1
|
Ding L, Zhang CM. Occurrence, ecotoxicity and ecological risks of psychoactive substances in surface waters. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2024; 926:171788. [PMID: 38499097 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.171788] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2023] [Revised: 03/14/2024] [Accepted: 03/15/2024] [Indexed: 03/20/2024]
Abstract
Psychoactive substances (PSs) represent a subset of emerging contaminants. Their widespread production and utilization contribute to a growing ecological burden and risk on a global scale. Conventional wastewater treatment methods have proven insufficient in adequately removing psychoactive substances, leading to their occurrence in surface water ecosystems worldwide. As of present, however, a thorough understanding of their geographical prevalence and distribution patterns remains elusive. Further, in the existing literature, there is a scarcity of comprehensive overviews that systematically summarize the toxicity of various psychoactive substances towards aquatic organisms. Through summarizing almost 140 articles, the present study provides an overview of the sources, pollution status, and biotoxicity of psychoactive substances in surface waters, as well as an assessment of their ecological risks. Concentrations of several psychoactive substances in surface waters were found to be as high as hundreds or even thousands of ng·L-1. In parallel, accumulation of psychoactive substances in the tissues or organs of aquatic organisms was found to potentially cause certain adverse effects, including behavioral disorders, organ damage, and DNA changes. Oxidative stress was found to be a significant factor in the toxic effects of psychoactive substances on organisms. The application of the risk quotient approach indicated that psychoactive substances posed a medium to high risk in certain surface water bodies, as well as the need for sustained long-term attention and management strategies.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lin Ding
- School of Environmental and Municipal Engineering, Xi'an University of Architecture and Technology, Xi'an 710055, China; Key Laboratory of Northwest Water Resource, Environment and Ecology, Ministry of Education, Xi'an University of Architecture and Technology, Xi'an 710055, China; Shaanxi Key Laboratory of Environmental Engineering, Xi'an University of Architecture and Technology, Xi'an, 710055, China
| | - Chong-Miao Zhang
- School of Environmental and Municipal Engineering, Xi'an University of Architecture and Technology, Xi'an 710055, China; Key Laboratory of Northwest Water Resource, Environment and Ecology, Ministry of Education, Xi'an University of Architecture and Technology, Xi'an 710055, China; Shaanxi Key Laboratory of Environmental Engineering, Xi'an University of Architecture and Technology, Xi'an, 710055, China; International Science and Technology Cooperation Center for Urban Alternative Water Resources Development, Xi'an University of Architecture and Technology, Xi'an 710055, China.
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Zhu R, Cao S, Su H, Ming D, Tang Y, Chen Z. Efficient magnetic solid-phase extraction, UPLC-MS/MS detection, and consumption assessment of five trace psychoactive substances. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2024:10.1007/s11356-024-33284-z. [PMID: 38635094 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-024-33284-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2023] [Accepted: 04/07/2024] [Indexed: 04/19/2024]
Abstract
Wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) has become an objective and updated surveillance strategy for monitoring and estimating consumption trends of psychoactive substances (PSs) in the population. Firstly, magnetic shrimp shell biochar-based adsorbent (DZMBC) was synthesized and employed for extraction trace PSs from municipal wastewater. Proper pyrolysis temperature and increased KOH activator content favored the pore structure and surface area, thus facilitating extraction. DZMBC delivered exceptional extraction performance such as pH stability, anti-interference property, fast magnetic separation ability, reusability, and reproducibility. Then, a method based on magnetic solid-phase extraction (MSPE) followed by ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS) was developed, validated, and utilized for the quantitative determination of five PSs in real wastewater samples. Methodological validation results indicated a favorable linearity, low method limits of detection (1.00-4.75 ng/L), and good precisions (intra-day and inter-day relative standard deviations < 4.8%). Finally, an objective snapshot of Chongqing drug use and consumption pattern was obtained. Methamphetamine (MAMP) and 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) were the prevalent illegal drugs in local. Both concentrations and per capita consumption of MDMA displayed a change (P < 0.05) between July and September, while no statistical differences were observed for each week.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Rong Zhu
- College of Pharmacy, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, 400016, China
| | - Shurui Cao
- Forensic Identification Center, Southwest University of Political Science and Law, Chongqing, 401120, China.
- Criminal Investigation Law School, Southwest University of Political Science and Law, Chongqing, 401120, China.
| | - Hongtao Su
- Forensic Identification Center, Southwest University of Political Science and Law, Chongqing, 401120, China
| | - Dewang Ming
- The Inspection Technical Center of Chongqing Customs, Chongqing, 400020, China
| | - Yao Tang
- Forensic Identification Center, Southwest University of Political Science and Law, Chongqing, 401120, China
| | - Zhiqiong Chen
- College of Pharmacy, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, 400016, China
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Michlig N, Lehotay SJ, Lightfield AR. Comparison of filter membranes in the analysis of 183 veterinary and other drugs by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. J Sep Sci 2024; 47:e2300696. [PMID: 38356232 DOI: 10.1002/jssc.202300696] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2023] [Revised: 01/05/2024] [Accepted: 01/16/2024] [Indexed: 02/16/2024]
Abstract
Although filtration is one of the most common steps in sample preparation for chemical analysis, filter membrane materials can leach contaminants and/or retain some analytes in the filtered solutions. In multiclass, multiresidue analysis of veterinary drugs, it is challenging to find one type of filter membrane that does not retain at least some of the analytes before injection in ultrahigh-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS/MS). In this study, different filter membranes were tested for use in UHPLC-MS/MS analysis of 183 diverse drugs in bovine muscle, kidney, and liver tissues. Membranes evaluated consisted of polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), polyvinylidene difluoride (PVDF), polyethersulfone, nylon, and regenerated cellulose. Drug classes represented among the analytes included β-agonists, β-lactams, anthelmintics, macrolides, tetracyclines, sulfonamides, tranquilizers, (fluoro)quinolones, anti-inflammatories, nitroimidazoles, coccidiostats, phenicols, and others. Although the presence of a matrix helped reduce the binding of analytes on surface active sites, all of the filter types partially retained at least some of the drugs in the final extracts. In testing by flow-injection analysis, all of the membrane filters were also observed to leach interfering components. Ultimately, filtration was avoided altogether in the final sample preparation approach known as the quick, easy, cheap, effective, rugged, safe, efficient, and robust (QuEChERSER) mega-method, and ultracentrifugation was chosen as an alternative.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Nicolás Michlig
- US Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Eastern Regional Research Center, Wyndmoor, Pennsylvania, USA
- Programa de Investigación y Análisis de Residuos y Contaminantes Químicos (PRINARC), Facultad de Ingeniería Química, Universidad Nacional del Litoral, Santa Fe, Argentina
| | - Steven J Lehotay
- US Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Eastern Regional Research Center, Wyndmoor, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Alan R Lightfield
- US Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Eastern Regional Research Center, Wyndmoor, Pennsylvania, USA
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Hernández F, Fabregat-Safont D, Campos-Mañas M, Quintana JB. Efficient Validation Strategies in Environmental Analytical Chemistry: A Focus on Organic Micropollutants in Water Samples. ANNUAL REVIEW OF ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY (PALO ALTO, CALIF.) 2023; 16:401-428. [PMID: 37068748 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-anchem-091222-112115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
This article critically reviews analytical method validation and quality control applied to the environmental chemistry field. The review focuses on the determination of organic micropollutants (OMPs), specifically emerging contaminants and pesticides, in the aquatic environment. The analytical technique considered is (gas and liquid) chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (MS), including high-resolution MS for wide-scope screening purposes. An analysis of current research practices outlined in the literature has been performed, and key issues and analytical challenges are identified and critically discussed. It is worth emphasizing the lack of specific guidelines applied to environmental analytical chemistry and the minimal regulation of OMPs in waters, which greatly affect method development and performance, requirements for method validation, and the subsequent application to samples. Finally, a proposal is made for method validation and data reporting, which can be understood as starting points for further discussion with specialists in environmental analytical chemistry.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Félix Hernández
- Environmental and Public Health Analytical Chemistry, Research Institute for Pesticides and Water, University Jaume I, Castellón, Spain;
| | - David Fabregat-Safont
- Environmental and Public Health Analytical Chemistry, Research Institute for Pesticides and Water, University Jaume I, Castellón, Spain;
- Applied Metabolomics Research Laboratory, IMIM-Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Marina Campos-Mañas
- Environmental and Public Health Analytical Chemistry, Research Institute for Pesticides and Water, University Jaume I, Castellón, Spain;
