Parenting stress among new parents before and during the COVID-19 pandemic

Gender Differences in Variability in Intimate Relationship Satisfaction: A Secondary Analysis and Meta-Analysis

There is a long-standing interest in gender differences in satisfaction in intimate relationships. Whereas prior research has focused on gender differences in central tendency (i.e., means), we conducted two studies - a secondary analysis of data from a probability sample of Australian married couples and a meta-analysis - to examine gender differences in variability (i.e., variances). We hypothesized that compared to males, females would demonstrate greater variability in intimate relationship satisfaction (i.e., greater female variability hypothesis), particularly at lower levels of relationship satisfaction. Results from a secondary analysis of data from 2,711 married couples in the Household, Income and Labour Dynamics in Australia (HILDA) survey and from a meta-analysis of 20 years of research (k = 171, N = 84,976), including independent samples from 33 countries, indicated that relative to males, females reported greater variability in relationship satisfaction. Obtained effect sizes (female-to-male variance ratios [VRs] of 1.42 for the HILDA sample and 1.19 for the meta-analysis) were larger than proposed cutoffs for meaningful group differences in variability. Analysis of tail ratios (ratios of the relative proportion of females divided by the relative proportion of males in the distributional tail regions) in the HILDA sample indicated that gender differences in variability were greater at lower (versus higher) levels of satisfaction. Findings support the greater female variability hypothesis and suggest that by focusing only on gender differences in means, the existing literature has underestimated gender differences in intimate relationship satisfaction.

Cumulative childhood interpersonal trauma and parental stress: The role of partner support

Parents who have experienced cumulative childhood interpersonal trauma (CCIT, i.e., an accumulation of different types of abuse) tend to experience higher parental stress following the birth of a child. As CCIT is associated with lower levels of partner support, which is linked to increased parental stress, partner support could explain the link between CCIT and parental stress. Yet, these variables have never been studied using a dyadic approach. This study examined the role of received and provided partner support in the association between CCIT and parental stress. A randomly selected sample of 1119 couples with infants completed online questionnaires assessing CCIT, partner support, and parental stress. An actor-partner interdependence model path analysis showed that both parents' CCIT were associated with increased paternal stress through fathers' lower received and provided support, and with increased maternal stress through mothers' received and provided support. Overall, the findings highlight the significance of examining the interdependence between both parents' experience and the role of partner support as a key factor explaining the link between CCIT and parental stress, thereby emphasizing its importance as an intervention target.

The Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on the Paternal Parenting Experience: A Scoping Review

The objective of this scoping review was to map the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the paternal parenting experience. Studies published between January 2020 and October 2021 reporting on paternal mental health, interparental relations, and child interactions were eligible. Forty studies from 17 different countries were included. Most studies included data from both mothers and fathers (83%); five studies reported data from fathers only, and three examined same-sex partners. Most commonly reported outcomes included division of childcare activities (n = 14), delegation of household tasks (n = 10), depression (n = 12), and stress (n = 9). The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on fathers varied globally with no clear trends except for the division of childcare and household tasks, in which fathers increased their contribution to childcare and household tasks yet mothers continued to experience a higher domestic burden. Further research is recommended to advance our understanding of how fathers coped during the COVID-19 pandemic and document the long-term impact of the pandemic on families.

What Promotes Positive Parenting During Breast Cancer? A Cross-Sectional Analysis of Social Support, Emotion Regulation, and Meaning in Life

BACKGROUND

Motherhood and maintaining the child-parent relationship are top priorities for mothers with breast cancer (BC). The current study aimed to assess the positive intra- and inter-personal resources related to positive parenting among mothers with BC, as these may be promotive factors for positive parenting. Specifically, we examined whether social support (family, friend, spiritual), emotion regulation, and a sense of meaning in life are related to positive parenting among mothers undergoing BC treatments.

METHODS

The sample consisted of 100 Israeli mothers (mean age = 46.02 years, SD = 6.06 years) who were undergoing treatment for BC. Participating mothers had at least one child aged 6-17 years. Participants were recruited via closed social media groups to complete a questionnaire containing: the Alabama Parenting Questionnaire, Cancer Perceived Agents of Social Support tool, Emotion Regulation Questionnaire, Meaning in Life Questionnaire, European Organization for Research and Treatment of Cancer Quality of Life Questionnaire (EORTC QLQ-C30), and sociodemographic and clinical questions. We used structural equation modeling to regress the study variables on positive parenting.

RESULTS

Friend support (β = .35, p = .009) and meaning in life (β = .30, p = .012) were significantly related to positive parenting. Family support, spiritual support, cognitive reappraisal, and the sociodemographic and clinical variables were not related to positive parenting.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study suggests that promoting meaning in life and friend support may be key to helping mothers to sustain positive parenting behaviors throughout their cancer treatment. Future research may examine whether psychosocial interventions which foster meaning in life and friend support impact positive parenting among mothers with BC.

Father-to-infant attachment and its associated factors during COVID-19 pandemic: a cross-sectional study

BACKGROUND

The attachment between father and infant is essential to a child's later development and well-being; yet, hardly any research has examined father-to-infant attachment during the outbreak of COVID-19. This study, therefore, aims to examine psychological, interpersonal, and health-related factors associated with father-to-infant attachment at 3-12 months postpartum during the pandemic.

METHOD

An online cross-sectional study was conducted between June and December 2021. A total of 775 fathers with at least one child aged 3-12 months were recruited. Participants completed measures of depression, COVID-19-related distress, relationship satisfaction, social support and other health-related factors including COVID-19 diagnosis and hospitalisation. Data on psycho-socio-demographic, obstetric, and COVID-19-related characteristics were also collected.

RESULTS

Findings demonstrated that paternal depression (β = -.33, p < .001); relationship satisfaction (β = .19, p < .001); COVID-19-related psychological distress (β = -.14, p < .001) and social support (β = .13, p < .001) had a significant effect on father-to-infant attachment. Fathers who were multiparous, had COVID-19 diagnosis, and hospitalised due to COVID-19 were more likely to report poorer father-to-infant attachment. Paternal depression was the most influential factor on father-to-infant attachment, which attenuated the strength of the relationships between marital status, prematurity, history of trauma, sleep quality, and father-to-infant attachment once included into the analyses. No significant associations between educational level, employment, socioeconomic status, delivery mode, and father-to-infant attachment were observed.

CONCLUSION

These findings highlight the critical role of paternal psychological well-being in establishing healthy father-to-infant attachment and the relevance of having satisfied interpersonal relationships in promoting this early relationship particularly during crises such as COVID-19 pandemic.

