrifos and fosthiazate in wheat was comprehensively evaluated. First, the fluorescently-labeled degrading bacteria G-H27 was constructed, and its film-forming ability was investigated. Second, the growth- promoting characteristics and degradation ability of the bacteria G-H27 were investigated. Finally, the degradation effect of the root surface-degrading bacterial biofilm on chlorpyrifos and fosthiazate was determined. The above research provides an important material basis and method for the bioremediation of pesticide-contaminated soil.

Neurotoxic pesticides change respiratory parameters in early gill-breathing, but not in skin-breathing life-stages of zebrafish (Danio rerio)

Neurotoxic compounds can interfere with active gill ventilation in fish, which might lead to premature death in adult fish, but not in skin-breathing embryos of zebrafish, since these exclusively rely on passive diffusion across the skin. Regarding lethality, this respiratory failure syndrome (RFS) has been discussed as one of the main reasons for the higher sensitivity of adult fish in the acute fish toxicity test (AFT), if compared to embryos in the fish embryo toxicity test (FET). To further elucidate the relationship between the onset of gill respiration and death by a neurotoxic mode of action, a comparative study into oxygen consumption (MO2), breathing frequency (fv) and amplitude (fampl) was performed with 4 d old skin-breathing and 12 d old early gill-breathing zebrafish. Neurotoxic model substances with an LC50 FET/AFT ratio of > 10 were used: chlorpyrifos, permethrin, aldicarb, ziram, and fluoxetine. Exposure to hypoxia served as a positive control, whereas aniline was tested as an example of a narcotic substance interfering non-specifically with gill membranes. In 12 d old larvae, all substances caused an increase in MO2, fv and partly fampl, whereas effects were minor in 4 d old embryos. An increase of fv in 4 d old embryos following exposure to chlorpyrifos, aldicarb and hypoxia could not be correlated with an increased MO2 and might be attributed either to (1) to the successfully postponed decrease of arterial partial pressure of oxygen (PO2) through support of skin respiration by increased fv, (2) to an unspecific stimulation of the sphincter muscles at the base of the gill filaments, or (3) to the establishment of oxygen sensing for later stages. In gill-breathing 12 d old zebrafish, a concentration-dependent increase of fv was detected for aniline and chlorpyrifos, whereas for aldicarb, fluoxetine and permethrin, a decline of fv at higher substance concentrations was measured, most likely due to the onset of paralysis and/or fatigue of the gill filament sphincter muscles. Since alterations of fv serve to postpone the decrease in arterial PO2 and MO2 increased with decreasing fv, the respiratory failure syndrome could clearly be demonstrated in 12 d old zebrafish larvae. Passive respiration across the skin in zebrafish embryos could thus be confirmed as a probable reason for the lower sensitivity of early life-stages to neurotoxicants. Integration of respiratory markers into existing testing protocols with non-protected developmental stages such as embryos might help to not underestimate the toxicity of early life-stages of fish.

Effects of chlorpyrifos toxicity on brain, pseudobranchial neurosecretory system and swimming performance of a catfish, Heteropneustes fossilis

In the present study, it was aimed to evaluate the adverse effects of CPF on the histopathology of the optic tectum and cerebellum, pseudobranchial neurosecretory system (PNS), biochemical assays of brain tissue, and locomotory behavior in catfish, Heteropneustes fossilis. The fishes were exposed to an environmentally relevant concentration of 0.09 and 0.192 mg/L of CPF for 7, 15, and 30 d. The CPF toxicity induced degenerative changes with significantly decreased cell size, number, and nucleo-cytoplasmic (N/C) ratio of the PNS; and altered neuro-architectural pattern of optic tectum with degenerative changes in mononuclear and granular cells and necrotic variation in granular and Purkinje cells of the cerebellum. The Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and Catalase (CAT) activity in the CPF-exposed brain was significantly decreased, whereas Superoxide dismutase (SOD) and Malondialdehyde (MDA) level was significantly increased in comparison with control. In CPF-exposed fishes, the respiratory movements and locomotory behavioral pattern like swimming speed, total distance traveled, time mobile, absolute turn angle, head: distance traveled, maximum speed were significantly decreased, whereas time immobile and time freezing episodes were significantly increased as compared to control fishes. The present study concludes that environmentally relevant concentration of CPF may induce histopathological, biochemical, physiological, and behavioral disturbances in a non-target organism, H. fossilis.

Micropollutants but high risks: Human multiple stressors increase risks of freshwater ecosystems at the megacity-scale

Micropollutants in water environments have attracted widespread attention, but how human and natural stressors influence the risks of micropollutants has not been comprehensively revealed. A megacity-scale study of the ecological risks of micropollutants in the surface water of Beijing, China is presented to illustrate the magnitudes of the influences of multiple anthropogenic and natural stressors. A total of 133 micropollutants representing typical land use patterns in Beijing, were quantified with the mean concentration range of ND (not detected) to 272 ng·L-1. The micropollutant concentrations in the south were obviously higher than those detected in the northern areas, and neonicotinoid pesticides showed the highest mean concentration of 311 ng·L-1. The chronic and acute risks of micropollutants to algae, invertebrates, and fishes were determined, and herbicides, organophosphorus esters, and insecticides account for the primary risks to algae, invertebrates, and fishes, respectively. The cropland and impervious cover cause the differences in the pollution and risks of micropollutants. The land use in riparian zones greater than 2 km shows a great influence on the chronic chemical risks (CCRs) for the three groups of species, indicating that too local scale does not explain the local pollution status. Climate conditions and human land use are important drivers explaining the CCRs to which various trophic levels of species are exposed. Results demonstrate that multiple categories of micropollutants pose adverse risks to freshwater in the megacity of Beijing, while climate conditions, pollution discharge, and human land use induce the chemical risk of micropollutants to aquatic organisms, and the land use in different riparian zones show different effects on the risks.

Occurrence, distribution, and ecological risk of bisphenol analogues in marine ecosystem of urbanized coast and estuary

Bisphenol analogues are prevalent globally because of rampant usage and imprecise processing techniques, prompting alerts about environmental and health hazards. The method employed in this study by solid phase extraction (SPE) and liquid chromatography-tandem quadrupole mass spectrometer (LC-MS/MS) for both quantification and qualitative analysis of the bisphenol compounds in the surface water samples. The coastal and estuarine surface water of Port Dickson and Lukut ranges from 1.32 ng/L to 1890.51 ng/L of bisphenol analogues. BPF mean concentration at 1143.88 ng/L is the highest, followed by BPA and BPS at 59.01 ng/L and 10.96 ng/L, respectively. Based on RQm for bisphenol analogues, the highest for BPF at 2.49 (RQ > 1, high risk), followed by BPS at 0.12 (0.1 < RQ < 1, medium risk) and BPA at 0.09 (0.1 < RQ < 1, medium risk). The presence and current risk of bisphenols analogues should alert the possible water quality degradation soon.

Can animals tune tissue mechanics in response to changing environments caused by anthropogenic impacts?

Anthropogenic climate change and pollution are impacting environments across the globe. This Review summarises the potential impact of such anthropogenic effects on animal tissue mechanics, given the consequences for animal locomotor performance and behaviour. More specifically, in light of current literature, this Review focuses on evaluating the acute and chronic effects of temperature on the mechanical function of muscle tissues. For ectotherms, maximal muscle performance typically occurs at temperatures approximating the natural environment of the species. However, species vary in their ability to acclimate to chronic changes in temperature, which is likely to have longer-term effects on species range. Some species undergo periods of dormancy to avoid extreme temperature or drought. Whilst the skeletal muscle of such species generally appears to be adapted to minimise muscle atrophy and maintain performance for emergence from dormancy, the increased occurrence of extreme climatic conditions may reduce the survival of individuals in such environments. This Review also considers the likely impact of anthropogenic pollutants, such as hormones and heavy metals, on animal tissue mechanics, noting the relative paucity of literature directly investigating this key area. Future work needs to determine the direct effects of anthropogenic environmental changes on animal tissues and related changes in locomotor performance and behaviour, including accounting for currently unknown interactions between environmental factors, e.g. temperature and pollutants.

