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Hedman-Lagerlöf M, Buhrman M, Hedman-Lagerlöf E, Ljótsson B, Axelsson E. Shared and distinct effect mediators in exposure-based and traditional cognitive behavior therapy for fibromyalgia: Secondary analysis of a randomized controlled trial. Behav Res Ther 2024; 178:104546. [PMID: 38685153 DOI: 10.1016/j.brat.2024.104546] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2024] [Revised: 04/19/2024] [Accepted: 04/19/2024] [Indexed: 05/02/2024]
Abstract
Fibromyalgia is a chronic pain condition associated with substantial suffering and societal costs. Traditional cognitive behavior therapy (T-CBT) is the most evaluated psychological treatment, but exposure therapy (Exp-CBT) has shown promise with a pronounced focus on the reduction of pain-related avoidance behaviors. In a recent randomized controlled trial (N = 274), we found that Exp-CBT was not superior to T-CBT (d = -0.10) in reducing overall fibromyalgia severity. This study investigated pain-related avoidance behaviors, pain catastrophizing, hypervigilance, pacing, overdoing and physical activity as potential mediators of the treatment effect. Mediation analyses were based on parallel process growth models fitted on 11 weekly measurement points, and week-by-week time-lagged effects were tested using random intercepts cross-lagged panel models. Results indicated that a reduction in avoidance behaviors, pain catastrophizing, and hypervigilance were significant mediators of change in both treatments. An increase in pacing and a reduction in overdoing were significant mediators in T-CBT only. Physical activity was not a mediator. In the time-lagged analyses, an unequivocal effect on subsequent fibromyalgia severity was seen of avoidance and catastrophizing in Exp-CBT, and of overdoing in T-CBT. Exposure-based and traditional CBT for fibromyalgia appear to share common treatment mediators, namely pain-related avoidance behavior, catastrophizing and hypervigilance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Hedman-Lagerlöf
- Center for Psychiatry Research, Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet & Stockholm Health Care Services, Stockholm, Region Stockholm, Sweden.
| | - Monica Buhrman
- Division of Clinical Psychology, Department of Psychology, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Erik Hedman-Lagerlöf
- Division of Psychology, Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden; Gustavsberg University Primary Health Care Center, Academic Primary Health Care Center, Stockholm, Region Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Brjánn Ljótsson
- Division of Psychology, Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Erland Axelsson
- Division of Family Medicine and Primary Care, Department of Neurobiology, Care Sciences and Society, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden; Liljeholmen University Primary Health Care Center, Academic Primary Health Care Center, Stockholm, Region Stockholm, Sweden
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2
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Cheng HY, Fournier DI, Todd TP. Retrosplenial cortex and aversive conditioning. Front Behav Neurosci 2024; 18:1341705. [PMID: 38983870 PMCID: PMC11232490 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2024.1341705] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2023] [Accepted: 02/26/2024] [Indexed: 07/11/2024] Open
Abstract
The retrosplenial cortex (RSC) is well-known for its contribution to episodic memory, as well as contextual and spatial learning and memory. However, two literatures have also emerged examining the role of the RSC in aversive conditioning. The purpose of this manuscript is to review, and attempt to integrate, these two literatures. We focus on studies in which discrete cues, such as tones, predict the occurrence of aversive outcomes, such as mild shocks. Using both electrophysiological recordings and lesion methods, the first literature has examined RSC contributions to discriminative avoidance conditioning. The second, and more recent literature, has focused on the role of the RSC in Pavlovian fear conditioning. We discuss both literatures in terms of the type of information processed by the RSC, the role of the RSC in memory storage, and how the aversive conditioning literature might be consistent with a role for the RSC in contextual learning and memory.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Travis P. Todd
- Department of Psychological Science, University of Vermont, Burlington, VT, United States
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3
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Diehl MM, Moscarello JM, Trask S. Behavioral outputs and overlapping circuits between conditional fear and active avoidance. Neurobiol Learn Mem 2024; 213:107943. [PMID: 38821256 DOI: 10.1016/j.nlm.2024.107943] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2024] [Revised: 05/19/2024] [Accepted: 05/27/2024] [Indexed: 06/02/2024]
Abstract
Aversive learning can produce a wide variety of defensive behavioral responses depending on the circumstances, ranging from reactive responses like freezing to proactive avoidance responses. While most of this initial learning is behaviorally supported by an expectancy of an aversive outcome and neurally supported by activity within the basolateral amygdala, activity in other brain regions become necessary for the execution of defensive strategies that emerge in other aversive learning paradigms such as active avoidance. Here, we review the neural circuits that support both reactive and proactive defensive behaviors that are motivated by aversive learning, and identify commonalities between the neural substrates of these distinct (and often exclusive) behavioral strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria M Diehl
- Department of Psychological Sciences, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, USA
| | | | - Sydney Trask
- Department of Psychological Sciences, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA; Purdue Institute for Integrative Neuroscience, West Lafayette, IN, USA.