| | - José Benito Quintana
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Nutrition and Food Sciences, Institute of Research on Chemical and Biological Analysis (IAQBUS), Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Lesne E, Muñoz-Bartual M, Esteve-Turrillas FA. Determination of synthetic hallucinogens in oral fluids by microextraction by packed sorbent and liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Anal Bioanal Chem 2023:10.1007/s00216-023-04751-2. [PMID: 37219582 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-023-04751-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2023] [Revised: 04/28/2023] [Accepted: 05/08/2023] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
A fast and simple procedure based on microextraction by packed sorbent (MEPS) and liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) has been developed for the simultaneous quantification of 28 synthetic hallucinogens in oral fluids, including lysergic acid diethylamide and substances from NBOMe, NBOH, NBF, 2C, and substituted amphetamine categories. Extraction conditions such as type of sorbent, sample pH, number of charge/discharge cycles, and elution volume were studied. Hallucinogenic compounds were extracted from oral fluid samples using C18 MEPS, loading with 100 μL sample (adjusted to pH 7) in 3 cycles, washing with 100 μL deionized water, and eluting with 50 μL methanol in 1 cycle, giving quantitative recoveries and no significant matrix effects. Limits of detection from 0.09 to 1.22 μg L-1; recoveries from 80 to 129% performed in spiked oral fluid samples at 20, 50, and 100 μg L-1; and high precision with relative standard deviations lower than 9% were obtained. The proposed methodology was demonstrated to be appropriate for the simple and sensitive determination of NBOMe derivates and other synthetic hallucinogenic substances in oral fluid samples.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Evan Lesne
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, University of Valencia, 50th Dr. Moliner St., 46100, Burjassot, Spain
| | - Miguel Muñoz-Bartual
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, University of Valencia, 50th Dr. Moliner St., 46100, Burjassot, Spain
| | | |
Collapse
|
6
|
Campo J, Vitale D, Sadutto D, Vera-Herrera L, Picó Y. Estimation of legal and illegal drugs consumption in Valencia City (Spain): 10 years of monitoring. WATER RESEARCH 2023; 240:120082. [PMID: 37224671 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2023.120082] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2023] [Revised: 05/11/2023] [Accepted: 05/13/2023] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
Wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) approach provides objective, quantitative, near real-time profiles of illicit drug consumption by monitoring the concentration of unchanged parent drugs or their metabolites entering the municipal sewage system. Valencia is the third most populous city in Spain (an important country for the use and transit of several of these drugs). Estimations of consumption over long periods of time will help get better understanding of spatial and temporal trends in the use of licit and illicit drugs. Accordingly, applying the "best practice" protocol, 16 drugs of abuse and metabolites were monitored in this study, and 8 were daily measured during one-two weeks between 2011 and 2020 at the inlet of three wastewater treatment plants of Valencia City. Analysis of the selected compounds was performed by liquid chromatography-triple quadrupole mass spectrometry, and the concentrations obtained were used to back-calculate the consumption data. Cannabis, tobacco, and cocaine were the most consumed drugs whereas opioids were less used. Cannabis and cocaine consumption are on average 2.7-23.4 and 1.1-2.3 g/day/1000inh, respectively, and their use tended to increase since 2018. Weekly profiles were characterized by higher consumption of cocaine, ecstasy, and heroin during weekends compared to weekdays. Similarly, during "Las Fallas" (main local festivity), increased use of cocaine and amphetamine-type stimulants, mainly MDMA, was measured. WBE proved to be an objective and useful methodology to get more insight on temporal drugs of abuse consumption, and the changes derived from local festivities.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Julian Campo
- Environmental and Food Safety Research Group (SAMA-UV). Desertification Research Centre - CIDE (Spanish National Research Council, University of Valencia, Generalitat Valenciana). Carretera CV-315 km 10.7 (Campus IVIA). 46113 Moncada, Valencia, Spain.
| | - Dyana Vitale
- Environmental and Food Safety Research Group (SAMA-UV). Desertification Research Centre - CIDE (Spanish National Research Council, University of Valencia, Generalitat Valenciana). Carretera CV-315 km 10.7 (Campus IVIA). 46113 Moncada, Valencia, Spain
| | - Daniele Sadutto
- Environmental and Food Safety Research Group (SAMA-UV). Desertification Research Centre - CIDE (Spanish National Research Council, University of Valencia, Generalitat Valenciana). Carretera CV-315 km 10.7 (Campus IVIA). 46113 Moncada, Valencia, Spain
| | - Lucia Vera-Herrera
- Environmental and Food Safety Research Group (SAMA-UV). Desertification Research Centre - CIDE (Spanish National Research Council, University of Valencia, Generalitat Valenciana). Carretera CV-315 km 10.7 (Campus IVIA). 46113 Moncada, Valencia, Spain
| | - Yolanda Picó
- Environmental and Food Safety Research Group (SAMA-UV). Desertification Research Centre - CIDE (Spanish National Research Council, University of Valencia, Generalitat Valenciana). Carretera CV-315 km 10.7 (Campus IVIA). 46113 Moncada, Valencia, Spain
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Santana-Viera S, Lara-Martín PA, González-Mazo E. High resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS) determination of drugs in wastewater and wastewater based epidemiology in Cadiz Bay (Spain). JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 2023; 341:118000. [PMID: 37201289 DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2023.118000] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2023] [Revised: 04/14/2023] [Accepted: 04/19/2023] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Multi-residue methods for the determination of the myriad of compounds of emerging concern (CECs) entering in the environment are key elements for further assessment on their distribution and fate. Here, we have developed an analytical protocol for the simultaneous analysis of 195 prescription, over-the-counter, and illicit drugs by using a combination of solid phase extraction (SPE) and determination by liquid chromatography coupled to high resolution mass spectrometry (LC-HRMS). The method was applied to the analysis of influent sewage samples from 3 wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) from Cadiz Bay (SW Spain), enabling the quantification of more than 100 pharmaceuticals, 19 of them at average concentrations higher than 1 μg L-1, including caffeine (92 μg L-1), paracetamol (72 μg L-1), and ibuprofen (56 μg L-1), as well as several illicit drugs (e.g., cocaine). Wastewater based epidemiology (WBE) was applied for 27 of the detected compounds to establish their consumption in the sampling area, which has been never attempted before. Caffeine, naproxen, and salicylic acid stood out because of their high consumption (638, 51, and 20 g d-1·1000pop-1, respectively). Regarding illicit drugs, cocaine showed the highest frequency of detection and we estimated an average consumption of 3683 mg d-1·1000pop-1 in Cadiz Bay. The combination of new HRMS methods, capable of discriminating thousands of chemicals, and WBE will allow for a more comprehensive characterization of chemical substances and their consumption in urban environments in the near future.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sergio Santana-Viera
- Department of Physical Chemistry, Faculty of Marine and Environmental Sciences, CEI-MAR, University of Cadiz, Spain.
| | - Pablo A Lara-Martín
- Department of Physical Chemistry, Faculty of Marine and Environmental Sciences, CEI-MAR, University of Cadiz, Spain
| | - Eduardo González-Mazo
- Department of Physical Chemistry, Faculty of Marine and Environmental Sciences, CEI-MAR, University of Cadiz, Spain
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Tang T, Chen W, Li L, Cao S. Design of experiments (DoE) to develop and to optimize extraction of psychoactive substances. ANALYTICAL METHODS : ADVANCING METHODS AND APPLICATIONS 2023; 15:1601-1609. [PMID: 36896683 DOI: 10.1039/d3ay00059a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
The design of experiments (DoE) method was employed to optimize the adsorption processes of seven psychoactive substances in magnetic solid phase extraction. Fe3O4/GO/ZIF-8 was utilized as an adsorbent for the efficient extraction of psychoactive substances from environmental water samples. The analytes were ephedrine, methylephedrine, amphetamine, methamphetamine, morphine, papaverine, and thebaine, which were determined by ultrahigh performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Plackett-Burman design was employed to identify the significant factors responsible for adsorption, and Box-Behnken design was used for further optimization to obtain the optimum values for each variable. The predicted and experimental values were found to be in good agreement. The coefficient of determination (R2) values of 0.9500-0.9976 indicated that the model was significant. The linear ranges were 1-100 ng mL-1, and the correlation coefficient was good (r2 ≥ 0.995). The EF with values of about 2.5 was obtained with recoveries in the range of 74.92-94.47%. The limits of detection (LOD) and limits of quantification (LOQ) were 0.086-0.353 ng mL-1 and 0.286-1.175 ng mL-1, respectively. The intra-day and inter-day RSDs were in the range of 0.17-1.87% and 0.06-2.21%, respectively. By using the DoE method, the errors associated with inferring the influence and interaction between various factors can be reduced. The combination of MSPE and DoE improves the recovery, precision, and simultaneous detectability of the target analytes. It has a high potential for psychoactive substance analysis in environmental water.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tiantian Tang
- Department of Pharmacy, Chongqing University Cancer Hospital, Chongqing, 400030, China
| | - Wanyi Chen
- Department of Pharmacy, Chongqing University Cancer Hospital, Chongqing, 400030, China
| | - Lixian Li
- Department of Pharmacy, Chongqing University Cancer Hospital, Chongqing, 400030, China
| | - Shurui Cao
- Forensic Identification Center, Southwest University of Political Science and Law, Chongqing, 401120, China.