Parental and Adolescents' Anxiety during the COVID-19 Outbreak in Rural China: The role of Parent-child Communication

Purpose

It has been suggested that the intergenerational transmission of anxiety may be an important contributor to the high prevalence of anxiety in adolescents. The objectives of this study are to examine whether and how parental anxiety is related to adolescent's anxiety and to explore the associations of parental anxiety and parent-child communication with adolescents' anxiety across different grades.

Methods

The current survey was conducted online from February 8th to February 27th, 2020.The questionnaires were distributed and retrieved through a web-based platform. A total of 6196 Chinese rural adolescents from grade seven to twelve (age ranging from 11 to 18 years old) were included.

Results

In this study, parental anxiety was significantly associated with higher adolescent anxiety (β = 0.14, p < 0.001) and this association was statically strongest at grade twelve. Besides, children with problematic parent-child communication related to COVID-19 reported elevated anxiety (β = 0.05, p < 0.01). In contrast, effective parent-child communication about COVID-19 mitigated the level of anxiety transmitted from parent to child (β = -0.04, p < 0.05).

Conclusions

During the COVID-19 epidemic, parents' anxiety was related to adolescents' anxiety. In addition, parent-child communication plays a moderating role in the above relationship. These findings emphasize the importance of implementing more psycho-education programs that specifically target parents' emotion regulation and effective communication abilities to ameliorate the psychopathological symptoms of parents and their children.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s40653-023-00609-y.

The change of psychosocial stress factors in families with infants and toddlers during the COVID-19 pandemic. A longitudinal perspective on the CoronabaBY study from Germany

Background

Over nearly three years, the COVID-19 pandemic has had a lasting impact on people's lives and mental health worldwide with its far-reaching restrictions and concerns about infections and other personal consequences. Families were particularly affected and showed increased stress and psychological problems. Long-term effects cannot be ruled out. So far, data on young families are sparse. The present longitudinal analysis (n = 932) of the CoronabaBY study investigated the development of parenting stress, parental affective symptoms, and child's mental health in young families with children aged 0-3 years in Germany as well as potential influencing factors.

Methods

The observational study includes two measurement points over the course of the pandemic (baseline and follow-up). Data was collected by app using standardized questionnaires.

Results

N = 932 participants, mainly mothers (94.7%) born in Germany (93.1%) with higher education (61.3% with at least high school diploma) and a comfortable financial situation participated in the longitudinal study. Children were on average 14.7 months old at baseline (SD: 12, range: 1-39 months). While the proportion of parents who perceived the pandemic as stressful decreased significantly from baseline (60%) to follow-up (52.3%), the proportion with parenting stress increased significantly (from 40.1% to 45.4%). Both parental and child mental health problems remained constant over time, with infants crying/feeding/sleeping problems ranging above pre-pandemic comparative data. Most predictive for high parenting stress at follow-up was high parenting stress at baseline. This was also true for parental affective symptoms (depression/anxiety) and child mental health problems.

Conclusions

Despite faded pandemic restrictions, parents remained burdened. Support services do not appear to have been sufficient to help families out of their stressful situation. Our results indicate a need for action regarding low-threshold services that effectively reach affected families.

Trial registration

The study was pre-registered in OSF (https://osf.io/search/?q=tksh5&page=1).

Social contributions to meaning in life: the role of romantic relationship quality, parenting, and gender

Introduction

The present study tests the association between romantic relationship quality and number of children on meaning in life (i.e., sense of purpose, coherence, and significance) and considers interactions between these constructs and gender.

Methods

A survey was conducted approximately one year into the pandemic among 473 individuals in the United States.

Results

Models demonstrated that relationship quality and number of children are positively associated with meaning, though relationship quality was more strongly related to meaning for men than women. We showed that for women there was an equally positive link between relationship quality and meaning regardless of number of children. However, for men, the positive association between relationship quality and meaning was strongest for those with more than one child, decreased in magnitude for those with one child, and was no longer significant for men with more than one child.

Discussion

These findings provide empirical evidence that social relationships benefit meaning in life and underscore the complexity of these associations. Results have implications for theoretical perspectives on meaning in life, as well as for policies that encourage family wellbeing.

COVID-19 and Caregiver Risk Factors for Child Maltreatment: The Pandemic in Review

The COVID-19 pandemic has fostered an environment for increased risk of child maltreatment (CM) as families experience increased psychosocial and financial burdens and spend unprecedented amounts of time together in the home. This narrative review aimed to summarize empirical findings on existing or new pandemic-related risk factors among caregivers. A combination of search terms related to CM and COVID-19 were used to identify articles published within five databases between February 2020 and July 2022. Literature searches produced 113 articles, of which 26 published across 12 countries met inclusion criteria. Four previously well-established risk factors for CM perpetration continued to persist during the pandemic, including stress, parental mental health, financial concerns, and parental substance use. Of note, inconsistent definitions and measures were used to capture these risk factors. Several additional emerging and understudied risk factors were also identified among limited articles, such as food insecurity and parental education. Findings emphasize the ongoing need for evidence-based interventions to address CM risk during the pandemic, including parent training programs. However, consolidated measures and consistent conceptualization of risk factors are needed to advance the study of CM. Going forward, practitioners and researchers should (a) strengthen the identification process for families at greatest risk for CM, and particularly those vulnerable to pandemic-related stressors; and (b) augment delivery of CM prevention strategies and evidence-based programs to fit the pandemic context.

Assessing parents' and children's psychological well-being and its associated factors during the COVID-19 lockdown in a Tunisian-North African population

BACKGROUND

The rapidly emerging Coronavirus infectious disease 2019 (COVID-19) has spread around the world yielding in significant changes in almost every aspect of daily life. While primary research of the epidemic COVID-19 has focused on the psychological impact on the general population and health professionals, no survey of the pandemic-resulting containment on parents and their children has been yet addressed in the Tunisian-North African population. This study aimed to assess the psychological profile of parents and youth in Tunisia during a period of COVID 19 lockdown, and to identify associated factors to parental anxiety symptoms.

METHODS

This is an analytical cross-sectional study composed of a total of 538 adults including 464 mothers and 74 fathers. Parents of children aged less than 18 years completed an online survey (Google Forms) on the Psychological Impact of Confinement which includes the Generalized Anxiety Scale (GAD-7), the Parental Burnout Assessment (PBA), and the infantile trait-anxiety scale. The survey was initiated in May 2020 on a population of the Tunisian-North African citizens and lasted for more than 6 weeks.