Degradation kinetics and transformation pathway of methyl parathion by δ-MnO2/oxalic acid reaction system

Methyl parathion (MP) is a typical organophosphorus pesticide that is widely used worldwide, and hydrolysis, oxidation and reduction are the main abiotic degradation processes. Manganese dioxide (MnO₂) and organic acid can participate in various geochemical processes of pollutants, a reaction system was constructed to degrade MP using δ-MnO₂ and oxalic acid. The δ-MnO₂/oxalic acid reaction system could efficiently degrade MP, and the removal rate of MP (20 μM) reached 67.83% within 30 h under the optimized conditions (pH 5, [δ-MnO₂] = 2 mM, [oxalic acid] = 100 mM). MP was hydrolyzed by substitution reactions of S_N@P and S_N@C, and reduced by conversion of the nitro groups (-NO₂) in MP and its hydrolysates to amino groups (-NH₂). The primary active substance produced in the reaction system was the complexes dominated by Mn(III)-oxalic acid. This study provides a scientific basis for the degradation of organophosphorus pesticides using MnO₂ and an organic acid. The results have important theoretical significance and application value for pollution control and remediation of organophosphorus pesticides.

An application of waste algae biochar in aquaculture water to remove co-existed cadmium and PAHs and the corresponding mechanism

Water quality in aquaculture farms is highly related to the quality of aquaculture products and the connected environment. Cadmium (Cd²⁺) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are two of the most common pollutants in the aquaculture water, while biochar derived from waste algae (Enteromorpha prolifera), namely BE, was applied in farms ponds to improve water quality. Firstly, the adverse environmental impact of BE was minor, while the concentrations of the heavy metal (Cd²⁺ in the present study) and PAHs (FLU, PHE, FLT and PYR) were removed with efficiencies of 49%, 88%, 90%, 91% and 88%, respectively. The ecological risk values (RQs) were reduced subsequently with a rate of 58 ± 11%. After dosing BE, the ecological risk values in all the studied ponds were lower than 1, indicating no ecological risk in the corresponding aquaculture environment. The sorption capacities (q_m) of BE were 15, 12, 6.3, 0.41, 0.29 and 0.56 mg·g^-1 for Cd²⁺, FLU, PHE, FLT, PYR and BaP, respectively. The sorption capacities were acceptable compared with those derived from other types of biomass. The removal mechanisms were partition (PAHs), complexation (Cd²⁺), π-π interaction (Cd²⁺ and PAHs), precipitation (Cd²⁺) and ion-exchange (Cd²⁺). Practically and theoretically, the algae biochar is applicable in the aquaculture environment, where Cd²⁺ and PAHs co-exist.

Ecological risk assessment of pesticides in sediments of Pampean streams, Argentina

After their application in agricultural areas, pesticides are dispersed throughout the environment, causing contamination problems. In Argentina, the main promoter of transgenic biotechnology in the region, the total consumption of agrochemicals has increased significantly in recent years. Most chemicals dumped near surface waters eventually end up in bottom sediments and can be toxic to the organisms that live there. However, published data on the mixing of pesticides in this compartment is still scarce. The objective of this work was to detect and quantify pesticide residues in the sediment of rural streams in the Pampas region and to carry out acute and chronic risk assessment in these aquatic ecosystems. The study area comprises the mountainous system of Tandilia, located in one of the most productive agricultural areas in the country. The concentration of atrazine, acetochlor, chlorpyrifos, cypermethrin, and 2,4-D in the sediment of four rural streams was determined in three different seasons, and the toxic units (TU) and the risk ratios (RQ) were calculated. All the compounds analyzed were detected in most of the sampling seasons and study sites, at concentrations higher than those established in the national and international quality guidelines for the protection of aquatic biota in surface waters and for human consumption. Chlorpyrifos, cypermethrin, and acetochlor were the main pesticides contributing to the TU and RQ values, representing a medium or high ecological risk in most of the sites. Therefore, the evaluation of these pesticides in the bottom sediments could be a decisive factor in assessing the risk to the aquatic environment.

Study on Rapid Detection of Pesticide Residues in Shanghaiqing Based on Analyzing Near-Infrared Microscopic Images

Aiming at guiding agricultural producers to harvest crops at an appropriate time and ensuring the pesticide residue does not exceed the maximum limit, the present work proposed a method of detecting pesticide residue rapidly by analyzing near-infrared microscopic images of the leaves of Shanghaiqing (Brassica rapa), a type of Chinese cabbage with computer vision technology. After image pre-processing and feature extraction, the pattern recognition methods of K nearest neighbors (KNN), naïve Bayes, support vector machine (SVM), and back propagation artificial neural network (BP-ANN) were applied to assess whether Shanghaiqing is sprayed with pesticides. The SVM method with linear or RBF kernel provides the highest recognition accuracy of 96.96% for the samples sprayed with trichlorfon at a concentration of 1 g/L. The SVM method with RBF kernel has the highest recognition accuracy of 79.16~84.37% for the samples sprayed with cypermethrin at a concentration of 0.1 g/L. The investigation on the SVM classification models built on the samples sprayed with cypermethrin at different concentrations shows that the accuracy of the models increases with the pesticide concentrations. In addition, the relationship between the concentration of the cypermethrin sprayed and the image features was established by multiple regression to estimate the initial pesticide concentration on the Shanghaiqing leaves. A pesticide degradation equation was established on the basis of the first-order kinetic equation. The time for pesticides concentration to decrease to an acceptable level can be calculated on the basis of the degradation equation and the initial pesticide concentration. The present work provides a feasible way to rapidly detect pesticide residue on Shanghaiqing by means of NIR microscopic image technique. The methodology laid out in this research can be used as a reference for the pesticide detection of other types of vegetables.

Occurrence, seasonal variations, and eco-risk of currently using organochlorine pesticides in surface seawater of the East China Sea and Western Pacific Ocean

We studied 19 targets currently using organochlorine pesticides (CUOCPs) from 98 samples in the Western Pacific Ocean and the East China Sea collected in 2019, 2020, and 2021. The samples were analyzed using a novel High-throat/High-volume Solid-Phase Extraction method. Eighteen individual CUOCPs were above the method detection limits. The levels of ∑₁₉CUOCPs ranged from 0.13 to 17.80 ng/L, with an average of 3.13 ± 14.67 ng/L. Dicofol was the main pollutant in the Western Pacific Ocean, while Pyridaben dominated the East China Sea. In the summer, land-source input was the primary source in the Western Pacific Ocean and the East China Sea. Historical residues were the main source in the East China Sea in spring. In the summer, the ecological risk assessment results indicated a relatively low risk to the Western Pacific Ocean and the East China Sea.

Effects of Pesticides on the Survival of Shredder Nectopsyche sp. (Trichoptera) and Leaf Decomposition Rates in Tropical Andes: A Microcosm Approach

Andean streams are becoming increasingly impacted by agricultural activities. However, the potential effects of pesticides on their aquatic biodiversity remain unassessed. In order to address this knowledge gap, we conducted an experiment over 37 days in microcosms to assess the effect of two pesticides commonly used in Ecuador (Engeo and Chlorpyrifos) on the aquatic insect Nectopsyche sp. (Trichoptera: Leptoceridae) at 0, 0.10, 5 and 10 μg L^-1 concentrations. The highest concentration corresponds to the maximum concentration allowed by the Equatorian legislation. We assessed insect mortality every 24 h, with leaf litter decomposition rates of organic matter determined by deploying Andean alder (Alnus acuminata) dry leaf packs in the microcosms. We found significant mortality of Nectopsyche sp. at high concentrations of Chlorpyrifos, whereas leaf litter was not significantly affected by any of the treatments. We conclude that the environmental legislation of Ecuador might not be fully protecting aquatic biodiversity from pesticide pollution. Further studies are needed, especially when considering that the maximum permitted concentration is very likely exceeded in many areas of the country. We also suggest that the maximum permissible values should be reviewed, considering each pesticide individually.