- Criminal Investigation Law School, Southwest University of Political Science and Law, Chongqing, 401120, China
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Moslah B, Smaoui O, Nouioui MA, Araoud M, Chaouali N, Laribi M, Amira D, Ben Salah N, Hedhili A. Sewage analysis as an alternative tool for assessing drug of abuse and new psychoactive substances in Tunisia. Forensic Sci Int 2023; 347:111672. [PMID: 37023613 DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2023.111672] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2022] [Revised: 03/26/2023] [Accepted: 03/28/2023] [Indexed: 03/31/2023]
Abstract
Many studies attest to the pollution of wastewaters by organic molecules including drug of abuse (DAs) residues and new psychoactive substances (NPS) at trace levels. The occurrence of these emerging micropollutants in influent wastewaters (IWW) from three Tunisian Wastewater Treatment Plants (WWTPs) was assessed. Influent wastewater composite samples (24 h) were collected over 7 consecutive days in November 2019. The determination and quantification of 11 drug of abuse or their metabolites was performed by the application of an optimized multi-residue method liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). MDMA, THC and the cocaine metabolite benzoyl ecgonine were the most detected substances across the three investigated sewage plants. A new wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) approach was applied in this study to estimate illicit drug consumption. This innovative approach was used to calculate and to assess collective drug consumption of illicit drug at a community level, based on the concentration of selected illicit substances and their major metabolites in influent wastewater. The average MDMA consumption found in the selected cities ranged between 35,8-1531,1 mg day- 1/1000 inhabitants and increased during the weekends. Cocaine consumption varied from 24.5 to 179.8 mg day- 1/1000 inhabitants. Complementary qualitative investigation of new psychoactive substances was monitored for the first time for an African country, examining the occurrence of 33 NPS in wastewaters samples. Out of 33 totals screened NPS across all sampling sites, 16 were tentatively identified with this approach. The 16 detected NPS covered most of the representative and used molecules of different NPS classes; including synthetic opioids, synthetic cathinones, amphetamines derivatives and synthetic cannabinoids.
Collapse
|
10
|
Vaudreuil MA, Vo Duy S, Munoz G, Sauvé S. Pharmaceutical pollution of hospital effluents and municipal wastewaters of Eastern Canada. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2022; 846:157353. [PMID: 35842153 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.157353] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2022] [Revised: 07/07/2022] [Accepted: 07/10/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Quantification of drugs residues in wastewaters of different sources could help better understand contamination pathways, eventually leading to effluent regulation. However, limited data are available for hospital-derived wastewaters. Here, an analytical method based on automated on-line solid-phase extraction liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (on-line SPE - UPLC-MS/MS) was developed for the quantification of multi-class pharmaceuticals in wastewaters. Filtrate phase and suspended solids (SPM) were both considered to evaluate the distribution of targeted analytes. Experimental design optimization involved testing different chromatographic columns, on-line SPE columns, and loading conditions for the filtrate phase, and different organic solvents and cleanup strategies for suspended solids. The selected methods were validated with suitable limits of detection, recovery, accuracy, and precision. A total of 30 hospital effluents and 6 wastewater treatment plants were sampled to evaluate concentrations in real field-collected samples. Certain pharmaceuticals were quantified at high levels such as caffeine at 670,000 ng/L in hospital wastewaters and hydroxyibuprofen at 49,000 ng/L in WWTP influents. SPM samples also had high contaminant concentrations such as ibuprofen at 31,000 ng/g in hospital effluents, fluoxetine at 529 ng/g in WWTP influents or clarithromycin at 295 ng/g in WWTP effluents. Distribution coefficients (Kd) and particle-associated fractions (Φ) indicate that pharmaceuticals tend to have better affinity to suspended solids in hospital wastewater than in municipal wastewaters. The results also bring arguments for at source treatment of these specific effluents before their introduction into urban wastewater systems.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Sung Vo Duy
- Department of Chemistry, Université de Montréal, Montréal, QC, Canada
| | - Gabriel Munoz
- Department of Chemistry, Université de Montréal, Montréal, QC, Canada
| | - Sébastien Sauvé
- Department of Chemistry, Université de Montréal, Montréal, QC, Canada.
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Estévez-Danta A, Bijlsma L, Capela R, Cela R, Celma A, Hernández F, Lertxundi U, Matias J, Montes R, Orive G, Prieto A, Santos MM, Rodil R, Quintana JB. Use of illicit drugs, alcohol and tobacco in Spain and Portugal during the COVID-19 crisis in 2020 as measured by wastewater-based epidemiology. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2022; 836:155697. [PMID: 35523346 PMCID: PMC9065690 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.155697] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2022] [Revised: 04/27/2022] [Accepted: 04/30/2022] [Indexed: 05/11/2023]
Abstract
The COVID-19 pandemic spread rapidly worldwide in the year 2020, which was initially restrained by drastic mobility restrictions. In this work, we investigated the use of illicit drugs (amphetamine, methamphetamine, ecstasy, cocaine and cannabis), and licit substances of abuse (alcohol and tobacco) during the earlier months (March-July 2020) of the pandemic restrictions in four Spanish (Bilbao and its metropolitan area, Vitoria-Gasteiz, Castellón and Santiago de Compostela) and two Portuguese (Porto and Vila do Conde) locations by wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE). The results show that no methamphetamine was detected in any of the locations monitored, while amphetamine use was only detectable in the two locations from the Basque Country (Bilbao and its metropolitan area and Vitoria-Gasteiz), with high estimated average usage rates (700-930 mg day-1 1000 inhabitant-1). The remaining substances were detected in all the investigated catchment areas. In general, no remarkable changes were found in population normalized loads compared to former years, except for cocaine (i.e. its main metabolite, benzoylecgonine). For this drug, a notable decrease in use was discernible in Castellón, while its usage in Porto and Santiago de Compostela seemed to continue in a rising trend, already initiated in former years. Furthermore, two events of ecstasy (3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine, MDMA) dumping in the sewage network were confirmed by enantiomeric analysis, one in Santiago de Compostela just prior the lockdown and the second one in the Bilbao and its metropolitan area in July after relieving the more stringent measures. The latter could also be associated with a police intervention. The comparison of WBE with (web) survey data, which do not provide information at a local level, points towards contradictory conclusions for some of the substances, thereby highlighting the need for stable WBE networks capable of near real-time monitoring drug use.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Estévez-Danta
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Nutrition and Food Sciences, Institute of Research on Chemical and Biological Analysis (IAQBUS), Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Constantino Candeira S/N, 15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - Lubertus Bijlsma
- Environmental and Public Health Analytical Chemistry, Research Institute for Pesticides and Water, University Jaume I, Avda Sos Baynat s/n, 12071 Castellón, Spain
| | - Ricardo Capela
- CIMAR/CIIMAR, Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine and Environmental Research, Group of Endocrine Disrupter and Emerging Contaminants, University of Porto, Avenida General Norton de Matos s/n, 4450-208 Matosinhos, Portugal; FCUP-Department of Biology, Faculty of Sciences, University of Porto, Rua Do Campo Alegre, 4169-007 Porto, Portugal
| | - Rafael Cela
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Nutrition and Food Sciences, Institute of Research on Chemical and Biological Analysis (IAQBUS), Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Constantino Candeira S/N, 15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - Alberto Celma
- Environmental and Public Health Analytical Chemistry, Research Institute for Pesticides and Water, University Jaume I, Avda Sos Baynat s/n, 12071 Castellón, Spain
| | - Félix Hernández
- Environmental and Public Health Analytical Chemistry, Research Institute for Pesticides and Water, University Jaume I, Avda Sos Baynat s/n, 12071 Castellón, Spain
| | - Unax Lertxundi
- Bioaraba Health Research Institute, Osakidetza Basque Health Service, Araba Mental Health Network, Araba Psychiatric Hospital, Pharmacy Service, c/Alava 43, 01006 Vitoria-Gasteiz, Alava, Spain
| | - João Matias
- European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction, 1249-289 Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Rosa Montes
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Nutrition and Food Sciences, Institute of Research on Chemical and Biological Analysis (IAQBUS), Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Constantino Candeira S/N, 15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - Gorka Orive
- NanoBioCel Group, Laboratory of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmacy, University of the Basque Country UPV/EHU, Paseo de la Universidad 7, Vitoria-Gasteiz 01006, Spain; Biomedical Research Networking Centre in Bioengineering, Biomaterials and Nanomedicine (CIBER-BBN), Vitoria-Gasteiz, Spain; University Institute for Regenerative Medicine and Oral Implantology - UIRMI (UPV/EHU-Fundación Eduardo Anitua), Vitoria-Gasteiz, Spain; Singapore Eye Research Institute, The Academia, 20 College Road, Discovery Tower, Singapore; Bioaraba, NanoBioCel Research Group, Vitoria-Gasteiz, Spain
| | - Ailette Prieto
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Science and Technology, University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Leioa, Basque Country, Spain; Research Centre for Experimental Marine Biology and Biotechnology (PIE), University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Plentzia, Basque Country, Spain
| | - Miguel M Santos
- CIMAR/CIIMAR, Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine and Environmental Research, Group of Endocrine Disrupter and Emerging Contaminants, University of Porto, Avenida General Norton de Matos s/n, 4450-208 Matosinhos, Portugal; FCUP-Department of Biology, Faculty of Sciences, University of Porto, Rua Do Campo Alegre, 4169-007 Porto, Portugal
| | - Rosario Rodil
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Nutrition and Food Sciences, Institute of Research on Chemical and Biological Analysis (IAQBUS), Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Constantino Candeira S/N, 15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain.
| | - José Benito Quintana
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Nutrition and Food Sciences, Institute of Research on Chemical and Biological Analysis (IAQBUS), Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Constantino Candeira S/N, 15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain.