RESULTS

The median GAD-7 score was 11 corresponding to a moderate anxiety with 27.8% reporting severe anxiety. The median PBA score was 31 corresponding to a moderate risk of burnout, with 19.5% being affected. The children's anxiety scores were associated with their parents' anxiety ratings with 24% of the children reported signs of moderate anxiety.

CONCLUSIONS

The COVID-19 pandemic affected parental and their children' psychological behavior due to a direct social isolation and distancing. Pediatricians need to be alerted on this issue and future measures are essential to avoid parental emotional burnout and anxiety disorder in similar situations.

COVID-19's shadow on families: A structural equation model of parental stress, family relationships, and child wellbeing

The present study seeks to contribute to developmental science in emergencies by investigating associations between COVID-19 pandemic-related stressors, parents' stress, family relationships, and child wellbeing. In doing so, we build on recent research that generalizes the assumptions of the Family Stress Model beyond direct economic stressors of households to macro-contextual stressors that operate at the societal level. In the case of our study, these stressors relate to the COVID-19 pandemic, such as health risks and confinement-related stresses. Participants were 783 parents of young children (75% female, Mage = 34.61 years) residing in the United Arab Emirates. They completed an online survey in Fall 2020 and Spring 2021, measuring how the pandemic impacted their lives and the lives of their child (Mage = 47.54 months). A subsample of parents (n = 96) completed the survey for two children. Structural equation modeling showed that pandemic-related stressors contributed to higher stress among parents which, in turn, resulted in lower parent-reported child wellbeing at various times during the pandemic. Family relationships mediated the association between parents' stress and child wellbeing. The present study contributes to our understanding on how large-scale disruption due to COVID-19 pandemic-related stressors gets inside the family, the strength and direction of associations (concurrently and over time), and the timing of mechanisms that impact family processes. The results highlight the need to support families with young children in managing disruptions due to emergencies, such as a global public health crisis, and to determine ways of preventing longstanding consequences on family structures and children's lives.

Comparing Anxiety Levels during the COVID-19 Pandemic among Mothers of Children with and without Neurodevelopmental Disorders

The COVID-19 pandemic undoubtedly burdened families, perhaps even more for parents of children with neurodevelopmental disabilities. This research aims to determine the anxiety levels in mothers of children with neurodevelopmental disorders (autism spectrum disorder and specific language impairment) and mothers of typically developed children. The cross-sectional study comprised 280 mothers from the period of the COVID-19 pandemic in Serbia. A confidential survey included main demographic data and the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI). Results revealed that the mean levels of STAI-S and STAI-T are elevated in the observed sample of mothers in the first pandemic wave; the STAI-S level is in the high category (STAI-S mean = 46.69), while STAI-T is in the intermediate category near the cut-off value for the high level (STAI-T mean = 43.04). A statistically significant strong positive correlation between STAI-S and STAI-T is seen (r = 0.802, p = 0.001). GLMM analysis revealed that interactions, rather than independent variables, significantly impact anxiety, implying a complex relationship between the observed variables and STAI. Compared with the results from the pre-pandemic study, our findings reveal that COVID-19 affects mothers of children with and without neurodevelopmental disorders in a complex manner, imposing a need for psychological support, which may positively affect mothers' mental health and the development of their offspring.

Pre-pandemic support for shared reading buffers adverse parenting impacts: an RCT in Brazil

BACKGROUND

To examine whether (1) a parent-child reading program (Universidade do Bebê [UBB]), conducted in Brazil pre-pandemic can support parenting and parent-child reading 6 months into the pandemic, (2) cognitive stimulation at pandemic onset mediates effects of UBB on these outcomes, and (3) UBB pre-pandemic buffers associations between COVID-19-related distress and parenting/parent-child reading 6 months into the pandemic.

METHODS

400 women, either pregnant or with children 0-24 months, were randomized to UBB (n = 200) or control groups. UBB consisted of monthly parent workshops focusing on parent-child reading and a book-lending library. Assessments pre-pandemic (June-2019) and at pandemic onset (April-2020) included cognitive stimulation. Assessments 6 months into the pandemic (October-2020) included COVID-19 exposure/impact/distress, as well as parenting and parent-child reading.

RESULTS

133 families (n = 69 UBB) contributed data 6 months into the pandemic. Participation in UBB pre-pandemic was associated with parent-child reading but not parenting 6 months into the pandemic. Indirect effects of UBB through cognitive stimulation at pandemic onset were observed for both outcomes. Increased COVID-19-related distress was significantly associated with reduced parenting/parent-child reading 6 months into the pandemic in the control group only.

CONCLUSION

Promotion of cognitive stimulation pre-pandemic may have reduced risk for effects of the pandemic on parenting/parent-child reading.

CLINICAL TRIAL REGISTRATION

The trial has been registered with the Brazilian Clinical Trials Registry RBR-29RZDH on 05/28/2018.

IMPACT

This is the first study showing sustained impacts of a reading aloud intervention beginning in pregnancy and early infancy implemented pre-pandemic. Findings suggest that participation in a reading-aloud intervention buffered associations between COVID-19 distress and parenting/parent-child reading 6 months into the pandemic. Novel empirical evidence suggests that promotion of cognitive stimulation prior to the pandemic may buffer its impacts on parenting and parent-child book reading following onset in low- and middle-income countries. Findings provide important new support for implementation of parent-child reading aloud programs and likely have implications for early childhood development beyond the COVID-19 pandemic for disasters generally.

Parental loneliness, perceptions of parenting, and psychosocial factors among parents having new children during the COVID-19 pandemic

Individuals who had new children during the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic became parents in challenging situations, starting from pregnancy and continuing to after birth. This study aimed to clarify the characteristics of parental loneliness, perceptions of parenting, and psychosocial factors among parents having new children during the COVID-19 pandemic. The participants comprised a first-child group (523 parents; those who had their first child) and a second-child group (621 parents; those who had their second or subsequent child). We used web-based questionnaires to explore parental loneliness, perceptions of parenting, and psychosocial factors (distress, parental burnout, well-being, marital satisfaction, and social isolation). Participants answered the questionnaires in November 2022, during the eighth COVID-19 wave in Japan. We compared the groups and subgroups according to parental sex and determined the relationship between variables. The parents in the first-child group felt lonelier than the parents in the second-child group (p < 0.05), and their loneliness was correlated with psychosocial factors. Significantly, more mothers in the second-child group answered "agree" to negative perceptions of parenting than mothers in the first-child group. Additionally, parenting difficulties were correlated with a negative perception of parenting and parental burnout in both groups. Furthermore, providing parental support may improve parenting and promote parents' health.