Ecological risk assessment and environment carrying capacity of soil pesticide residues in vegetable ecosystem in the Three Gorges Reservoir Area

Soil contamination by pesticide residues has become an increasing concern of ecological protection. However, the soil environmental carrying capacity (SECC) of pesticide residues in agricultural ecosystems was limited studied. Based on the concept of ecological risk assessment, a modified system on the environment carrying capacity was proposed for estimate SECC of pesticide residues in agricultural soils. Subsequently, the assessment on ecological risk and SECC of soil pesticide residues in vegetable ecosystem were performed in the Three Gorges Reservoir Area (TGRA). In 201 topsoil samples, 62.1% of the pesticide compounds were detected over limit of quantitation, and exhibit a high proportion of multiple pesticide contamination. Pyrethroid insecticides and herbicide glyphosate showed most frequent occurrence and high levels. The SECC of the TGRA varies with the limit standard, annual cumulative amount and risk quotient of each pesticide contaminant in soils. Except that fenpropathrin has exceeded SECC, chlorfenapyr, β-cyfluthrin and glyphosate posed the greatest threat to SECC in the next 50 years. Additionally, ecological risks by pesticide residues in vegetable ecosystem can be affected by various planting activities. These results will contribute to guide the rational application of pesticides and control soil environmental risks, thereby achieving the agricultural green development in the TGRA.

Organophosphate pesticides in South African eutrophic estuaries: Spatial distribution, seasonal variation, and ecological risk assessment

The seasonal variation, spatial distribution, and ecological risks of thirteen organophosphate pesticides (OPPs) were studied in the Sundays and Swartkops estuaries in South Africa. Ten pesticides were detected in surface water samples from both estuaries, while all OPPs were detected in sediments. The highest concentration of OPPs (18.8 μg pyrazophos L^-1) was detected in surface water samples from Swartkops Estuary, while 48.7 μg phosalone kg^-1 dw was the highest in sediments collected from Sundays Estuary. There was no clear seasonal pattern in OPPs occurrence in surface water from both systems. However, their occurrence in sediments was in the following order: winter > autumn > summer > spring, perhaps indicating major pesticide input in the winter seasons. Results from ecological risk assessment showed that pyraclofos and chlorpyrifos (CHL) in surface water from both systems are respectively likely to cause high acute and chronic toxicity to fish (risk quotient - RQ > 1). For sediments of both estuaries, the highest acute and chronic RQs for fish were calculated for isazophos and CHL respectively. The majority of the detected OPPs in sediments posed potential high risks to Daphnia magna from both systems. These results suggest that these aquatic organisms (fish, and Daphnia), if present in the studied estuaries, can develop certain forms of abnormalities due to OPP exposure. To this end, proper measures should be taken to reduce OPP input into the estuarine systems.

Occurrence, Distribution, and Risk Assessment of Organophosphorus Pesticides in the Aquatic Environment of the Sele River Estuary, Southern Italy

The intensive use of organophosphorus pesticides (OPPs) causes concern among authorities in different countries, as many of them, remaining unchanged for a long time, pose a threat to environmental sustainability. This study assessed the spatio-temporal trends of nine OPPs in the water dissolved phase (WDP), suspended particulate matter (SPM), and sediment samples from the Sele River estuary, Southern Italy. Samples were collected in 10 sampling sites during four seasons. The highest levels were found at the mouth (mean value 28.25 ng L⁻¹ as WDP + SPM) and then decreased moving southwards to the Mediterranean Sea. Moreover, highest concentrations were detected in the warm season (July) with a mean value of 27.52 ng L⁻¹. The load contribution to the Mediterranean Sea was evaluated in about 61.5 kg year⁻¹, showing that the river was an important source of OPPs through discharge into the sea. The risk assessment revealed that no high-risk indices for the general-case scenario were observed, but for the worst-case scenario, potential risks were associated with chlorpyrifos, pyrimifos-methyl, and parathion, suggesting that OPP contamination should not be neglected. This study makes up the first record of OPPs in the surface waters of the Sele River and provides helpful data as a starting point for future studies.

Spatial distribution, ecological and health risk assessment of organophosphorus pesticides identified in the water of Naseri artificial wetland, Iran

Agricultural development is inevitable to meet the growing need for food. But along with this development, there are unintended and undesirable consequences for human life and the environment that need, found a solution and corrected. One of the most important adverse consequences of agricultural development is the pollution of surface and groundwater resources, which results from various factors such as soil erosion and improper use of different pesticides. This study aimed to conduct an environmental monitoring program in Naseri wetland to determine the concentrations of organophosphorus pesticides (OPP_s) in water samples and also to evaluate the potential risks (ecological and health risk assessment) of these pesticides. The salting-out assisted liquid-liquid extraction method was used to extract pesticides. The residual concentrations of OPP_s evaluated by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS). In this study, the ecological risk of OPP_s calculated for wetland ecosystem, based on the acute risk quotient (RQ_i) formula with maximum (RQ_max), mean (RQ_mean), and mixture (RQ_mix) concentrations of organophosphorus pesticides in the wetland water. Also, to assess the health risk of consuming contaminated fish with organophosphate pesticides, the potential non-carcinogenic and carcinogenic risks were determined by the hazard quotient (Index) (HQ, HI) and incremental lifetime cancer risk (ILCR) indices, respectively. The mean ± SD concentration of OPP_s (Chlorpyrifos, Malathion, Ethion, Dichlorvos, Trifluralin and Diazinon) in samples of wetland water ranged from 0.14 ± 0.08 to 0.35 ± 0.12 and 0.054 ± 0.06 to 0.2 ± 0.1 (μg/L) in summer and autumn, respectively. The mean ± SD of OPP_s in fish varied from 0.68 ± 0.86 to 3.94 ± 2.7 (μg/kg). Overall, the concentrations of pesticides in all water and fish samples were below the maximum residue limit (30 μg/kg) during the study period, according to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the World Health Organization (WHO). The results of acute risk quotient were in summer (RQ_max = 3.49E-4 to 0.067, RQ_mean = 5.8E-5 to 0.029, RQ_mix = 0.139-0.026, 0.018-3.42E-3) and autumn (RQ_max = 8E-4 to 0.051, RQ_mean = 7.74E-6 to 0.018 RQ_mix = 0.1-0.013, 6E-3- 1.5E-3). The non-carcinogenic and carcinogenic risk indexes due to fish consumption for adults and children were (HQ = 0.026-4.68E-4, HI = 0.041, ILCR = 1.7E-7) and (HQ = 1.85E-3-1.3E-5, HI = 0.041, ILCR = 5.55E-8), respectively. The risk of OPP_s was generally low. But cumulative risk (pesticide mixtures), should not be ignored.

Simulation modeling the effects of peels on pesticide removal from potatoes during household food processing

The impact of crop peels on reducing pesticide residue levels in crops during household food processing was evaluated in this study. We proposed a series of pesticide fate models to simulate the removal efficiency of residues in crop peels and medullas (i.e., pulps) via soaking and washing. The simulated results indicated that the variation in the peel thickness had a significant impact on residue removal from the peel compartment. However, the peel compartment had a low impact on the removal efficiency of pesticide residues from the medulla compartment, as demonstrated by the simulated results from the non-peel model (i.e., already peeled crops). In addition, we observed that even though systemic pesticides have a higher potential to penetrate from the peel into the medulla, the increasing residue level caused by the mass transfer from the peel into the medulla is too low to cause human health damage, because the absolute mass of residues in the peel is considerably small. Based on the simulation results, we concluded that washing or soaking crops with or without peels using water is not effective in reducing residue levels in crop medullas. Modifying crops into slices, instead of directly washing or soaking crops, could significantly improve the removal efficiency of pesticide residues inside the medulla. The models proposed in this study can improve our understanding on the fate of pesticides in crops during household food processing.