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Kumar R, Adhikari S, Halden RU. Comparison of sorption models to predict analyte loss during sample filtration and evaluation of the impact of filtration on data quality. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2022; 817:152624. [PMID: 34963584 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.152624] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2021] [Revised: 12/17/2021] [Accepted: 12/19/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Although filtration has been a widely applied sample pretreatment step in environmental analytical chemistry, its impact on the quality of the data produced is often underappreciated in the scientific community. The objective of this literature review and modeling exercise was to examine nine existing sorption models with input parameters including hydrophobic interactions, pH, and structural features to predict the loss of analytes during wastewater filtration due to sorption to suspended solids and to assess the impact of filtration on data quality. Models' sorption estimates were further validated with a set of comprehensive metadata collected and analyzed from 20 peer-reviewed research papers that reported physical measurements of the suspended solids sorbed fraction of analytes obtained during wastewater filtration of contaminants of emerging concern (CECs). Data on the impact of filtration were obtained from the literature for 156 organic compounds reported both for the dissolved and particulate bound analyte mass. Approximately 40% of CECs (62/156) showed significant filtration loss (>20%) as a result of the removal of suspended solids during filtration. The loss of analyte mass due to filtration ranged from <1% for atenolol to >95% for acenaphthene. Collected literature data were then used to evaluate the utility of sorption modeling to predict analyte losses during sample pretreatment. Among nine sorption models, three were found to predict filtration loss of at least 70% of the CECs evaluated within a range of ±20% of the actually measured filtration loss of analytes, assuming a suspended solid concentration of 200 mg/L and a fraction of organic carbon in suspended solids of 0.43. Thus, sorption modeling can help reduce error when calculating mass loadings based on samples filtered before analysis. It is concluded that the estimates could be further improved by considering the following factors: ionic interactions, characteristics of the water-borne sorbents, and filtration media properties.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Rahul Kumar
- Biodesign Center for Environmental Health Engineering, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287, USA
| | - Sangeet Adhikari
- Biodesign Center for Environmental Health Engineering, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287, USA; School of Sustainable Engineering and the Built Environment, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287, USA
| | - Rolf U Halden
- Biodesign Center for Environmental Health Engineering, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287, USA; School of Sustainable Engineering and the Built Environment, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287, USA; OneWaterOneHealth, Non-profit Project of Arizona State University Foundation, Tempe, AZ 85287, USA; Global Futures Laboratory, Arizona State University, 800 S. Cady Mall, Tempe, AZ 85281, USA; AquaVitas, LLC, 9260 E. Raintree Dr., Suite 130, Scottsdale, AZ 85260, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Dos Santos CR, Lebron YAR, Moreira VR, Koch K, Amaral MCS. Biodegradability, environmental risk assessment and ecological footprint in wastewater technologies for pharmaceutically active compounds removal. BIORESOURCE TECHNOLOGY 2022; 343:126150. [PMID: 34678454 DOI: 10.1016/j.biortech.2021.126150] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2021] [Revised: 10/11/2021] [Accepted: 10/13/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Several studies have investigated the removal of pharmaceutically active compounds (PhACs) by wastewater treatment technologies due to the risk that these compounds pose to the environment. In this sense, advanced biological processes have been developed for micropollutants removal, such as membrane bioreactors and moving bed biofilm reactors. Thus, this review holistically evaluated the biodegradation of 18 environmentally hazardous PhACs. Biological processes were assessed including removal efficiencies, environmental risk, and ecological footprint (consumption of resources and energy, atmospheric emissions, and waste generation). The maximum concentration of PhACs for a low or negligible risk scenario in treated wastewater and the potential of biological processes to meet this goal were assessed. Among the evaluated PhACs, the most biodegradable was paracetamol, while the most recalcitrant was diclofenac. Combination of conventional processes and advanced biological processes proved to be the most efficient way to remove several PhACs, mainly the osmotic membrane bioreactor.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Carolina Rodrigues Dos Santos
- Department of Sanitary and Environmental Engineering, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, 30270-901 Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - Yuri Abner Rocha Lebron
- Department of Sanitary and Environmental Engineering, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, 30270-901 Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - Victor Rezende Moreira
- Department of Sanitary and Environmental Engineering, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, 30270-901 Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - Konrad Koch
- Chair of Urban Water Systems Engineering, Technical University of Munich, Am Coulombwall 3, 385748 Garching, Germany
| | - Míriam Cristina Santos Amaral
- Department of Sanitary and Environmental Engineering, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, 30270-901 Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil.
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Estévez-Danta A, Montes R, Bijlsma L, Cela R, Celma A, González-Mariño I, Miró M, Gutmann V, de San Román-Landa UP, Prieto A, Ventura M, Rodil R, Quintana JB. Source identification of amphetamine-like stimulants in Spanish wastewater through enantiomeric profiling. WATER RESEARCH 2021; 206:117719. [PMID: 34624656 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2021.117719] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2021] [Revised: 09/22/2021] [Accepted: 09/24/2021] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
Amphetamine (AMP), methamphetamine (MAMP) and 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) occur in wastewater not only as a result of illicit consumption, but also, in some cases, from prescription drug use or by direct drug disposal into the sewage system. Enantiomeric profiling of these chiral drugs could give more insight into the origin of their occurrence. In this manuscript, a new analytical methodology for the enantiomeric analysis of amphetamine-like substances in wastewater has been developed. The method consists of a solid-phase extraction (SPE) followed by liquid chromatography-triple quadrupole-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS), which showed low quantification limits in the 2.4-5.5 ng L-1 range. The LC-MS/MS method was first applied to characterize a total of 38 solid street drug samples anonymously provided by consumers. The results of these analysis showed that AMP and MDMA trafficked into Spain are synthesized as racemate, while MAMP is exclusively produced as the S(+)-enantiomer. Then, the analytical method was employed to analyse urban wastewater samples collected from the wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) of five different cities in 2018 and 2019. Consumption estimated through normalized population loads in wastewater showed an increased pattern of AMP use in the Basque Country. Furthermore, the enantiomeric profiling of wastewater samples was contrasted to lisdexamfetamine (LIS) and selegiline (SEL) prescription figures, two pharmaceuticals which metabolize to S(+)-AMP, and to R(-)-AMP and R(-)-MAMP, respectively. From this analysis, and considering uncertainties derived from metabolism and adherence to treatment, it was concluded that LIS is a relevant source of AMP in those cases with low wastewater loads, i.e. up to a maximum of 60% of AMP detected in wastewater in some samples could originate from LIS prescription, while SEL does not represent a significant source of AMP nor MAMP. Finally, removal efficiencies could be evaluated for the WWTP (serving ca. 860,000 inhabitants) with higher AMP influent concentrations. The removal of AMP was satisfactory with rates higher than 99%, whereas MDMA showed an average removal of approximately 60%, accompanied by an enrichment of R(-)-MDMA.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Estévez-Danta
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Nutrition and Food Sciences, Institute of Research on Chemical and Biological Analysis (IAQBUS), Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Constantino Candeira S/N, Santiago de Compostela 15782, Spain
| | - Rosa Montes
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Nutrition and Food Sciences, Institute of Research on Chemical and Biological Analysis (IAQBUS), Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Constantino Candeira S/N, Santiago de Compostela 15782, Spain.
| | - Lubertus Bijlsma
- Environmental and Public Health Analytical Chemistry, Research Institute for Pesticides and Water, University Jaume I, Castellón, Spain
| | - Rafael Cela
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Nutrition and Food Sciences, Institute of Research on Chemical and Biological Analysis (IAQBUS), Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Constantino Candeira S/N, Santiago de Compostela 15782, Spain
| | - Alberto Celma
- Environmental and Public Health Analytical Chemistry, Research Institute for Pesticides and Water, University Jaume I, Castellón, Spain
| | - Iria González-Mariño
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Nutrition and Food Sciences, Institute of Research on Chemical and Biological Analysis (IAQBUS), Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Constantino Candeira S/N, Santiago de Compostela 15782, Spain; Department of Analytical Chemistry, Nutrition and Bromatology, Faculty of Chemical Sciences, University of Salamanca, Salamanca, Spain
| | - Manuel Miró
- FI-TRACE group, Department of Chemistry, University of the Balearic Islands, Palma de Mallorca, Spain
| | - Vanessa Gutmann
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Nutrition and Food Sciences, Institute of Research on Chemical and Biological Analysis (IAQBUS), Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Constantino Candeira S/N, Santiago de Compostela 15782, Spain
| | | | - Ailette Prieto
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Science and Technology, University of the Basque Country, Bilbao, Spain; Research Centre for Experimental Marine Biology and Biotechnology, University of the Basque Country (PiE-UPV/EHU), Plentzia, Basque Country 48620, Spain
| | - Mireia Ventura
- Energy Control, Asociación Bienestar y Desarrollo, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Rosario Rodil
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Nutrition and Food Sciences, Institute of Research on Chemical and Biological Analysis (IAQBUS), Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Constantino Candeira S/N, Santiago de Compostela 15782, Spain
| | - José Benito Quintana
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Nutrition and Food Sciences, Institute of Research on Chemical and Biological Analysis (IAQBUS), Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Constantino Candeira S/N, Santiago de Compostela 15782, Spain.