Dyadic approach to maturity to parenthood: multilevel study on attachment in expectant and non-expectant couples

OBJECTIVE

This study examined links between attachment styles and maturity to parenthood and its dimensions across different age groups of childless young adult couples. The role of developmental factors (age, assuming parental role) for maturity to parenthood was also investigated.

BACKGROUND

Relational and individual factors have both been confirmed to be crucial for the transition to parenthood. The concept of maturity to parenthood has been linked to individual values, personality traits, and close relationships. However, the question arises whether maturity to parenthood is related to one of the most crucial concepts in family psychology - attachment.

METHOD

Three hundred heterosexual young adult couples aged 20-35 years (M_age  = 26.20; SD  = 3.63) took part. Couples were divided into three groups: 1) 110 couples aged 20-25 (emerging adulthood); 2) 90 couples aged 26-35 (young adulthood); and 3) 100 couples aged 20-35 expecting their first child (third trimester of pregnancy). The main questionnaires used were the Maturity to Parenthood Scale and Close Relationship Experience Scale.

RESULTS

The results indicated that the more avoidant couples had lower maturity to parenthood. A moderation effect of group (pregnancy) was also observed - the effect of attachment-related avoidance was weaker in expectant couples. Women presented higher overall and behavioural maturity to parenthood than men. Furthermore, higher life satisfaction were associated with greater maturity to parenthood.

CONCLUSION

Maturity to parenthood is also created in the dyadic context. When related to lower attachment avoidance, it might greatly facilitate transition to parenthood and future parent - child relations.

Easing pandemic-related restrictions, easing psychosocial stress factors in families with infants and toddlers? Cross-sectional results of the three wave CoronabaBY study from Germany

BACKGROUND

Families with young children are particularly vulnerable for the stressors induced by the COVID-19 pandemic. However, studies on their psychosocial situation during the course of the crisis are still sparse.

METHODS

In a comparison of three survey waves (wave I and III = high COVID-19 incidences), we cross-sectionally investigated the proportion of families (N_total = 2940) with children aged 0-3 years experiencing pandemic burden, parenting stress, and parental and child mental health problems in relation to COVID-19 incidences and restrictions in Southern Germany via validated questionnaires. Potential influencing factors were also explored.

RESULTS

The number of parents with a high pandemic burden decreased over the course of the pandemic with a peak of 65.3% in wave I (significant changes except wave II versus III). Participants with high parenting stress significantly increased from 38.2% in wave I to 51.2% in wave III. The number of parents with symptoms of depression and anxiety remained constantly high with a maximum of 28.4% being affected. Infants with crying/sleeping problems increased significantly from 26.4% in wave I to 35.5% in wave III. Toddlers' emotional and behavioral problems showed a peak of 23.9% in wave III (no significant changes). Increased family conflicts were the strongest predictor for parenting stress (ß = 0.355), maternal (ß = 0.305), infants' (ß = 0.149) and toddlers' (ß = 0.216) mental health problems during the pandemic.

CONCLUSIONS

Psychosocial stress factors in families with infants and toddlers remained highly pronounced and even partly increased irrespective of pandemic events. The findings suggest a staggered negative impact of pandemic-related factors on young children's mental health. Promoting infants' mental health as well as strengthening parental resources by reducing parenting stress should be a top healthcare priority in the aftermath of COVID-19. Trial registration The study was pre-registered in OSF ( https://osf.io/search/?q=tksh5&page=1 ).

A U.S. National Study of Family Resilience During the COVID-19 Pandemic

The COVID-19 pandemic has significantly disrupted the lives of children and their caregivers. Recent research has examined the impact of the pandemic on child and caregiver functioning but there is a paucity of work examining the impact of the pandemic on the broader family system. The current study examined family resilience during the COVID-19 pandemic across three aims: Aim 1 tested whether meaning, control, and emotion systems form a unitary family adaption factor, Aim 2 evaluated a concurrent model of family resilience, and Aim 3 examined whether parent gender and vaccination status moderated paths in the final model. A nationally representative sample of U.S. parents (N = 796; 51.8% fathers, M age = 38.87 years, 60.3% Non-Hispanic White) completed a cross-sectional survey about themselves and one child (5-16 years old) between February-April 2021, including measures of COVID-19 family risk and protective factors, pre-existing family health vulnerabilities, race, COVID-19 stressors, and family adaptation. Confirmatory Factor Analysis demonstrated that the meaning (i.e., family making meaning of COVID-19), control (i.e., stability in routines), and emotional (i.e., family support) facets of family adaptation are unique but related. A path model revealed that there were concurrent effects from COVID-19 exposure, pre-existing vulnerabilities, and racial diversity status to the family protective, vulnerability, and adaptation variables. Additionally, parent COVID-19 vaccination status altered the association between pre-existing family health vulnerabilities and the family protective factor. Overall, results underscore the importance of examining pre-existing and concurrent risk and protective factors for family resilience during a stressful, global, and far-reaching event.

Changes, differences, and factors of parenthood in high-risk pregnant women and their partners in Japan

BACKGROUND

Various stressors exists for pregnant women worldwide, especially negative social and environmental influences that can increase the number of high-risk pregnant women. These may cause a difficult transition to parenthood for women and their partners. However, limited studies have focused on and examined parenthood. Therefore, this study aimed to identify the changes in parenthood from pregnancy to post-discharge after childbirth among high-risk pregnant women and their partners, as well as the presence or absence of gender differences and the factors associated with parenthood.

METHODS

This longitudinal quantitative study used a self-administered anonymous questionnaire distributed among 127 pregnant women and their partners who visited a high-risk pregnant outpatient clinic. The Scale of Early Childrearing Parenthood (SECP; three subareas, 33 items) was administered thrice: during pregnancy (T1), after childbirth (T2), and after discharge (T3).

RESULTS

The analysis included 85 T1 (37 fathers and 48 mothers), 36 T2 (13 fathers and 23 mothers), and 31 T3 (11 fathers and 20 mothers) responses. There was a significant increase in the SECP scores for both parents from T1 to T3. Mothers had a greater increase in the SECP scores from T1 to T2 than fathers. In addition, fathers' mean SECP scores at T1 and T2 were higher compared with those of the mothers. Mothers' and fathers' SECP scores at each time point showed no significant differences. At all time points, the SECP scores were commonly and significantly associated with infertility treatment, physical and mental condition, postpartum depression at T2, and parenting stress at T3.

CONCLUSIONS

Because parenthood in the infertility treatment group was significantly higher throughout the series, we need to support such couples so that childbirth does not become their main goal. We suggest interventions for factors that impede parenthood development, understand the various backgrounds of the parents, and support the couple individually while also considering them as a unit.