Application of Hi-throat/Hi-volume SPE technique in assessing organophosphorus pesticides and their degradation products in surface water from Tai Lake, east China

Organophosphorus pesticides (OPPs) are among the most commonly used pesticides worldwide. However, these compounds pose a serious threat to aquatic environments. Here, thirty-seven pesticides and eight degradation products were determined in surface water samples from Tai Lake, East China, using a high-volume solid phase extraction technique (Hi-throat/Hi-volume SPE). Surface water was pumped in-situ through a portable sampler, and OPPs in the water retained on the Hi-volume SPE adsorption column, finally extracted for analysis. This technique efficiently reduced the detection limits to below 0.3 ng/L. In total, 40 out of 45 OPP congeners were detected, which far exceeded the amount of OPPs in previous studies. The total concentration of OPPs ranged between 101.4 and 1530 ng/L (median: 378.9 ng/L). Parathion exhibited the highest concentration (median: 112.0 ng/L), followed by paraoxon-methyl (median: 90.3 ng/L), as well as carbophenothion, fenthion, and mevinphos. Agricultural areas were more polluted than residential and industrial regions. However, degradation products persisted in residential and industrial waters. The ecological risks of OPPs in these areas were estimated based on the risk quotient index (RQ). Parathion, fenthion, carbophenothion, and tolclofos-methyl occurred at high-risk levels, and the levels of degradation products were also non-trivial. Our findings thus indicated that OPP degradation products pose a potential threat to natural environments and should therefore be closely monitored.

Spatiotemporal distribution and risk assessment of organophosphorus pesticides in surface water and groundwater on the North China Plain, China

90 groundwater samples and 14 surface water samples were collected in wet season (summer) and dry season (winter) in the North China Plain (NCP), and analyzed for 11 organophosphorus pesticides (OPPs). The results showed that the main types of OPPs in surface water and groundwater were dimethoate, dichlorvos, methyl-parathion, malathion in both summer and winter. The OPP concentrations in groundwater and surface water were higher in summer than in winter. In the vertical direction, the distribution characteristics of different four types of groundwater sampling points are different. In the horizontal direction: farmland adjacent to a river (FAR) > central farmland (CF) > nonfarm area adjacent to a river (NFAR) > central nonfarm area (CNF). The OPPs concentrations in surface water adjacent to farmland were higher than that in surface water adjacent to nonfarm area. The main factors influencing the distribution of OPPs in the groundwater and surface water were the interaction process between them, the groundwater flow field and the OPPs used in agricultural activities. The ecological risk of OPPs to surface water was greater in summer than in winter. Water Flea was at medium risk, and malathion had the greatest influence on Water Flea in both summer and winter. The non-carcinogenic and carcinogenic risks of the four main OPPs in surface water were higher than in groundwater, and were higher in summer than in winter, but they would not lead to adverse health effects on local residents.

Ecotoxicological and human health risk assessment of selected pesticides in Kurose River, Higashi-Hiroshima City (Japan)

This study conducted an integrated approach combining monitoring and risk assessment of pesticides in Kurose River and its catchment area, Japan. Water samples (n = 168) were collected every month for 1 year (March 2016 to February 2017). Pesticides (cyanazine, simetryn, fenarimol, isoprothiolane, and diazinon) were extracted by Sep-Pack C18 cartridges and analyzed using a reversed-phase HPLC-UV system. The pesticides were also determined in non-target organisms Red algae (Audouinella sp.) and diatoms (Cocconeis placentula) from the river. Based on the residual concentrations, an ecotoxicological risk assessment was conducted using the risk quotient (RQ) index. The human health carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic risk assessments were evaluated using hazard quotients (HQ). Results showed that cyanazine was the most commonly detected (64%), followed by simetryn (58%), and diazinon (57%) in all the sample sites (n = 12). Except for isoprothiolane, the pesticides were highest in spring followed by summer, autumn and winter. Based on extreme values (ex), non-acceptable ecotoxicological risk was obtained for diazinon (RQ_ex  = 21.317), cyanazine (RQ_ex  = 3.129), simetryn (RQ_ex  = 8.577) and fenarimol (RQ_ex  = 10.855), while that of isoprothiolane (RQ_ex  = 0.013) was negligible. Based on the HQ estimates, all the pesticides were below the threshold value of 1, hence pose no significant health risks to humans. PRACTITIONER POINTS: Pesticides affect non-target organisms in rivers and other aquatic systems Pesticides were frequently detected in spring and summer and accumulated in red algae and diatom The detected pesticides posed high ecotoxicological and human health risks.

Collection of human and environmental data on pesticide use in Europe and Argentina: Field study protocol for the SPRINT project

Current farm systems rely on the use of Plant Protection Products (PPP) to secure high productivity and control threats to the quality of the crops. However, PPP use may have considerable impacts on human health and the environment. A study protocol is presented aiming to determine the occurrence and levels of PPP residues in plants (crops), animals (livestock), humans and other non-target species (ecosystem representatives) for exposure modelling and impact assessment. To achieve this, we designed a cross-sectional study to compare conventional and organic farm systems across Europe. Environmental and biological samples were/are being/will be collected during the 2021 growing season, at 10 case study sites in Europe covering a range of climate zones and crops. An additional study site in Argentina will inform the impact of PPP use on growing soybean which is an important European protein-source in animal feed. We will study the impact of PPP mixtures using an integrated risk assessment methodology. The fate of PPP in environmental media (soil, water and air) and in the homes of farmers will be monitored. This will be complemented by biomonitoring to estimate PPP uptake by humans and farm animals (cow, goat, sheep and chicken), and by collection of samples from non-target species (earthworms, fish, aquatic and terrestrial macroinvertebrates, bats, and farm cats). We will use data on PPP residues in environmental and biological matrices to estimate exposures by modelling. These exposure estimates together with health and toxicity data will be used to predict the impact of PPP use on environment, plant, animal and human health. The outcome of this study will then be integrated with socio-economic information leading to an overall assessment used to identify transition pathways towards more sustainable plant protection and inform decision makers, practitioners and other stakeholders regarding farming practices and land use policy.

Occurrence, sources, and ecological risks of three classes of insecticides in sediments of the Liaohe River basin, China

The frequent and extensive use of insecticides has caused serious aquatic pollution, thus posing a great threat to ecosystems and public health. In this study, three classes of insecticides including 20 organochlorine pesticides (OCPs), 6 organophosphorus pesticides (OPs), and 8 pyrethroids were analyzed in 24 sediments from the Liaohe River basin. The results showed that all sediment samples were contaminated with insecticides, with the total concentrations ranging from 7.3 ng/g dry weight (dw) to 242.8 ng/g dw. Among them, pyrethroids (2.2-102.5 ng/g dw) contributed 55% of the total insecticide concentration, followed by OCPs (1.3-94.8 ng/g dw) and OPs (2.6-45.5 ng/g dw), representing 24% and 21% of the total concentrations, respectively. For OCPs, hexachlorocyclohexanes (HCHs) and dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethanes (DDTs) showed the highest concentrations of 0.37-37.5 ng/g dw and 0.05-23.2 ng/g dw, respectively. Historical inputs of lindane and technical DDT were the major sources of HCHs and DDTs, respectively, as indicated by isomer or metabolite ratios. Additionally, dichlorvos (0.26-17.1 ng/g dw) was the main OP, while cypermethrin dominated the pyrethroids with the concentrations of 1.6-32.6 ng/g dw. The spatial distribution revealed that significantly higher residues of insecticides were observed in sediments from the Daliao River system than those from the Liao River. This implied that these insecticides were most likely from the discharge of highly polluted sewage and industrial wastewater from adjacent industrial and populous cities as well as urban applications (e.g., landscape maintenance and household pest control). An ecological risk assessment based on risk quotients suggested that the three classes of insecticides analyzed here pose a low risk to aquatic organisms in the study area.