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Chen L, Guo C, Sun Z, Xu J. Occurrence, bioaccumulation and toxicological effect of drugs of abuse in aquatic ecosystem: A review. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2021; 200:111362. [PMID: 34048744 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2021.111362] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2021] [Revised: 05/11/2021] [Accepted: 05/15/2021] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
Drugs of abuse are a group of emerging contaminants. As the prevalence of manufacture and consumption, there is a growing global environmental burden and ecological risk from the continuous release of these contaminants into environment. The widespread occurrence of drugs of abuse in waste wasters and surface waters is due to the incomplete removal through traditional wastewater treatment plants in different regions around the world. Although their environmental concentrations are not very high, they can potentially influence the aquatic organisms and ecosystem function. This paper reviews the occurrence of drugs of abuse and their metabolites in waste waters and surface waters, their bioaccumulation in aquatic plants, fishes and benthic organisms and even top predators, and the toxicological effects such as genotoxic effect, cytotoxic effect and even behavioral effect on aquatic organisms. In summary, drugs of abuse occur widely in aquatic environment, and may exert adverse impact on aquatic organisms at molecular, cellular or individual level, and even on aquatic ecosystem. It necessitates the monitoring and risk assessment of these compounds on diverse aquatic organisms in the further study.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Like Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Criteria and Risk Assessment, Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences, Beijing, 100012, China; State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Ecological Effect and Risk Assessment of Chemicals, Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences, Beijing, 100012, China
| | - Changsheng Guo
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Criteria and Risk Assessment, Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences, Beijing, 100012, China; State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Ecological Effect and Risk Assessment of Chemicals, Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences, Beijing, 100012, China
| | - Zhenyu Sun
- Jiangsu Rainfine Environmental Science and Technology Co.,Ltd, Henan Branch Zhengzhou, 450000, China
| | - Jian Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Criteria and Risk Assessment, Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences, Beijing, 100012, China; State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Ecological Effect and Risk Assessment of Chemicals, Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences, Beijing, 100012, China.
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
Castro G, Ramil M, Cela R, Rodríguez I. Identification and determination of emerging pollutants in sewage sludge driven by UPLC-QTOF-MS data mining. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2021; 778:146256. [PMID: 33714823 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.146256] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2021] [Revised: 02/28/2021] [Accepted: 02/28/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Sludge from sewage treatment plants (STPs) is recognized as a sink of moderate to high lipophilic compounds resistant to biodegradation. Herein, we investigate the presence of emerging pollutants in sewage sludge combining the information provided by mass spectrometry detection, following ultra-performance liquid chromatography (UPLC), with the use of an accurate spectral database of pesticides and pharmaceuticals. In a first step, the performance of matrix solid-phase dispersion, as sample preparation technique, and two non-target data acquisition strategies (data dependent, DDA, and data independent analysis modes, DIA), used in combination with a UPLC quadrupole time-of-flight system, are assessed using a selection of deuterated compounds added either to freeze-dried sludge samples, or to sludge extracts. Possibilities and limitations of both modes are discussed. Following the DDA approach, a group of 68 micropollutants was identified in sludge from different STPs. Some of them are reported in this compartment for the first time. Finally, semi-quantitative concentration data are reported for a group of 37 pollutants in samples obtained from 16 STPs. Out of them, 10 pharmaceuticals, showing detection frequencies and median sludge residues above 50% and 100 ng g-1, respectively; are highlighted as pollutants to be monitored in sludge in order to understand their behaviour during the wastewater treatment.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- G Castro
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Nutrition and Food Sciences, Research Institute on Chemical and Biological Analysis (IAQBUS), Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, 15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - M Ramil
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Nutrition and Food Sciences, Research Institute on Chemical and Biological Analysis (IAQBUS), Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, 15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - R Cela
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Nutrition and Food Sciences, Research Institute on Chemical and Biological Analysis (IAQBUS), Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, 15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - I Rodríguez
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Nutrition and Food Sciences, Research Institute on Chemical and Biological Analysis (IAQBUS), Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, 15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain.
| |
Collapse
|
17
|
Bijlsma L, Picó Y, Andreu V, Celma A, Estévez-Danta A, González-Mariño I, Hernández F, López de Alda M, López-García E, Marcé RM, Miró M, Montes R, Pérez de San Román-Landa U, Pitarch E, Pocurull E, Postigo C, Prieto A, Rico A, Rodil R, Valcárcel Y, Ventura M, Quintana JB. The embodiment of wastewater data for the estimation of illicit drug consumption in Spain. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2021; 772:144794. [PMID: 33770873 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.144794] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2020] [Revised: 12/18/2020] [Accepted: 12/20/2020] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
Data obtained from wastewater analysis can provide rapid and complementary insights in illicit drug consumption at community level. Within Europe, Spain is an important country of transit of both cocaine and cannabis. The quantity of seized drugs and prevalence of their use rank Spain at the top of Europe. Hence, the implementation of a wastewater monitoring program at national level would help to get better understanding of spatial differences and trends in use of illicit drugs. In this study, a national wastewater campaign was performed for the first time to get more insight on the consumption of illicit drugs within Spain. The 13 Spanish cities monitored cover approximately 6 million inhabitants (12.8% of the Spanish population). Untreated wastewater samples were analyzed for urinary biomarkers of amphetamine, methamphetamine, MDMA, cocaine, and cannabis. In addition, weekend samples were monitored for 17 new psychoactive substances. Cannabis and cocaine are the most consumed drugs in Spain, but geographical variations showed, for instance, comparatively higher levels of methamphetamine in Barcelona and amphetamine in Bilbao, with about 1-fold higher consumption of these two substances in such metropolitan areas. For amphetamine, an enantiomeric profiling was performed in order to assure the results were due to consumption and not to illegal dumping of production residues. Furthermore, different correction factors for the excretion of cannabis were used to compare consumption estimations. All wastewater results were compared with previously reported data, national seizure data and general population survey data, were a reasonable agreement was found. Daily and yearly drug consumption were extrapolated to the entire Spanish population with due precautions because of the uncertainty associated. These data was further used to estimate the retail drug market, where for instance cocaine illicit consumption alone was calculated to contribute to 0.2-0.5% of the Spanish gross domestic product (ca. 3000-6000 million Euro/year).
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lubertus Bijlsma
- Environmental and Public Health Analytical Chemistry, Research Institute for Pesticides and Water, University Jaume I, Castellón, Spain.
| | - Yolanda Picó
- Food and Environmental Safety Research Group (SAMA-UV), Desertification Research Centre (CIDE) joint Research Centre Universitat de Valencia-CSIC-Generalitat Valenciana, Valencia, Spain
| | - Vicente Andreu
- Food and Environmental Safety Research Group (SAMA-UV), Desertification Research Centre (CIDE) joint Research Centre Universitat de Valencia-CSIC-Generalitat Valenciana, Valencia, Spain
| | - Alberto Celma
- Environmental and Public Health Analytical Chemistry, Research Institute for Pesticides and Water, University Jaume I, Castellón, Spain
| | - Andrea Estévez-Danta
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Nutrition and Food Sciences, Institute of Research in Chemical and Biological Analysis (IAQBUS), Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - Iria González-Mariño
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Nutrition and Food Sciences, Institute of Research in Chemical and Biological Analysis (IAQBUS), Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela, Spain; Department of Analytical Chemistry, Nutrition and Bromatology, Faculty of Chemical Sciences, University of Salamanca, Salamanca, Spain
| | - Félix Hernández
- Environmental and Public Health Analytical Chemistry, Research Institute for Pesticides and Water, University Jaume I, Castellón, Spain
| | - Miren López de Alda
- Water, Environmental and Food Chemistry Unit (ENFOCHEM), Department of Environmental Chemistry, Institute of Environmental Assessment and Water Research (IDAEA), Spanish National Research Council (CSIC), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Ester López-García
- Water, Environmental and Food Chemistry Unit (ENFOCHEM), Department of Environmental Chemistry, Institute of Environmental Assessment and Water Research (IDAEA), Spanish National Research Council (CSIC), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Rosa María Marcé
- Department of Analytical Chemistry and Organic Chemistry, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Tarragona, Spain
| | - Manuel Miró
- FI-TRACE Group, Department of Chemistry, University of the Balearic Islands, Palma de Mallorca, Spain
| | - Rosa Montes
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Nutrition and Food Sciences, Institute of Research in Chemical and Biological Analysis (IAQBUS), Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | | | - Elena Pitarch
- Environmental and Public Health Analytical Chemistry, Research Institute for Pesticides and Water, University Jaume I, Castellón, Spain
| | - Eva Pocurull
- Department of Analytical Chemistry and Organic Chemistry, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Tarragona, Spain
| | - Cristina Postigo
- Water, Environmental and Food Chemistry Unit (ENFOCHEM), Department of Environmental Chemistry, Institute of Environmental Assessment and Water Research (IDAEA), Spanish National Research Council (CSIC), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Ailette Prieto
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Science and Technology, University of the Basque Country, Bilbao, Spain
| | - Andreu Rico
- IMDEA Water Institute, Science and Technology Campus of the University of Alcalá, Alcalá de Henares, Spain
| | - Rosario Rodil
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Nutrition and Food Sciences, Institute of Research in Chemical and Biological Analysis (IAQBUS), Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - Yolanda Valcárcel
- Grupo de Evaluación de Riesgos en Salud y Medio Ambiente (RiSaMA), Universidad Rey Juan Carlos, Madrid, Spain
| | - Mireia Ventura
- Energy Control, Asociación Bienestar y Desarollo, Barcelona, Spain
| | - José Benito Quintana
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Nutrition and Food Sciences, Institute of Research in Chemical and Biological Analysis (IAQBUS), Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela, Spain.