Mental Health Trajectories of Latinx Female Caregivers and Young Children During COVID-19: A Longitudinal Analysis

Studies of the impact of COVID-19 on mental health symptoms suggest that there may be a unique impact of COVID-19 on minoritized individuals, young children (children five and younger), and their caregivers. Longitudinal studies with representative samples including minoritized populations are needed to accurately reflect the experience of families during COVID-19. The current study used a longitudinal design to assess trajectories of mental health among Latinx female caregivers and their young children over time, beginning prior to the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic and over the course of 12 months. In fall of 2019, Latinx female caregivers (N = 213; 93.0% biological mother) of young children (M age  = 5.38, SD = 0.34) reported on their own and their child's (52.6% female) mental health symptoms, as well as parenting stress, at three time points through Fall of 2020. Growth curve models showed that self-report of caregiver global mental health worsened over time, though caregiver depression and parenting stress did not change significantly, nor did caregiver-report of their children's mental health. Results suggest that while female caregiver well-being was adversely affected by COVID-19, caregivers showed resilience in the face of this pandemic, which in turn may have buffered the impact of the pandemic on Latinx child mental health. Methodological and contextual implications of these results are considered.

Mother-infant emotional availability through the COVID-19 pandemic: Examining continuity, stability, and bidirectional associations

The COVID-19 pandemic may impact the development of infants' social communication patterns with their caregivers. The current study examined continuity, stability, and bidirectional associations in maternal and infant dyadic Emotional Availability (EA) before and during the COVID-19 pandemic. Participants were 110 Israeli mother-infant dyads (51% girls) that were assessed prior to (Mage = 3.5 months) and during (Mage = 12.4 months) the pandemic. At both time points, mother-infant interactions were observed during play (nonstressful context) and tasks designed to elicit infant frustration (stressful context). Maternal and child EA were coded offline. Maternal EA demonstrated no significant mean-level changes from before to during the COVID-19 pandemic, whereas infant responsiveness and involvement increased over time. Stability and bidirectional associations in EA differed by context and were evident only in the stressful context. Mothers' perceived levels of social support further moderated these associations. Specifically, infants' pre-pandemic responsiveness and involvement predicted maternal EA during the pandemic only when mothers reported low levels of social support. Our findings suggest that maternal and child EA were not adversely impacted by the COVID-19 pandemic. However, patterns of EA demonstrated moderate-to-no stability over time, suggesting considerable individual differences in trajectories of EA.

The predictive role of parental attitudes toward COVID-19 vaccines and child vulnerability: A multi-country study on the relationship between parental vaccine hesitancy and financial well-being

Background and purpose

Recent new mutations and increases in transmission of COVID-19 among adolescents and children highlight the importance of identifying which factors influence parental decisions regarding vaccinating their children. The current study aims to explore whether child vulnerability and parents' attitudes toward vaccines mediate the association between perceived financial well-being and vaccine hesitancy among parents.

Method

A predictive, cross-sectional, multi-country online questionnaire was administered with a convenience sample of 6,073 parents (Australia, 2,734; Iran, 2,447; China, 523; Turkey, 369). Participants completed the Parent Attitude About Child Vaccines (PACV), the Child Vulnerability Scale (CVS), a Financial Well-being (FWB) measure, and Parental Vaccine Hesitancy (PVH) questionnaire.

Results

The current study revealed that perceived financial well-being had significant and negative associations with parents' attitudes toward COVID-19 vaccines and child vulnerability among the Australian sample. Contrary to the Australian findings, results from Chinese participants indicated that financial well-being had significant and positive predictive effects on parent attitudes toward vaccines, child vulnerability, and parental vaccine hesitancy. The results of the Iranian sample revealed that parents' attitudes toward vaccines and child vulnerability significantly and negatively predicted parental vaccine hesitancy.

Conclusion

The current study revealed that a parents' perceived financial well-being had a significant and negative relationship with parental attitudes about vaccines and child vulnerability; however, it did not significantly predict parental vaccine hesitancy among Turkish parents as it did for parents in Australia, Iran, and China. Findings of the study have policy implications for how certain countries may tailor their vaccine-related health messages to parents with low financial wellbeing and parents with vulnerable children.

Giving Birth in Unpredictable Conditions: Association between Parents' COVID-19 Related Concerns, Family Functioning, Dyadic Coping, Perceived Social Support and Depressive Symptoms

BACKGROUND

The way postpartum parents' COVID-19-related concerns are associated with the family environment, support resources and depressive symptoms areunder-investigated.

METHODS

Two hundred and forty-three new parents (132 mothers, 111 fathers) completed self-report questionnaires within an 8-week period after birth. Parental concerns for COVID-19-related life changes were assessed with the COVID-19 Questionnaire, perceived social support with the Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support, perceived family functioning with the Family Adaptability and Cohesion Evaluation Scales IV Package, dyadic coping behaviors with the Dyadic Coping Inventory and maternal/paternal postnatal depression with the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale.

RESULTS

(a) Higher levels of COVID-19-related concerns about daily life were associated with lower levels of family communication, satisfaction and increased depressive symptomatology in both parents, and with lower levels of family functioning in mothers; (b) Maternal health care COVID-19-related concerns were linked with lower levels of family communication, lower perceived social support and with an increase in maternal depressive symptoms; and (c) COVID-19-related concerns about neonate hospitalization were associated with increased maternal depressive symptoms.

CONCLUSION

Τhese findings suggest that COVID-19-related concerns had a common negative effect on both postpartum mothers' and fathers' mental health and on certain aspects of family functioning.

The Effects of the COVID-19 Pandemic on the Parenting of Infants: A Couples Study

(1) Background: The COVID-19 pandemic has led to many negative changes in everyday functioning. This study aimed to establish how it impacts parental responsiveness towards their children; (2) Methods: 132 couples (N = 264) who were parents of young children (from 3 to 24 months; M = 12.61; SD = 6.71) participated in this study. The Parental Responsiveness Scale was used to measure parental responsiveness toward their own child and the Polish adaptation of the My Emotions Scale was used to measure emotional reactions to the child's cry. We collected data about perceived stress, fear of being affected by COVID-19, and emotional overload caused by the pandemic. An analysis using actor-partner interdependence models was carried out; (3) Results: there were actor effects for both parental responsiveness and reactions to the child's cry (for all measured aspects (frustration, amusement, anxiety, empathy, sympathy)). For women, parental responsiveness was a negative partner effect of stress, and for men, there was a positive effect of fear of being infected, emotional overload, and stress; (4) Conclusions: these results show how important it is to take care of families and investigate the effects of the pandemic on their functioning.