Occurrence, human health, and ecotoxicological risk assessment of pesticides in surface waters of the River Nile's Rosetta Branch, Egypt

In Egypt, the shortage of freshwater resources and their pollution constitutes a growing concern. Therefore, the objectives of this study were to (i) monitor the occurrence and spatiotemporal variations of 100 pesticides in surface water samples collected monthly (from July 2018 to June 2019) from El-Rahawy, Sabal, and Tala sampling sites along the Rosetta branch of the River Nile in Egypt, (ii) identify potential non-carcinogenic health risks for the local people through the lifetime consumption of contaminated drinking water, and (iii) perform an ecological risk assessment of aquatic organisms upon exposure to pesticides detected in surface waters based on the risk quotients (RQs) method. Of the 100 pesticides analyzed, 22 belonging to 11 chemical families were detected, and 75.5% of surface water samples were contaminated with one or more pesticide residues. The most frequently detected pesticide was malathion (57%), followed by chlorpyrifos (54%), atrazine (23%), and carbendazim (20%). Spatial distribution showed that the El-Rahawy site had the highest pesticide load (38.47 μg/L), and Sabal had the lowest (16.29 μg/L). Temporal variations revealed that the highest total pesticide concentrations were detected in summer (27.98 μg/L) compared to spring (23.16 μg/L), winter (19.18 μg/L), and autumn (11.85 μg/L). For non-carcinogenic risks of pesticides detected in surface water, the target hazard quotient (THQ) values were less than one. This implies that there is no potential human risk from exposure to drinking water at the sites under study. However, 13 pesticides presented high-risk quotients (RQ > 1), posing potential ecological risks to aquatic organisms.

Antifouling paint biocides (Irgarol 1051 and diuron) in the selected ports of Peninsular Malaysia: occurrence, seasonal variation, and ecological risk assessment

Irgarol 1051 and diuron are photosystem II inhibitors in agricultural activities and antifouling paints in the shipping sector. This study focused on three major ports (western, southern, and eastern) surrounding Peninsular Malaysia to construct the distribution of both biocides on the basis of the seasonal and geographical changes. Surface seawater samples were collected from November 2011 to April 2012 and pretreated using the solid-phase extraction technique followed by quantification with GC-MS and LC-MS-MS for Irgarol 1051 and diuron, respectively. Generally, the distribution of Irgarol 1051 was lowest during November 2011 and highest during April 2012, and similar patterns were observed at all ports, whereas the distribution of diuron was rather vague. The increasing pattern of Irgarol 1051 from time to time is probably related to its accumulation in the seawater as a result of its half-life and consistent utilization. On the basis of the discriminant analysis, the temporal distribution of Irgarol 1051 varied at Klang North Port, Klang South Port, and Pasir Gudang Port, whereas diuron was temporally varied only at Kemaman Port. Furthermore, Irgarol 1051 was spatially varied during November 2011, whereas diuron did not show any significant changes throughout all sampling periods. Ecological risk assessment exhibited a high risk for diuron and Irgarol 1051, but Irgarol 1051 should be of greater concern because of its higher risk compared to that of diuron. Thus, it is recommended that the current Malaysian guidelines and regulations of biocide application should be reevaluated and improved to protect the ecosystem, as well as to prevent ecological risks to the aquatic environment.

Ecological risk assessment of pesticide residues in soils from vegetable production areas: A case study in S-Nepal

Pesticides pose a serious risk to ecosystems. In this study, we used European Food Safety Authority methods, such as risk quotient (RQ) and toxicity exposure ratios (TER), to assess the potential ecological risks of 15 pesticide residues detected in agricultural soils in the Gaidahawa Rural Municipality of Nepal. The mean and maximum concentrations of the detected pesticide residues in the soil were used for risk characterization related to soil organisms. RQ_mean, TER_mean and RQ_maximum, TER_maximum were used to determine general and the worst-case scenarios, respectively. Of all the detected pesticides in soils, the no observed effect concentration (NOEC) for 27% of the pesticides was not available in literature for the tested soil organisms and their TER and RQ could not be calculated. RQ threshold value of ≥1 indicates high risk for organisms. Similarly, TER threshold value of ≥5, which is acceptable trigger point value for chronic exposure, indicates an acceptable risk. The results showed that the worst-case scenario (RQ_maximum) indicated a high risk for soil organisms from chlorpyrifos [RQ_maximum > 9 at depths (cm) of 0-5, 15-20 and 35-40 soil layer]; imidacloprid (1.78 in the 35-40 cm soil layer) and profenofos (3.37 in the 0-5 cm and 1.09 in the 35-40 cm soil layer). Likewise, for all the soil depths, the calculated TER for both the general and worst-case scenarios for chlorpyrifos ranged from 0.37 to 3.22, indicating chronic toxicity to F. candida. Furthermore, the risk of organophosphate pesticides for soil organisms in the sampling sites was mainly due to chlorpyrifos, except for two study sites where the risk was from profenofos. Ecological risk assessment (EcoRA) of the pesticide use in the study area indicated that the EFSA soil organisms were at risk at some of the localities where farmers practiced conventional farming.

Sub-Lethal Peak Exposure to Insecticides Triggers Olfaction-Mediated Avoidance in Zebrafish Larvae

In agricultural areas, insecticides inevitably reach water bodies via leaching or run-off. While designed to be neurotoxic to insects, insecticides have adverse effects on a multitude of organisms due to the high conservation of the nervous system among phyla. To estimate the ecological effects of insecticides, it is important to investigate their impact on non-target organisms such as fish. Using zebrafish as the model, we investigated how different classes of insecticides influence fish behavior and uncovered neuronal underpinnings of the associated behavioral changes, providing an unprecedented insight into the perception of these chemicals by fish. We observed that zebrafish larvae avoid diazinon and imidacloprid while showing no response to other insecticides with the same mode of action. Moreover, ablation of olfaction abolished the aversive responses, indicating that fish smelled the insecticides. Assessment of neuronal activity in 289 brain regions showed that hypothalamic areas involved in stress response were among the regions with the largest changes, indicating that the observed behavioral response resembles reactions to stimuli that threaten homeostasis, such as changes in water chemistry. Our results contribute to the understanding of the environmental impact of insecticide exposure and can help refine acute toxicity assessment.

Organophosphorus pesticides in greenhouse and open-field soils across China: Distribution characteristic, polluted pathway and health risk

A national-scale survey was conducted to investigate the distribution characteristic, polluted pathway and health risk of organophosphorus pesticides (OPPs) in greenhouse and open-field soils in 20 regions across China. The total concentrations of eight OPPs ranged from 22.1 to 435 ng/g with a mean of 96.2 ng/g in greenhouses, and from 9.93 to 303 ng/g with a mean of 66.6 ng/g in open fields. Due to the intensive agricultural activities, the high residue of OPPs in greenhouse and open-field soils was found in the northeastern, northern and central areas. Furthermore, the effect of environmental factors (i.e. human activities, soil properties, heavy metals and microorganism) on OPPs were evaluated through the partial least squares path modeling. Apart from microorganisms, all the other factors affected the soil contamination of OPPs directly (p < 0.05), where the soil properties occupied the most important position (p < 0.01). In greenhouses, the highest correlation was observed in the relationship between human activities and soil properties, indicating that their combination was more likely to cause the contamination of OPPs in greenhouses indirectly. Moreover, the soil properties had the significant effect on the heavy metals in open fields (p < 0.05), suggesting that the residual OPPs in open fields was sensitive to interaction of these two factors. Although the hazard indexes in all soil samples were less than 1.0, the children were more susceptible to the non-cancer risks of OPPs in greenhouse. This study provided valuable information to understand the pollution status of OPPs in farmlands and protect the agroecological environment.