| |
Collapse
|
18
|
Christophoridis C, Veloutsou S, Mitsika E, Zacharis CK, Christia C, Raikos N, Fytianos K. Determination of illicit drugs and psychoactive pharmaceuticals in wastewater from the area of Thessaloniki (Greece) using LC-MS/MS: estimation of drug consumption. ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING AND ASSESSMENT 2021; 193:249. [PMID: 33829338 DOI: 10.1007/s10661-021-09035-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2020] [Accepted: 03/28/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
This study presents the development of an analytical method for the simultaneous determination of multiclass illicit drugs (cocainoids, opiates, amphetamines, and cannabinoids) and psychoactive pharmaceuticals (anxiolytics, hypnotics, antipsychotics, antidepressants, and antiparkinsonian), in municipal wastewater. The analytical method was validated in terms of specificity, linearity, precision, and accuracy. The recoveries (%) for the majority of the analytes ranged between 70 and 120%, while the method showed good repeatability (2.4-29.2%). The limits of detection (LOD) of the method ranged between 0.8 and 9.4 ng L-1. The method was implemented on influent and effluent samples from Thessaloniki (N. Greece) wastewater treatment plant (WWTP), and it revealed the daily presence of benzoylecgonine (BEG) (84.0-202.2 ng L-1), methadone (12.3-17.5 ng L-1), 11-Nor-9-carboxy-Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC-COOH) (80.3-171.9 ng L-1), morphine (144.2-264.3 ng L-1), and 6-monoacetylmorphine (6-MAM) (5.8-12.0 ng L-1) in the influent samples of WWTP. Clozapine (101.6-315.5 ng L-1), quetiapine (33.5-109.7 ng L-1), and fluoxetine (20.9-124.4 ng L-1) were pharmaceutical psychotics with the highest concentration in the influents. Back calculation estimated that the daily consumption of cocaine, heroin, cannabis, and methadone was 36-95, 86-164, 2300-5400, and 8-12 mg day-1 per 1000 inhabitants, respectively. The consumption was estimated between 7-16 and 15 mg day-1 per 1000 inhabitants for methyl diethanolamine (MDEA) and 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA), respectively.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Sofia Veloutsou
- Environmental Pollution Control Laboratory, Chemistry Department, Aristotle University, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Elena Mitsika
- Environmental Pollution Control Laboratory, Chemistry Department, Aristotle University, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Constantinos K Zacharis
- Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Analysis, Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, School of Pharmacy, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Christina Christia
- Environmental Pollution Control Laboratory, Chemistry Department, Aristotle University, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Nikolaos Raikos
- Laboratory of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology, Faculty of Medicine, Aristotle University, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Konstantinos Fytianos
- Environmental Pollution Control Laboratory, Chemistry Department, Aristotle University, Thessaloniki, Greece
| |
Collapse
|
19
|
Sadutto D, Picó Y. Sample Preparation to Determine Pharmaceutical and Personal Care Products in an All-Water Matrix: Solid Phase Extraction. Molecules 2020; 25:E5204. [PMID: 33182304 PMCID: PMC7664861 DOI: 10.3390/molecules25215204] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2020] [Revised: 11/04/2020] [Accepted: 11/05/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) are abundantly used by people, and some of them are excreted unaltered or as metabolites through urine, with the sewage being the most important source to their release to the environment. These compounds are in almost all types of water (wastewater, surface water, groundwater, etc.) at concentrations ranging from ng/L to µg/L. The isolation and concentration of the PPCPs from water achieves the appropriate sensitivity. This step is mostly based on solid-phase extraction (SPE) but also includes other approaches (dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction (DLLME), buckypaper, SPE using multicartridges, etc.). In this review article, we aim to discuss the procedures employed to extract PPCPs from any type of water sample prior to their determination via an instrumental analytical technique. Furthermore, we put forward not only the merits of the different methods available but also a number of inconsistencies, divergences, weaknesses and disadvantages of the procedures found in literature, as well as the systems proposed to overcome them and to improve the methodology. Environmental applications of the developed techniques are also discussed. The pressing need for new analytical innovations, emerging trends and future prospects was also considered.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Daniele Sadutto
- Food and Environmental Safety Research Group, Desertification Research Centre—CIDE (CSIC-UV-GV), University of Valencia (SAMA-UV), Moncada-Naquera Road, Km 4.5, 46113 Moncada, Spain
| | - Yolanda Picó
- Food and Environmental Safety Research Group, Desertification Research Centre—CIDE (CSIC-UV-GV), University of Valencia (SAMA-UV), Moncada-Naquera Road, Km 4.5, 46113 Moncada, Spain
| |
Collapse
|
20
|
Bijlsma L, Bade R, Been F, Celma A, Castiglioni S. Perspectives and challenges associated with the determination of new psychoactive substances in urine and wastewater - A tutorial. Anal Chim Acta 2020; 1145:132-147. [PMID: 33453874 DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2020.08.058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2020] [Revised: 08/26/2020] [Accepted: 08/28/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
New psychoactive substances (NPS), often designed as (legal) substitutes to conventional illicit drugs, are constantly emerging in the drug market and being commercialized in different ways and forms. Their use continues to cause public health problems and is therefore of major concern in many countries. Monitoring NPS use, however, is arduous and different sources of information are required to get more insight of the prevalence and diffusion of NPS use. The determination of NPS in pooled urine and wastewater has shown great potential, adding a different and complementary light on this issue. However, it also presents analytical challenges and limitations that must be taken into account such as the complexity of the matrices, the high sensitivity and selectivity required in the analytical methods as a consequence of the low analyte concentrations as well as the rapid transience of NPS on the drug market creating a scenario with constantly moving analytical targets. Analytical investigation of NPS in pooled urine and wastewater is based on liquid chromatography hyphenated to mass spectrometry and can follow different strategies: target, suspect and non-target analysis. This work aims to discuss the advantages and disadvantages of the different data acquisition workflows and data exploration approaches in mass spectrometry, but also pays attention to new developments such as ion mobility and the use of in-silico prediction tools to improve the identification capabilities in high-complex samples. This tutorial gives an insight into this emerging topic of current concern, and describes the experience gathered within different collaborations and projects supported by key research articles and illustrative practical examples.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- L Bijlsma
- Environmental and Public Health Analytical Chemistry, Research Institute for Pesticides and Water, University Jaume I, 12071, Castellón, Spain.
| | - R Bade
- University of South Australia, UniSA: Clinical and Health Sciences, Health and Biomedical Innovation, South Australia, 5000, Australia.