Unequal impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic on women's fertility preferences: Evidence from a longitudinal cohort in the United States

•The COVID-19 pandemic suppressed fertility desires among US women.•Impacts on fertility preferences persisted from summer 2020 to early 2021.•The fertility preferences of younger women, women of color and those facing financial stress were most impacted.

Perinatal mental health and COVID-19: Navigating a way forward

The COVID-19 pandemic and its aftermath have increased pre-existing inequalities and risk factors for mental disorders in general, but perinatal mental disorders are of particular concern. They are already underdiagnosed and undertreated, and this has been magnified by the pandemic. Access to services (both psychiatric and obstetric) has been reduced, and in-person contact has been restricted because of the increased risks. Rates of perinatal anxiety and depressive symptoms have increased. In the face of these challenges, clear guidance in perinatal mental health is needed for patients and clinicians. However, a systematic search of the available resources showed only a small amount of guidance from a few countries, with a focus on the acute phase of the pandemic rather than the challenges of new variants and variable rates of infection. Telepsychiatry offers advantages during times of restricted social contact and also as an additional route for accessing a wide range of digital technologies. While there is a strong evidence base for general telepsychiatry, the particular issues in perinatal mental health need further examination. Clinicians will need expertise and training to navigate a hybrid model, flexibly combining in person and remote assessments according to risk, clinical need and individual patient preferences. There are also wider issues of care planning in the context of varying infection rates, restrictions and vaccination access in different countries. Clinicians will need to focus on prevention, treatment, risk assessment and symptom monitoring, but there will also need to be an urgent and coordinated focus on guidance and planning across all organisations involved in perinatal mental health care.

Infant regulation during the pandemic: Associations with maternal response to the COVID-19 pandemic, well-being, and socio-emotional investment

In the transition to parenthood, the COVID-19 pandemic poses an additional strain on parental well-being. Confirmed infections or having to quarantine, as well as public health measures negatively affect parents and infants. Contrary to previous studies mainly focusing on the well-being of school-aged children and their parents during lockdown periods, the present study investigated how mothers of infants respond to the COVID-19 pandemic and whether this is related to maternal well-being, maternal socio-emotional investment, and infant regulation. Between April and June 2021, 206 mothers of infants (M_age  = 7.14 months, SD_age  = 3.75 months) reported on COVID-19 infections, their response to the COVID-19 pandemic, their well-being, socio-emotional investment, and their infant's regulation. Exploratory factor analyses yielded five dimensions of maternal response to the COVID-19 pandemic: social distancing, worrying about the child, birth anxiety, distancing from the child, and information on COVID-19-related parenting behavior and support. These dimensions were related to mother-reported infant regulatory problems. Path analyses revealed paths via reduced maternal well-being and maternal socio-emotional investment. Maternal perceptions of infant regulatory problems are related to how the mothers respond to the COVID-19 pandemic. Better information about COVID-19-related parenting behavior and support might buffer against these effects.

How do Internet moms raise children? The reshaping of Chinese urban women’s parenting psychology by COVID-19 online practices

With the acceleration of social transformation and “mediatization,” urban women’s parenting practices have become an important factor affecting the demographic structure and national development. The global COVID-19 pandemic has further contributed to the networking of social life and the creation of “Internet moms” who rely on the Internet for parenting interactions. Using a mixed-methods design, this paper conducted participant observation and in-depth interviews with 90 mothers from various industries born after 1980/1990 across multiple geographies in China to examine the impact of urban women’s Internet practices on the psychology and practice of parenting during the COVID-19 pandemic, as well as how they were empowered by media technologies to practice motherhood and complete their role socialization through the sharing of parenting information, experiences, and actions. The purpose of this qualitative study was to investigate the changing impact of Internet-based parenting practices on Chinese urban women’s daily lives during the COVID-19 pandemic. Through the analysis of these influences, it was found that the whole society, including urban parenting groups, paid attention to self-expression and self-worth and further hoped to arouse society’s recognition, face up to the identity of “mother” and “female,” and give more attention and support to women. The study also found that, as interpersonal communication channels were hindered during the COVID-19 pandemic, the power of the Internet, represented by social media, has created a new platform for information empowerment, action mutual, and ideation of motherhood for urban women formerly bound to family and parenting matters. From individual, family, and individual parenting experiences to group, social, and shared scenarios, urban women are engaged in emotional and memory interactions, including motherhood-related expression, experiences, and collaboration. This shift from virtual to physical has reshaped their parenting view, helping them break through the confines of family experience and traditional customs in addition to providing psychological motivation to express their gender concepts, shape their self-image, construct gender power, and interpret intimate relationships, pushing them to become more reflective of the times, as well as more capable and authoritative.

The needs analysis of the marriage education program for Turkish Cypriot community: Development phase

This research is a needs analysis to develop a marriage education program to be held in the TRNC. The aim of the research is to compare the views of married and divorced individuals about marriage education and to determine their needs for marriage education. For this purpose, it has been determined in which subjects they see themselves as sufficient or inadequate, in which subjects they are willing to participate in the training and in which subjects they are unwilling. In this study, embedded design, one of the mixed research methods in which qualitative and quantitative methods are used together, was used. The dominant dimension of this study is the qualitative research method, and the supporting dimension is the quantitative research method. In the qualitative aspect of the research, the sample group was studied with 16 married and divorced participants living in the TRNC. In the quantitative dimension, a total of 385 married or divorced participants were consulted using the sample calculation of unknown universe. The findings are as follows; In both quantitative and qualitative dimensions, the majority of the participants think that if marriage education is given, they can have a healthier and happier marriage. Married and divorced individuals, effective communication, ways of conflict resolution, respect for differences in understanding in raising children, the causes and consequences of cheating, the importance and functions of the family, expectations from marriage and spouse, the processes experienced by new couples, attitudes and behaviors that may adversely affect marriage, power balance and marital status. They stated that they wanted to receive training on adjustment, relations with families in marriage, marriage and business life, anger control, coping with violence and prevention, spending habits and its effects on marriage, effects of financial difficulties on marriage, sexual life and problems in marriage. A training program will be developed for these determined subjects and will be applied to 20 participants in a semi-experimental model through the TRNC Ministry of National Education. The marriage psycho-education program to be prepared will be developed on the basis of a cognitive behavioral approach.