Accumulation and risk assessment of heavy metals employing species sensitivity distributions in Linggi River, Negeri Sembilan, Malaysia

The constant increase of heavy metals into the aqueous environment has become a contemporary global issue of concern to government authorities and the public. The study assesses the concentration, distribution, and risk assessment of heavy metals in freshwater from the Linggi River, Negeri Sembilan, Malaysia. Species sensitivity distribution (SSD) was utilised to calculate the cumulative probability distribution of toxicity from heavy metals. The aquatic organism's toxicity data obtained from the ECOTOXicology knowledgebase (ECOTOX) was used to estimate the predictive non-effects concentration (PNEC). The decreasing sequence of hazardous concentration (HC₅) was manganese > aluminium > copper > lead > arsenic > cadmium > nickel > zinc > selenium, respectively. The highest heavy metal concentration was iron with a mean value of 45.77 μg L^-1, followed by manganese (14.41 μg L^-1) and aluminium (11.72 μg L^-1). The mean heavy metal pollution index (HPI) value in this study is 11.52, implying low-level heavy metal pollutions in Linggi River. The risk quotient (RQ) approaches were applied to assess the potential risk of heavy metals. The RQ shows a medium risk of aluminium (RQ_m = 0.1125) and zinc (RQ_m = 0.1262); a low risk of arsenic (RQ_m = 0.0122) and manganese (RQ_m = 0.0687); and a negligible risk of cadmium (RQ_m = 0.0085), copper (RQ_m = 0.0054), nickel (RQ_m = 0.0054), lead (RQ_m = 0.0016) and selenium (RQ_m = 0.0012). The output of this study produces comprehensive pollution risk, thus provides insights for the legislators regarding exposure management and mitigation.

Influence of surface-water irrigation on the distribution of organophosphorus pesticides in soil-water systems, Jianghan Plain, central China

Surface-water irrigation is one of the most important irrigation methods in areas with abundant surface water. Although this method of irrigation is both economical and convenient, many contaminants are also introduced into the soil-water systems such as organophosphorus pesticides (OPPs). To study the influence of surface-water irrigation on the distribution of OPPs in soil-water systems, 42 water samples (38 groundwater and four surface water) and 85 soil samples (78 profile soil samples and seven topsoil samples) were taken from Shahu in the Jianghan Plain, China. Shahu is a typical Chinese surface-water irrigation district. During sampling, three types of areas were considered: surface-water irrigated areas, groundwater-irrigated areas away from rivers, and non-irrigated areas adjacent to rivers. The results showed that the concentrations of OPPs in the groundwater and soil in the surface-water irrigated farmland were higher than those in groundwater-irrigated farmland. The groundwater flow field and surface-water irrigation were responsible for the OPPs. Thus, it is clear that the surface-water irrigation had a strong influence on the distribution of OPPs in soil-water systems. Principal component analysis for OPPs content in groundwater showed that the key influencing factors on the distribution of OPPs in groundwater were the groundwater flow field and current pesticide use.

Assessing Diazinon Pollution in the Three Major Rivers Flowing into the Caspian Sea (Iran)

The aim of this study was to investigate the seasonal and spatial variations in the concentrations of a widely used organophosphorous pesticide (OPP), diazinon, and the associated risk posed by this OPP in the surface water from the three largest rivers located in the northern province of Iran: the Haraz, the Talar and the Babolrood rivers. These rivers are located in the agriculture province of Mazandaran, and are exposed to high doses of organophosphorus pesticides, especially diazinon. The concentration of diazinon was determined using gas chromatography, while the potential risk posed by diazinon was elucidated using a Risk Quotient (RQ) calculated for general (RQm) and worst-case (RQex) scenarios. The obtained results demonstrated that the average diazinon concentrations ranged from 41 ± 76 ng/L in the Talar River and 57 ± 116 ng/L in the Haraz River, to 76.5 ± 145 ng/L in the Babolrood River, with a significant difference noted between summer and autumn seasons for all three rivers. For some stations, the concentration of diazinon is higher than the standard guidelines of Australian/New Zealand Guidelines for Fresh and Marine Water Quality (FMWQ) and the United States Criteria Maximum Concentration (CMC). The calculated RQs indicated a medium risk of diazinon, RQm = 0.73 and RQex = 2.27, in the Talar River; RQm = 1.02 and RQex = 2.49 in the Haraz River; and RQm = 1.35 and RQex = 4.54 in the Babolrood River. The overall exposure of diazinon was defined to have a high risk (RQm and RQex > 1); however, the summer sampling revealed a high risk (RQm and RQex > 1), while the autumn had a medium risk (RQm and RQex < 1). The obtained results revealed not only elevated concentrations of diazinon in the studied rivers but most importantly the high risk posed by this OPP for the aquatic organisms and the wellbeing of the whole river ecosystem. The current study showed that development and implementation of appropriate standards and regulations toward diazinon in countries such as Iran are required to reduce the pollution levels and risks related to elevated concentrations of the studied pesticide.

Effect of chlorination on anti-acetylcholinesterase activity of organophosphorus insecticide solutions and contributions of the parent insecticides and their oxons to the activity

Organophosphorus insecticides are known to be partly transformed to their respective oxons during the chlorination step of drinking water treatment. For most organophosphorus insecticides, the toxicological endpoint for determining acceptable daily intake levels is inhibition of acetylcholinesterase (AChE). Like the parent insecticides, oxons also inhibit AChE, so the presence of oxons in drinking water is also evaluated. However, no attention is paid to the possible presence of transformation products (TPs) other than oxons. In the present study, we determined whether the anti-AChE activity observed for chlorinated solutions of the organophosphorus insecticides malathion and methidathion could be solely attributed to the parent compounds and their oxons. Upon chlorination, both malathion and methidathion were immediately transformed to their oxons; the maximum transformation ratios were 60% and 30%, respectively, indicating that at least 40% and 70% of these compounds were transformed into other TPs. Before chlorination, malathion- and methidathion-containing solutions exhibited little to no anti-AChE activity, but the solutions showed strong activity after chlorination. The contributions of the parent insecticides and their oxons to the activities of the chlorinated samples were calculated from the concentrations of the compounds in the samples and dose-response curves for chemical standards of the compounds. For both the malathion-containing solution and the methidathion-containing solution, the calculated anti-AChE activities were almost the same as the observed activities at every chlorination time. This suggests that the observed activities could be attributed solely to the parent insecticides and their oxons, indicating that other TPs need not be considered.

Occurrence, environmental implications and risk assessment of Bisphenol A in association with colloidal particles in an urban tropical river in Malaysia

Phase distribution of emerging organic contaminants is highly influential in their presence, fate and transport in surface water. Therefore, it is crucial to determine their state, partitioning behaviour and tendencies in water environments. In this study, Bisphenol A was investigated in both colloidal and soluble phases in water. BPA concentrations ranged between 1.13 and 5.52 ng L⁻¹ in the soluble phase and n.d-2.06 ng L⁻¹ in the colloidal phase, respectively. BPA was dominant in the soluble phase, however, the colloidal contribution ranged between 0 and 24% which implied that colloids can play a significant role in controlling BPA’s transportation in water. Urban and industrial areas were the main sources of BPA while forest areas displayed lower levels outside the populated domains. pH levels were between 6.3 and 7.4 which might have affected BPA’s solubility in water to some extent. The particle size distribution showed that the majority of the particles in river samples were smaller than 1.8 µm in diameter with a small presence of nanoparticles. Zeta potential varied between − 25 and − 18 mV, and these negative values suggested instability of particles. Furthermore, BPA was positively correlated with BOD, COD and NH₃–N which might indicate that these organic compounds were released concurrently with BPA. RQ assessment showed low levels of risk towards algae and fish in the study area.