| | - F Been
- KWR Water Research Institute, Chemical Water Quality and Health, 3430 BB, Nieuwegein, the Netherlands
| | - A Celma
- Environmental and Public Health Analytical Chemistry, Research Institute for Pesticides and Water, University Jaume I, 12071, Castellón, Spain
| | - S Castiglioni
- Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche Mario Negri - IRCCS, Department of Environmental Health Sciences, 20156, Milan, Italy
| |
Collapse
|
21
|
Zhao T, Du L, Zhang Z, Li N, Wang M, Ren Q. A poly(N,N-dimethylaminoethyl methacrylate-co-ethylene glycol dimethacrylate) monolith for direct solid-phase extraction of benzodiazepines from undiluted human urine. ANALYTICAL METHODS : ADVANCING METHODS AND APPLICATIONS 2020; 12:3924-3932. [PMID: 32720657 DOI: 10.1039/d0ay01025a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
A novel polymeric monolith using N,N-dimethylaminoethyl methacrylate as the monomer and ethylene glycol dimethacrylate as the crosslinker was successfully synthesized in a syringe and applied for direct solid-phase extraction of four benzodiazepines (bromazepam, triazolam, midazolam and diazepam) from undiluted urine samples prior to high performance liquid chromatography. The monolith was characterized by scanning electron microscopy, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and nitrogen adsorption-desorption experiments. Moreover, extraction parameters, including loading, washing and eluting conditions were optimized. Under the optimized conditions, the proposed method obtained linear ranges of 2.0-500 ng mL-1 with correlation coefficients (r) higher than 0.9997. The limits of detection (S/N = 3) and limits of quantification (S/N = 10) were 0.4-0.6 ng mL-1 and 1.4-2.0 ng mL-1, respectively. The recoveries at three spiked levels ranged from 83.7% to 103% with the intra- and inter-day precisions from 0.6-7.6% to 2.7-9.8%. The present monolith allowed direct loading of crude urine samples without any filtration or dilution step. Besides, the sorbent offered an enhancement factor of 16.7-20.6 and was stable enough for ten replicate cycles of extraction/desorption of urine samples. The developed method presented an alternative strategy for the accurate and convenient determination of benzodiazepines in urine samples.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tengwen Zhao
- School of Public Health, North China University of Science and Technology, No. 21 Bohai Road, Caofeidian, Tangshan 063210, Hebei, China.
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
22
|
Bade R, Ghetia M, White JM, Gerber C. Determination of prescribed and designer benzodiazepines and metabolites in influent wastewater. ANALYTICAL METHODS : ADVANCING METHODS AND APPLICATIONS 2020; 12:3637-3644. [PMID: 32701083 DOI: 10.1039/d0ay00560f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Benzodiazepines are important prescription pharmaceuticals used to help in the treatment of anxiety and sleep disorders. However, they also have a strong potential for abuse. In this respect, illicit benzodiazepines, i.e. not prescribed in Australia and designer benzodiazepines, which are new compounds that are not legally prescribed in any jurisdiction, have emerged in the illicit Australian market in recent years. Designer benzodiazepines are a new class of new psychoactive substances (NPS) and are particularly dangerous due to limited toxicity information and propensity to be mistaken for conventional benzodiazepines, leading to severe side effects and potentially death. It is therefore important to assess the prevalence of the use of these compounds in the community. The current work presents a validated liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry method for 20 prescribed and designer benzodiazepines and metabolites: 7-amino nimetazepam, alpha-hydroxy alprazolam, alprazolam, clonazepam, delorazepam, deschloroetizolam, diazepam, diclazepam, etizolam, flubromazepam, flunitrazepam, lorazepam, lormetazepam, meclonazepam, midazolam, nimetazepam, nitrazepam, oxazepam, pyrazolam and temazepam. Quetiapine, a prescription sedative drug that has been diverted for non-medical use, was also validated. Limits of quantification were predominantly below 10 ng L-1, except for the ubiquitous oxazepam, quetiapine and temazepam, which were between 75-300 ng L-1. Stability, recovery and matrix effects were also examined. Finally, this method was applied to influent wastewater from South Australia, which showed the presence of many benzodiazepines including the NPS etizolam.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Richard Bade
- University of South Australia, UniSA: Clinical and Health Sciences, Health and Biomedical Innovation, Adelaide 5000, South Australia, Australia.
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
23
|
Jones NS, Comparin JH. Interpol review of controlled substances 2016-2019. Forensic Sci Int Synerg 2020; 2:608-669. [PMID: 33385148 PMCID: PMC7770462 DOI: 10.1016/j.fsisyn.2020.01.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2020] [Accepted: 01/23/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
This review paper covers the forensic-relevant literature in controlled substances from 2016 to 2019 as a part of the 19th Interpol International Forensic Science Managers Symposium. The review papers are also available at the Interpol website at: https://www.interpol.int/content/download/14458/file/Interpol%20Review%20Papers%202019.pdf.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Nicole S. Jones
- RTI International, Applied Justice Research Division, Center for Forensic Sciences, 3040 E. Cornwallis Road, Research Triangle Park, NC, 22709-2194, USA
| | - Jeffrey H. Comparin
- United States Drug Enforcement Administration, Special Testing and Research Laboratory, USA
| |
Collapse
|
24
|
Sulej-Suchomska AM, Klupczynska A, Dereziński P, Matysiak J, Przybyłowski P, Kokot ZJ. Urban wastewater analysis as an effective tool for monitoring illegal drugs, including new psychoactive substances, in the Eastern European region. Sci Rep 2020; 10:4885. [PMID: 32184422 PMCID: PMC7078280 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-61628-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2019] [Accepted: 02/27/2020] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
The use of illicit drugs causes unquestionable societal and economic damage. To implement actions aimed at combating drug abuse, it is necessary to assess illicit drug consumption patterns. The purpose of this paper was to develop, optimize, validate and apply a procedure for determining new psychoactive substances (NPSs) and classic drugs of abuse and their main metabolites in wastewater samples by using solid phase extraction (SPE) and high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS/MS). Moreover, detailed validation of the procedure was conducted. The developed SPE–HPLC-MS/MS procedure (within the sewage-based epidemiology strategy) allowed for the simultaneous, selective, very sensitive, accurate (recoveries ≥ 80.1%) and precise (CV ≤ 8.1%) determination of new and classic psychoactive substances in wastewater samples. This study is characterized by new scientific elements, especially in terms of the freeze-thaw and post-preparative stability of the selected psychoactive substances. This is the first time that NPSs (mephedrone and ketamine), the main metabolites of heroin (6-acetylmorphine, 6-AM) and marijuana (11-nor-9-carboxy-Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol, THC-COOH) have been detected and monitored in Poland. This study is also the first to corroborate the data available from the EMCDDA and EUROPOL report and indicates that the retail market for cocaine is expanding in Eastern Europe.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Anna Maria Sulej-Suchomska
- Gdynia Maritime University, Faculty of Entrepreneurship and Quality Science, Department of Commodity and Quality Science, 81-87, Morska Str., 81-225, Gdynia, Poland.
| | - Agnieszka Klupczynska
- Poznan University of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Inorganic and Analytical Chemistry, 6, Grunwaldzka Str., 60-780, Poznań, Poland
| | - Paweł Dereziński
- Poznan University of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Inorganic and Analytical Chemistry, 6, Grunwaldzka Str., 60-780, Poznań, Poland
| | - Jan Matysiak
- Poznan University of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Inorganic and Analytical Chemistry, 6, Grunwaldzka Str., 60-780, Poznań, Poland
| | - Piotr Przybyłowski
- Gdynia Maritime University, Faculty of Entrepreneurship and Quality Science, Department of Commodity and Quality Science, 81-87, Morska Str., 81-225, Gdynia, Poland
| | - Zenon J Kokot
- Poznan University of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Inorganic and Analytical Chemistry, 6, Grunwaldzka Str., 60-780, Poznań, Poland
| |
Collapse
|
25
|
Woźniak-Karczewska M, Baranowski D, Framski G, Marczak Ł, Čvančarová M, Corvini PFX, Chrzanowski Ł. Biodegradation of ritalinic acid by Nocardioides sp. - Novel imidazole-based alkaloid metabolite as a potential marker in sewage epidemiology. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2020; 385:121554. [PMID: 31753665 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2019.121554] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2019] [Revised: 10/12/2019] [Accepted: 10/25/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
The consumption of methylphenidate, a nootropic drug used to improve mental performance, is becoming increasingly serious. Methylphenidate is metabolized in human liver to ritalinic acid, which has been commonly detected in sewage and surface waters. Additionally, ritalinic acid serves as a biomarker in sewage epidemiology studies. Thus knowledge of the stability and microbial degradation pathways of ritalinic acid is essential for proper estimation of methylphenidate consumption. In the study reported here, we describe the fast formation of a previously unknown, dead-end metabolite of ritalinic acid by Nocardioides sp. strain MW5. HRMS and 2D NMR analyses allowed precisely identification of the compound as an imidazole-based alkaloid cation with chemical formula 11-[3-(formylamino)propyl]-1,2,3,4,6,7,8,9-octahydrodipyrido[1,2-a:1',2'-c]imidazole-5-ium. In experiments, Nocardioides sp. strain MW5 transformed 34% of ritalinic acid into this metabolite, while 52% was mineralized into CO2. Alkaloid was not biodegraded during the OECD 301 F test. This study provides new insight into the environmental fate of methylphenidate and its metabolites. The data collected are essential for assessing nootropic drug consumption by sewage epidemiology and should lead to a better understanding of microbial degradation of ritalinic acid.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Marta Woźniak-Karczewska
- Institute of Chemical Technology and Engineering, Poznan University of Technology, Berdychowo 4, 60-965 Poznan, Poland; Institute for Ecopreneurship, School of Life Sciences, University of Applied Sciences and Arts Northwestern Switzerland, Gründenstrasse 40, 4132 Muttenz, Switzerland.