Changes in parental involvement and perceptions in parents of young children during the COVID-19 pandemic: A cross-sectional observational study in Japan

This study aimed to clarify changes in parental involvement with their children and parental perceptions related to parenting in both fathers and mothers of young children during the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic. A cross-sectional observational design was used. Data were collected using a web-based questionnaire from 28 fathers and 115 mothers between October 1 and November 30, 2020. Parents answered questions regarding themselves, basic sociodemographic variables, perceived changes in involvement with their children, the presence or absence of abusive behavior (e.g., violence toward children), and parental perceptions related to parenting. Many parents indicated that they did not experience major changes in their involvement or perceptions compared to before the COVID-19 pandemic. Half of the fathers considered themselves to be in more physical contact or communication with their children; there was a significant difference between fathers and mothers regarding eating meals with their children (p = 0.00). Fathers felt tired due to parenting (35.7%) or a lack of free time (42.9%) during the COVID-19 pandemic. While significantly more mothers than fathers responded that their partners took care of their children (p = 0.03), significantly greater number of mothers than fathers also reported feeling overburdened (p = 0.00). Family support workers should help fathers maintain involvement with their young children without high stress levels and support mothers to reduce their heavy burden of parenting continuously. This would contribute to young childrens growth and development despite a public health crisis.

A cross-sectional investigation of psychosocial stress factors in German families with children aged 0-3 years during the COVID-19 pandemic: initial results of the CoronabaBY study

BACKGROUND

Psychosocial stress during the COVID-19 pandemic is increasing particularly in parents. Although being specifically vulnerable to negative environmental exposures, research on psychosocial stress factors in infants' and toddlers' families during the pandemic is so far sparse. The CoronabaBY study investigates the perceived pandemic burden, parenting stress and parent and child mental health problems in families with children aged 0-3 years in Bavaria, Southern Germany. Further, the relationships between these psychosocial stressors are examined and sociodemographic characteristics that may be predictive of these factors will be explored.

METHODS

Participants were cross-sectionally surveyed via smartphone app. Standardized questionnaires on perceived pandemic burden, parenting stress, parental symptoms of depression and anxiety, infants' crying, sleeping and feeding problems or toddlers' emotional and behavioral problems were applied.

RESULTS

N = 991 parents (Mage = 33.7 years, SD = 4.5; 93.7% mothers, 91.5% born in Germany) with infants (n = 554; Mage = 5.9 months, SD = 3.0) or toddlers (n = 435; Mage = 25.9 months, SD = 6.5) participated in the first half-year of 2021. Sixty-five percent of the parents perceived a high pandemic burden, 37.7% experienced parenting stress and 24.1% showed affective symptoms (anxiety: 30.1%, depression: 18.5%). Feeding problems, crying/ sleeping problems and multiple regulatory problems were found in 34.8%, 26.2% and 13.5% of the infants, respectively. Amongst toddlers, 8.5% showed noticeable behavior and emotional problems. Children`s mental health problems correlated moderately with parenting stress and parental affective symptoms and weakly with perceived pandemic burden. A lower financial status, higher parental education and increasing child age were significant but weak predictors for higher parenting stress, affective symptoms and higher psychological problems in children.

CONCLUSIONS

A majority of the surveyed families with infants and toddlers experience the pandemic as stressful. The main challenges are parental affective symptoms and limited resources for childcare due to parenting stress. Overall, infants and toddlers show similar levels of mental health problems when being compared to pre-pandemic studies, but staggered detrimental effects on children`s mental health might occur if the stressful conditions persist. This is already indicated by correlations between parental and child psychosocial stress factors.

Parents of young infants report poor mental health and more insensitive parenting during the first Covid-19 lockdown

BACKGROUND

The Covid-19 pandemic has put an unprecedented pressure on families with children. How parents were affected by the first Covid-19 lockdown during the early postpartum period, an already challenging period for many, is unknown.

AIM

To investigate the associations between Covid-19 related stress, mental health, and insensitive parenting practices in mothers and fathers with young infants during the first Dutch Covid-19 lockdown.

METHODS

The Dutch Covid-19 and Perinatal Experiences (COPE-NL) study included 681 parents of infants between 0 and 6 months (572 mothers and 109 fathers). Parents filled out online questionnaires about Covid-19 related stress, mental health (i.e. anxiety and depressive symptoms), and insensitive parenting. Hierarchical regression models were used to analyze the data.

RESULTS

Parents of a young infant reported high rates of Covid-19 related stress, with higher reported stress in mothers compared to fathers. Additionally, the percentages of mothers and fathers experiencing clinically meaningful mental health symptoms during the pandemic were relatively high (mothers: 39.7% anxiety, 14.5% depression; fathers: 37.6% anxiety, 6.4% depression). More Covid-19 related stress was associated with more mental health symptoms in parents and increased insensitive parenting practices in mothers.

CONCLUSIONS

The results emphasize the strain of the pandemic on young fathers' and mothers' mental health and its potential negative consequences for parenting. As poor parental mental health and insensitive parenting practices carry risk for worse child outcomes across the lifespan, the mental health burden of the Covid-19 pandemic might not only have affected the parents, but also the next generation.

The Mental Well-Being of Young Children and Families at the Beginning of the COVID-19 Pandemic in Germany

Abstract. During the spring of 2020, the lockdown in Europe, enacted as a countermeasure to the COVID-19 pandemic, dramatically changed the social and daily life of young families. This online study explored the potential consequences of these unprecedented circumstances for the well-being of young German families. Caregivers completed a standardized questionnaire on their positive mental well-being and open-ended questions referring to their family situation and children. Although there is an emerging body of research describing pandemic-related outcomes in older children, little is known about its impact during early development. Hence, our analyses focused on a subset of caregivers of N = 798 children aged 0 to 23 months. Answers to open-ended questions revealed predominantly negative changes in their children and family life as a whole. During the lockdown, the well-being of the caregivers decreased. Taken together, the data show that social changes caused by the lockdown affected the well-being of young families. Potential mechanisms of stress transmission between parents and children are discussed.

Maternal Self-Efficacy Buffers the Effects of COVID-19-Related Experiences on Postpartum Parenting Stress

OBJECTIVE

To examine the associations of maternal self-efficacy (MSE) and perceived social support with parenting stress during the postpartum period during the COVID-19 pandemic and whether these two psychosocial factors account for variance in parenting stress in addition to the effects of COVID-19-related experiences and sociodemographic factors.

DESIGN

Cross-sectional survey.

SETTING

Online survey, the Perinatal Experiences and COVID-19 Effects (PEACE) study, launched in May 2020.

PARTICIPANTS

Participants included 310 women who gave birth in the past 24 weeks.