Modelling the fate and transport of colloidal particles in association with BPA in river water

A simplified modelling approach for illustrating the fate of emerging pollutants can improve risk assessment of these chemicals. Once released into aquatic environments, these pollutants will interact with various substances including suspended particles, colloidal or nano particles, which will greatly influence their distribution and ultimate fate. Understanding these interactions in aquatic environments continues to be an important issue because of their possible risk. In this study, bisphenol A (BPA) in the water column of Bentong River, Malaysia, was investigated in both its soluble and colloidal phase. A spatially explicit hydrological model was established to illustrate the associated dispersion processes of colloidal-bound BPA. Modelling results demonstrated the significance of spatial detail in predicting hot spots or peak concentrations of colloidal-bound BPA in the sediment and water columns as well. The magnitude and setting of such spots were system based and depended mainly on flow conditions. The results highlighted the effects of colloidal particles' concentration and density on BPA's removal from the water column. It also demonstrated the tendency of colloidal particles to aggregate and the impact all these processes had on BPA's transport potential and fate in a river water. All scenarios showed that after 7.5-10 km mark BPA's concentration started to reach a steady state with very low concentrations which indicated that a downstream transport of colloidal-bound BPA was less likely due to minute BPA levels.

Occurrence and potential risk of organophosphorus pesticides in urbanised Linggi River, Negeri Sembilan, Malaysia

The application of organophosphorus pesticides (OPPs) increased gradually because of the rise in global food demand that triggered the agriculture sector to increase the production, leading to OPP residues in the surface water. This study elucidated the presence of OPPs and estimated its ecological risk in the riverine ecosystem of the urbanised Linggi River, Negeri Sembilan, Malaysia. The OPP concentration in surface water was determined using solid-phase extraction method and high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with diode array detection. Further, the ecological risk was estimated by using the risk quotient (RQ) method. The three OPPs, i.e. chlorpyrifos, diazinon, and quinalphos were detected with mean concentrations of 0.0275 µg/L, 0.0328 µg/L, and 0.0362 µg/L, respectively. The OPPs were at high risk (in general and worst cases) under acute exposure. The estimated risk of diazinon was observed as medium for general (RQ_m = 0.5857) and high for worst cases (RQ_ex = 4.4678). Notably, the estimated risk for chlorpyrifos was high for both general and worst cases (RQ_m = 1.9643 and RQ_ex = 11.5643) towards the aquatic ecosystem of the Linggi River. Chronic risk of quinalphos remains unknown because of the absence of toxicity endpoints. This study presented clear knowledge regarding OPP contamination and possible risk for aquatic ecosystems. Hence, OPPs should be listed as one of the main priority contaminants in pesticide mitigation management in the future.

Norm index-based QSAR models for acute toxicity of organic compounds toward zebrafish embryo

Zebrafish embryos are highly sensitive to toxicant exposure and have been used to evaluate the potential eco-toxicity caused by organic pollutants in the aquatic environment. This study was to develop four quantitative structure-activity relationship (QSAR) models based on norm descriptors for acute toxicity of different exposure times toward zebrafish embryo of organic compounds with various structures. Norm descriptors were obtained by calculating the norm index of the atomic distribution matrix, which was composed of atomic spatial distribution and atomic properties. These norm index-based QSAR models presented satisfactory results with R² of 0.8549, 0.9162, 0.8335 and 0.8119 for 48, 96, 120 and 132 h, respectively. Validation results including cross validation, external validation, Y-randomized test and applicability domain analysis indicated that the proposed models were stable, robust and reliable. Accordingly, these norm descriptors might be effective in predicting the acute toxicity of various organics to zebrafish embryos, which might be useful for evaluating the potential hazards of organic pollutants to aquatic environment.

Activation of persulfate and removal of ethyl-parathion from soil: Effect of microwave irradiation

Advanced persulfate oxidation technology is widely used in organic pollution control of super fund sites. In recent years, microwave radiation has been proven a promising method for persulfate activation. However, most of the prior works were focused on the treatment of polluted water, but there are few reports aiming at contaminated sites, especially the knowledge of using microwave activated persulfate technology to repair pesticide-contaminated sites. In this study, an effective activation/oxidation method for the remediation of pesticide-contaminated soil, i.e., microwave/persulfate, was developed to treat soil containing ethyl-parathion. The concentration of persulfate, reaction temperature, and time were optimised. The results showed that up to 77.32% of ethyl-parathion was removed with the addition of 0.1 mmol·persulfate·g^-1 soil under the microwave temperature of 60 °C. In comparison, 19.43% of ethyl-parathion was removed at the same reaction temperature under the condition of water bath activated persulfate. Electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopy combined with spin-trapping technology was used to detect reactive oxidation species, and OH and SO₄^- were observed in the microwave/persulfate system. Quenching experiments suggested that ethyl-parathion was degraded by the generated OH and SO₄^-. Paraoxon, phenylphosphoric acid, 4-nitrophenol, dimethyl ester phosphate, and some alkanes were the dominant oxidative products identified by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) analysis. A possible pathway for ethyl-parathion degradation was proposed in this study. The results obtained serve as the guidance to the development of remediation technologies involving persulfate and microwave for soil contaminated by organic contaminants such as pesticides.

Distribution of residual agricultural pesticides and their impact assessment on the survival of an endangered species

This study aimed to assess the distribution of spent pesticides in an agro-farming area and to evaluate their impact on the ecological risk for an endangered species combing the health risk assessment concept with the modelling algorithm proposed by European Food Safety Authority (EFSA). An agricultural area in western Taiwan was chosen to investigate the ecological risk on Prionailurus bengalensis. Their ecological stability was evaluated in the context of the residuals' distribution of the spent pesticides in the investigated area. The pesticide residues accumulated and correlated highly to the adverse health impact on the leopard cat. In the present study, 67 pesticides were detected from 79 collected soil samples. The hazard index (HI) was found related to land use patterns and the HI values in Yuanli and Zhuolan were significantly higher than those in the other areas, increasing poisoning probability of the leopard cat. The locations of agro-chemical utilization were highly overlapped with leopard cats' activity zone, supporting the hypothesis that pesticide residues posed a potential threat to the leopard cats' health. The proposed risk assessment framework was capable of estimating the risk caused by pesticide residues and no similar study has been reported before.

Occurrence of banned and commonly used pesticide residues in concentrated leachate: Implications for ecological risk assessment

Amounts of banned and current pesticides have been used in domestic and agricultural pest control, and their residues have accumulated along the waste stream. In this work, pesticides were characterized in concentrated leachates (CLs) from 5 municipal landfill sites, 2 incineration plants and 1 composting plant in six provinces. A total of 31 pesticides were detected which included 8 organochlorine pesticides (OCPs, 303-2974 ng/L), 16 organophosphorus pesticides (OPPs, 1380-13,274 ng/L) and 7 synthetic pyrethroids (SPs, 319-5636 ng/L). Despite the ten years ban of hexachlorocyclohexane, methamidophos and parathion-methyl, they were still in CL at a mean value of 320 ng/L and 88 ng/L, respectively. The average Σ₈OCPs, Σ₁₆OPPs and Σ₇SPs in CL from landfill sites were approximately 2.8, 1.1 and 4.5 times higher than those from incineration plants, which might have been influenced by pH, moisture and/or HRT. Additionally, it was found that CL from incineration plants and composting plant with lower pesticide contents posed a much higher acute and chronic eco-risk. Methamidophos was the dominant pesticide in CL from incineration plants, which was much higher than any other pesticides detected. The annual emissions of Σ₈OCPs, Σ₁₆OPPs and Σ₇SPs discharged from landfill-CL were estimated to be 2370, 10,357 and 2994 g, respectively. It was evident from the study that long-term release of CL after waste disposal could cause potential risk of ecological pollution.