| | - Daniel Baranowski
- Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Polish Academy of Sciences, Noskowskiego 12/14, 61-704 Poznań, Poland
| | - Grzegorz Framski
- Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Polish Academy of Sciences, Noskowskiego 12/14, 61-704 Poznań, Poland
| | - Łukasz Marczak
- Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Polish Academy of Sciences, Noskowskiego 12/14, 61-704 Poznań, Poland
| | - Monika Čvančarová
- Institute for Ecopreneurship, School of Life Sciences, University of Applied Sciences and Arts Northwestern Switzerland, Gründenstrasse 40, 4132 Muttenz, Switzerland
| | - Philippe F-X Corvini
- Institute for Ecopreneurship, School of Life Sciences, University of Applied Sciences and Arts Northwestern Switzerland, Gründenstrasse 40, 4132 Muttenz, Switzerland; State Key Laboratory for Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210093, PR China
| | - Łukasz Chrzanowski
- Institute of Chemical Technology and Engineering, Poznan University of Technology, Berdychowo 4, 60-965 Poznan, Poland
| |
Collapse
|
26
|
Treder N, Bączek T, Wychodnik K, Rogowska J, Wolska L, Plenis A. The Influence of Ionic Liquids on the Effectiveness of Analytical Methods Used in the Monitoring of Human and Veterinary Pharmaceuticals in Biological and Environmental Samples-Trends and Perspectives. Molecules 2020; 25:E286. [PMID: 31936806 PMCID: PMC7024248 DOI: 10.3390/molecules25020286] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2019] [Revised: 12/27/2019] [Accepted: 01/08/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Recent years have seen the increased utilization of ionic liquids (ILs) in the development and optimization of analytical methods. Their unique and eco-friendly properties and the ability to modify their structure allows them to be useful both at the sample preparation stage and at the separation stage of the analytes. The use of ILs for the analysis of pharmaceuticals seems particularly interesting because of their systematic delivery to the environment. Nowadays, they are commonly detected in many countries at very low concentration levels. However, due to their specific physiological activity, pharmaceuticals are responsible for bioaccumulation and toxic effects in aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems as well as possibly upsetting the body's equilibrium, leading to the dangerous phenomenon of drug resistance. This review will provide a comprehensive summary of the use of ILs in various sample preparation procedures and separation methods for the determination of pharmaceuticals in environmental and biological matrices based on liquid-based chromatography (LC, SFC, TLC), gas chromatography (GC) and electromigration techniques (e.g., capillary electrophoresis (CE)). Moreover, the advantages and disadvantages of ILs, which can appear during extraction and separation, will be presented and attention will be given to the criteria to be followed during the selection of ILs for specific applications.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Natalia Treder
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Medical University of Gdańsk, Hallera 107, 80-416 Gdańsk, Poland; (N.T.); (T.B.)
| | - Tomasz Bączek
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Medical University of Gdańsk, Hallera 107, 80-416 Gdańsk, Poland; (N.T.); (T.B.)
| | - Katarzyna Wychodnik
- Department of Environmental Toxicology, Faculty of Health Sciences with Institute of Maritime and Tropical Medicine, Medical University of Gdańsk, Dębowa 23 A, 80-204 Gdańsk, Poland; (K.W.); (J.R.); (L.W.)
| | - Justyna Rogowska
- Department of Environmental Toxicology, Faculty of Health Sciences with Institute of Maritime and Tropical Medicine, Medical University of Gdańsk, Dębowa 23 A, 80-204 Gdańsk, Poland; (K.W.); (J.R.); (L.W.)
| | - Lidia Wolska
- Department of Environmental Toxicology, Faculty of Health Sciences with Institute of Maritime and Tropical Medicine, Medical University of Gdańsk, Dębowa 23 A, 80-204 Gdańsk, Poland; (K.W.); (J.R.); (L.W.)
| | - Alina Plenis
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Medical University of Gdańsk, Hallera 107, 80-416 Gdańsk, Poland; (N.T.); (T.B.)
| |
Collapse
|
27
|
Mixed-mode ion-exchange polymeric sorbents in environmental analysis. J Chromatogr A 2020; 1609:460531. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2019.460531] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2019] [Revised: 09/03/2019] [Accepted: 09/05/2019] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
|
28
|
Bijlsma L, Burgard DA, Been F, Ort C, Matias J, Yargeau V. The estimation of cannabis consumption through wastewater analysis. ANALYSIS OF CANNABIS 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/bs.coac.2020.04.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
|
29
|
Wilms W, Woźniak-Karczewska M, Corvini PFX, Chrzanowski Ł. Nootropic drugs: Methylphenidate, modafinil and piracetam - Population use trends, occurrence in the environment, ecotoxicity and removal methods - A review. CHEMOSPHERE 2019; 233:771-785. [PMID: 31200137 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2019.06.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2019] [Revised: 05/28/2019] [Accepted: 06/02/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Pharmaceuticals which originally were designed to treat people with neurological and psychiatric conditions, e.g. Alzheimer's disease or attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), are nowadays often misused by students as a 'brain doping' substances. These substances are known as nootropic drugs, smart drugs or cognitive enhancers, as they increase memory, attention and concentration of healthy individuals. Since they are easily available illicitly, their consumption is observed to be growing. Currently, these pharmaceuticals started gaining researchers' attention, especially since they have been recently detected in wastewater, surface water and even drinking water. This review summarises the current state of knowledge on nootropic drugs in terms of their population use trends and ethics, occurrence in the environment and detection techniques, toxicity and removal methods, in example of methylphenidate, modafinil and piracetam - three most popular nootropics. It points out that the main sources of knowledge on cognitive enhancers illicit use are often inconsistent questionnaires, which are not supported by wastewater analysis to become more veracious. Simultaneously, the studies concerning toxicity and removal methods of nootropic drugs are still limited and in many cases environmentally irrelevant. Although the prescription rules has been subjected to more strict control in developed countries, regulatory frameworks with regard to their ecosystem occurrence are still lacking and should be introduced. Moreover, the use of environmentally relevant concentrations in toxicity studies should be a standard, leading to proper ecotoxicity risk assessment. Based on this review, it is recommended to routinely monitor nootropics and their metabolites in waste- and surface waters.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Wiktoria Wilms
- Faculty of Chemical Technology, Poznan University of Technology, Berdychowo 4, 60-965, Poznań, Poland
| | - Marta Woźniak-Karczewska
- Faculty of Chemical Technology, Poznan University of Technology, Berdychowo 4, 60-965, Poznań, Poland
| | - Philippe F-X Corvini
- Institute for Ecopreneurship, School of Life Sciences, University of Applied Sciences and Arts Northwestern Switzerland, Gründenstrasse 40, 4132, Muttenz, Switzerland
| | - Łukasz Chrzanowski
- Faculty of Chemical Technology, Poznan University of Technology, Berdychowo 4, 60-965, Poznań, Poland.
| |
Collapse
|
30
|
González-Mariño I, Estévez-Danta A, Rodil R, Da Silva KM, Sodré FF, Cela R, Quintana JB. Profiling cocaine residues and pyrolytic products in wastewater by mixed-mode liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Drug Test Anal 2019; 11:1018-1027. [PMID: 30891957 DOI: 10.1002/dta.2590] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2019] [Revised: 03/12/2019] [Accepted: 03/12/2019] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
This work provides a new analytical method for the determination of cocaine, its metabolites benzoylecgonine and cocaethylene, the pyrolytic products anhydroecgonine and anhydroecgonine methyl ester, and the pharmaceutical levamisole in wastewater. Samples were solid-phase extracted and extracts analyzed by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry using, for the first time in the illicit drug field, a stationary phase that combines reversed-phase and weak cation-exchange functionalities. The overall method performance was satisfactory, with limits of detection below 1 ng/L, relative standard deviations below 21%, and percentages of recovery between 93% and 121%. Analysis of 24-hour composite raw wastewater samples collected in Santiago de Compostela (Spain) and Brasilia (Brazil) highlighted benzoylecgonine as the compound showing the highest population-normalized mass loads (300-1000 mg/day/1000 inhabitants). In Brasilia, cocaine and levamisole loads underwent an upsurge on Sunday, indicating a high consumption, and likely a direct disposal, of cocaine powder on this day. Conversely, the pyrolytic product resulting from the smoke of crack, anhydroecgonine methyl ester, and its metabolite anhydroecgonine were relatively stable over the four days, agreeing with a non-recreational-associated use of crack.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Iria González-Mariño
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Nutrition and Food Sciences, IIAA - Institute for Food Analysis and Research, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - Andrea Estévez-Danta
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Nutrition and Food Sciences, IIAA - Institute for Food Analysis and Research, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - Rosario Rodil
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Nutrition and Food Sciences, IIAA - Institute for Food Analysis and Research, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | | | | | - Rafael Cela
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Nutrition and Food Sciences, IIAA - Institute for Food Analysis and Research, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - José Benito Quintana
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Nutrition and Food Sciences, IIAA - Institute for Food Analysis and Research, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| |
Collapse
|