METHODS

The survey included self-report quantitative measures of MSE, social support, COVID-19-related experiences, parenting stress, symptoms of depression and anxiety, and a range of sociodemographic factors.

RESULTS

Hierarchical multiple regression analysis indicated that MSE and social support were negatively associated with postpartum parenting stress in addition to the effects of COVID-19-related experiences, maternal symptoms of depression and anxiety, and a range of demographic factors. Furthermore, MSE interacted with COVID-19-related experiences such that higher levels of MSE mitigated the effects of COVID-19-related experiences on parenting stress.

CONCLUSION

Our findings underscore the importance of protective factors at the individual and interpersonal levels and provide insights for prevention and intervention programs aimed at mitigating postpartum parenting stress during a wide-scale disaster such as the COVID-19 pandemic.

Born Under COVID-19 Pandemic Conditions: Infant Regulatory Problems and Maternal Mental Health at 7 Months Postpartum

BACKGROUND

The SARS-COVID-19 pandemic and its associated disease control restrictions have in multiple ways affected families with young children, who may be especially vulnerable to mental health problems. Studies report an increase in perinatal parental distress as well as symptoms of anxiety or depression in children during the pandemic. Currently, little is known about the impact of the pandemic on infants and their development. Infant regulatory problems (RPs) have been identified as early indicators of child socio-emotional development, strongly associated with maternal mental health and the early parent-infant interaction. Our study investigates whether early parenthood under COVID-19 is associated with more maternal depressive symptoms and with a perception of their infants as having more RPs regarding crying/fussing, sleeping, or eating, compared to mothers assessed before the pandemic.

METHODS

As part of a longitudinal study, 65 women who had given birth during the first nationwide disease control restrictions in Northern Germany, were surveyed at 7 months postpartum and compared to 97 women assessed before the pandemic. RPs and on maternal depressive symptoms were assessed by maternal report. Number of previous children, infant negative emotionality, and perceived social support were assessed as control variables.

RESULTS

Compared to the control cohort, infants born during the COVID-19 pandemic and those of mothers with higher depressive symptoms were perceived as having more sleeping and crying, but not more eating problems. Regression-based analyses showed no additional moderating effect of parenthood under COVID-19 on the association of depressive symptoms with RPs. Infant negative emotionality was positively, and number of previous children was negatively associated with RPs.

LIMITATIONS

Due to the small sample size and cross-sectional assessment, the possibility for more complex multivariate analysis was limited. The use of parent-report questionnaires to assess infant RPs can support but not replace clinical diagnosis.

CONCLUSIONS

The pandemic conditions affecting everyday life may have a long-term influence on impaired infant self- and maternal co-regulation and on maternal mental health. This should be addressed in peripartum and pediatric care. Qualitative and longitudinal studies focusing on long-term parental and infant outcomes under ongoing pandemic conditions are encouraged.

Paternal Postnatal Depression During COVID-19 Pandemic: The Role of Health Care Providers

BACKGROUND

The fast spread of COVID-19 can cause some psychological disorders for men. One of the psychological disorders is paternal postpartum depression (PPD). The aim of the present research was to review studies that have investigated paternal postpartum depression during the COVID-19 pandemic.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

For this narrative review, databases such as Google Scholar, Scientific Information Databases (SID), Magiran, PubMed, Web of Science, and Scopus were searched for the full texts of published studies in the Persian and English languages in the period of 2019 to 2021. Finally, 3 articles were selected and reviewed in this study.

RESULTS

The results of this review study were classified into 3 main categories such as (1) The psychological status of men during the COVID-19 pandemic, (2) The effect of paternal PPD on children's development and family psychological status during the COVID-19 pandemic, and (3) The role of healthcare providers in the management of paternal PPD. The findings of the studies showed that paternal PPD increases the rate of child maltreatment, maternal depression, and domestic violence. The promotion of the interpersonal skills of healthcare providers with fathers suffering from depression or psychological problems is the determinant factor of successful results.

CONCLUSIONS

The results showed that paternal PPD has a wide range of consequences in this pandemic. Therefore, it would be recommended that healthcare staff have close contact with families and screen fathers for paternal PPD during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Sleep disturbances in children newly enrolled in elementary school are associated with parenting stress in China

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to investigate the prevalence of children's sleep disturbances among students newly enrolled in elementary school, and explored the association between the two during the child's transition from kindergarten to elementary school.

METHODS

In 2019, a cross-sectional study was conducted among 1,510 newly enrolled school kids and their parents in Beijing. Children's sleep characteristics were evaluated using the Children's Sleep Habits Questionnaire (CSHQ), and parenting stress characteristics were assessed with the Parenting Stress Index-Short Form (PSI-SF). Logistic regression models were used to analyze the association between children's sleep and parenting stress.

RESULTS

A total of 77.9% of children newly enrolled in elementary school had sleep disturbances and 15.6% of parents had experienced parenting stress. When examining the relationship between children's sleep disturbances and parenting stress, monthly family income over US$1,550 was a protective factor and children with sleep disturbances were associated with higher risk of parenting stress. Two subscales from the CSHQ were associated with higher parenting stress risk: sleep duration and daytime sleepiness. Similarly, parents experiencing parenting stress had children with higher risk of sleep disturbances. This risk was also higher for children from parents screening positive in the PSI-SF subscales for parental distress and difficult child.

CONCLUSIONS

We found that children's sleep disturbances and parenting stress were common and there was a bidirectional association between the two during this transition time. Schools and communities need to provide timely psychological support for children and parents to address major stressors.

Development and Psychometric Testing of the Mental Health Scale for Childrearing Fathers

The mental health of fathers influences the development of children and the functioning of families significantly. However, there is no useful scale for the mental health screening of childrearing fathers. This study developed a Mental Health Scale for Childrearing Fathers (MSCF) and determined its reliability and validity. Childrearing fathers are working fathers who co-parent with their spouses. This survey was conducted in two stages: a pilot study and a main survey. Data were obtained from 98 fathers raising preschoolers in the pilot study and 306 fathers in the main survey. The collected data were used to confirm the construct validity, criterion-related validity, convergent validity, and internal consistency reliability. The final MSCF consisted of 25 items comprising four factors: peaceful familial connection, healthy mind and body, satisfying paternal alliances, and leading a meaningful life as a parent. The internal consistency reliability estimated using Cronbach's alpha coefficient for the total scale was 0.918. The validity of the MSCF was logically secured using a confirmatory factor analysis. The MSCF can be an effective tool for mental health screening among fathers in relation to the burden of childrearing during regular infant health checks.