Occurrence and human health risks of pesticides and antibiotics in Nile tilapia along the Rosetta Nile branch, Egypt

Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) samples were collected at monthly intervals between July 2018 and June 2019 from 3 sampling sites (El-Rahawy, Sabal and Tala) situated along the Rosetta branch of the Nile, Egypt, to monitor the presence of 100 pesticides and 5 antibiotics using different extraction procedures followed by GC-MS/MS and LC-MS/MS. Potential human health risks via the consumption of contaminated fish was also assessed. Of the 72 analyzed fish muscle samples; 86% and 21% were contaminated with pesticides and antibiotics, respectively. Chlorpyrifos (ranging from < LOQ to 0.08 mg/kg) was the most frequently detected pesticide followed by p,p'-DDE (ranging from < LOQ to 0.04 mg/kg) in 83 and 45% of the fish muscle samples, respectively. Nitrofurazone (ranging from 8.6 to 52 μg/kg) was the most frequently detected antibiotic, followed by nitrofurantoin (ranging from 1.1 to 2 μg/kg) and chloramphenicol (ranging from < LOQ to 0.17 μg/kg). These antibiotics were found in 12, 6 and 5% of the fish muscle samples, respectively. The spatial distribution of the detected pesticides and antibiotics in fish samples along the Rosetta branch showed that the highest mean concentrations were found in the Sabal area, followed by samples from Tala and El-Rahawy. An investigation into seasonal variations revealed that the highest mean concentrations of pesticides and antibiotics in fish samples were detected in winter and spring, respectively. According to target hazard quotient (THQ) calculations for the detected pollutants in Nile tilapia muscle, all pollutants gave THQ values lower than 1, indicating that the consumption of this fish from the study sites is unlikely to cause any detrimental effects to consumers.

Sensors Applied for the Detection of Pesticides and Heavy Metals in Freshwaters

Water is essential for every life living on the planet. However, we are facing a more serious situation such as water pollution since the industrial revolution. Fortunately, many efforts have been done to alleviate/restore water quality in freshwaters. Numerous sensors have been developed to monitor the dynamic change of water quality for ecological, early warning, and protection reasons. In the present review, we briefly introduced the pollution status of two major pollutants, i.e., pesticides and heavy metals, in freshwaters worldwide. Then, we collected data on the sensors applied to detect the two categories of pollutants in freshwaters. Special focuses were given on the sensitivity of sensors indicated by the limit of detection (LOD), sensor types, and applied waterbodies. Our results showed that most of the sensors can be applied for stream and river water. The average LOD was72.53±12.69 ng/ml (n=180) for all pesticides, which is significantly higher than that for heavy metals (65.36±47.51 ng/ml,n=117). However, the LODs of a considerable part of pesticides and heavy metal sensors were higher than the criterion maximum concentration for aquatic life or the maximum contaminant limit concentration for drinking water. For pesticide sensors, the average LODs did not differ among insecticides (63.83±17.42 ng/ml,n=87), herbicides (98.06±23.39 ng/ml,n=71), and fungicides (24.60±14.41 ng/ml,n=22). The LODs that differed among sensor types with biosensors had the highest sensitivity, while electrochemical optical and biooptical sensors showed the lowest sensitivity. The sensitivity of heavy metal sensors varied among heavy metals and sensor types. Most of the sensors were targeted on lead, cadmium, mercury, and copper using electrochemical methods. These results imply that future development of pesticides and heavy metal sensors should (1) enhance the sensitivity to meet the requirements for the protection of aquatic ecosystems and human health and (2) cover more diverse pesticides and heavy metals especially those toxic pollutants that are widely used and frequently been detected in freshwaters (e.g., glyphosate, fungicides, zinc, chromium, and arsenic).

Ecological risk and estimates of organophosphate pesticides loads into the Central Mediterranean Sea from Volturno River, the river of the "Land of Fires" area, southern Italy

The organophosphate pesticides pollution in the Volturno River and its environmental impact on the Tyrrhenian Sea (Central Mediterranean Sea) were estimated. Eight selected organophosphate pesticides (diazinon, dimethoate, malathion, chlorpyrifos, pirimiphos-methyl, fenitrothion, methidathion and tolclofos-methyl) were determined in the water dissolved phase, suspended particulate matter and sediment samples collected from 10 sites in different seasons. Total organophosphate pesticides concentrations ranged from 0.12 to 65.09 ng L^-1 in water (as the sum of the water dissolved phase and suspended particulate matter) and from 1.19 to 23.17 ng g^-1 in sediment samples. It has been calculated that the discharge of pollutants from the Volturno river into the Tyrrhenian Sea was about 71.815, 31 g year^-1; for this reason the river is to be considered one of the main mouths of organophosphate pesticides in the Tyrrhenian Sea. In relation to environmental risk assessment, the concentrations of most OPPs in water and sediments from the Volturno River and its estuary were lower than guideline values, but the mean concentration of chlorpyrifos (5.41 ng L^-1) in the Volturno River and Estuary has been shown that the ecological integrity of the river watercourse is possibly at risk.

Types of Exposure Pesticide Poisoning in Jiangsu Province, China; The Epidemiologic Trend between 2006 and 2018

BACKGROUND

Pesticide poisoning is an important issue in rural China, and is also a major public health problem that affects the health of farmers. The purpose of this paper is to explore the epidemiology of pesticide poisoning in Jiangsu Province, and to put forward the relevant suggestions on the logical and discerning utilization of the pesticides.

METHODS

According to the data of the pesticide poisoning report card established by the health hazard detection information system, the cases of pesticide poisoning in Jiangsu Province from 2006 to 2018 were exported to Excel, and the database of pesticide poisoning was established. Furthermore, the imported data was screened and collected. A descriptive statistical analysis had been employed on this data utilizing SPSS 20.0.

RESULTS

Between the years 2006 and 2018, 38,513 pesticide poisoning cases were registered in Jiangsu Province, with a downward trend. Meanwhile, 77.83% of poisoning cases involved insecticide poisoning, followed by herbicide and rodenticide. The greater part of the diverse sorts of studied insecticide poisoning cases involved people aged between 30 and 59 years (57.51%). Poisoning cases caused by rodenticide accounted for a large proportion of people aged between 0 and 14 years (23.72%) in non-occupational pesticide poisoning. Regarding seasons, it was distinguished that more insecticide cases were reported in autumn (46.95% of the total number of cases). Pesticide poisoning was reported in 13 cities of Jiangsu Province, and among these, insecticide poisoning was reported mainly from the northern Jiangsu area, which was the same as rodenticide and herbicide.

CONCLUSIONS

Although there is a decreased risk for pesticide poisoning among farmworkers in Jiangsu Province, the number of farmworkers with pesticide poisoning is still high. Further management of the pesticide utilization is necessary, especially insecticide. More attention ought to be paid to the protection of vulnerable groups, including children and the elderly.

Activation of manganese dioxide with bisulfite for enhanced abiotic degradation of typical organophosphorus pesticides: Kinetics and transformation pathway

Organophosphorus pesticides (OPPs), a kind of effective insecticide, have attracted extensive attention of researchers because of the high toxicity and refractory character of their degradation products. Given the ubiquity of manganese dioxide (MnO₂) and bisulfite (HSO₃^-) in environmental media, the abiotic degradation of several typical OPPs by the MnO₂-HSO₃^- reaction system was investigated in batch experiments. As a representative OPP, methyl parathion (MP) was chosen to be the focus of the study. The removal rate of MP was remarkably improved by adding bisulfite (HSO₃^-) to the MnO₂ single-reaction system, and the oxidation product methyl paraoxon was below the detection limit. The primary active substances generated from the reaction system were determined to be Mn(III) species by adding excess radical scavengers or complexants (methanol and pyrophosphate) to the reaction system. On the basis of the metabolic products of MP identified by liquid chromatography-high-resolution mass spectrometry (LC/HRMS) and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC/MS), the transformation pathway of MP in the MnO₂-HSO₃^- reaction system was elicited, which included the predominant processes of hydrolysis and oxidation. Furthermore, the typical OPPs with different structures were also degraded efficiently by the reaction system because of the oxidative degradation of Mn(III). This study offers significative information related to the abiotic oxidation of manganese minerals and the fate and dissipation of OPPs in the actual environment.