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4
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Chow JJ, Pitts KM, Chabot JM, Ito R, Shaham Y. A rat model of operant negative reinforcement in opioid-dependent males and females. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2024:10.1007/s00213-024-06594-w. [PMID: 38642101 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-024-06594-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2024] [Accepted: 04/14/2024] [Indexed: 04/22/2024]
Abstract
RATIONALE AND OBJECTIVE Avoidance of opioid withdrawal plays a key role in human opioid addiction. Here, we present a procedure for studying operant negative reinforcement in rats that was inspired by primate procedures where opioid-dependent subjects lever-press to prevent naloxone infusions. METHODS In Experiment 1, we trained rats (n = 30, 15 females) to lever-press to escape and then avoid mild footshocks (0.13-0.27 mA) for 35 days (30 trials/d). Next, we catheterized them and implanted minipumps containing methadone (10 mg/kg/day) or saline. We then paired (4 times, single session) a light cue (20-s) with a naloxone infusion (20 µg/kg, i.v) that precipitated opioid withdrawal. Next, we trained the rats to escape naloxone injections for 10 days (30 trials/d). Each trial started with the onset of the opioid-withdrawal cue. After 20-s, the lever extended, and an infusion of naloxone (1 to 2.2 µg/kg/infusion) began; a lever-press during an 11-s window terminated the withdrawal-paired cue and the infusion. In Experiment 2, we trained rats (n = 34, 17 females) on the same procedure but decreased the footshock escape/avoidance training to 20 days. RESULTS All rats learned to lever-press to escape or avoid mild footshocks. In both experiments, a subset, 56% (10/18) and 33% (8/24) of methadone-dependent rats learned to lever-press to escape naloxone infusions. CONCLUSIONS We introduce an operant negative reinforcement procedure where a subset of opioid-dependent rats learned to lever-press to escape withdrawal-inducing naloxone infusions. The procedure can be used to study mechanisms of individual differences in opioid negative reinforcement-related behaviors in opioid-dependent rats.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Kayla M Pitts
- Intramural Research Program, NIDA, NIH, Baltimore, USA
| | | | - Rutsuko Ito
- Department of Psychology, University of Toronto Scarborough, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Yavin Shaham
- Intramural Research Program, NIDA, NIH, Baltimore, USA.
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5
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López-Moraga A, Luyten L, Beckers T. A history of avoidance does not impact extinction learning in male rats. NPJ SCIENCE OF LEARNING 2024; 9:11. [PMID: 38402221 PMCID: PMC10894225 DOI: 10.1038/s41539-024-00223-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2023] [Accepted: 02/06/2024] [Indexed: 02/26/2024]
Abstract
Pervasive avoidance is one of the central symptoms of all anxiety-related disorders. In treatment, avoidance behaviors are typically discouraged because they are assumed to maintain anxiety. Yet, it is not clear if engaging in avoidance is always detrimental. In this study, we used a platform-mediated avoidance task to investigate the influence of avoidance history on extinction learning in male rats. Our results show that having the opportunity to avoid during fear acquisition training does not significantly influence the extinction of auditory-cued fear in rats subjected to this platform-mediated avoidance procedure, which constitutes a realistic approach/avoidance conflict. This holds true irrespective of whether or not avoidance was possible during the extinction phase. This suggests that imposing a realistic cost on avoidance behavior prevents the adverse effects that avoidance has been claimed to have on extinction. However, avoidance does not appear to have clear positive effects on extinction learning nor on retention either.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alba López-Moraga
- Centre for the Psychology of Learning and Experimental Psychopathology, Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium.
- Leuven Brain Institute, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium.
| | - Laura Luyten
- Centre for the Psychology of Learning and Experimental Psychopathology, Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium.
- Leuven Brain Institute, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium.
| | - Tom Beckers
- Centre for the Psychology of Learning and Experimental Psychopathology, Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium.
- Leuven Brain Institute, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium.
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6
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Sears RM, Andrade EC, Samels SB, Laughlin LC, Moloney DM, Wilson DA, Alwood MR, Moscarello JM, Cain CK. Devaluation of response-produced safety signals reveals circuits for goal-directed versus habitual avoidance in dorsal striatum. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2024.02.07.579321. [PMID: 38370659 PMCID: PMC10871355 DOI: 10.1101/2024.02.07.579321] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/20/2024]
Abstract
Active avoidance responses (ARs) are instrumental behaviors that prevent harm. Adaptive ARs may contribute to active coping, whereas maladaptive avoidance habits are implicated in anxiety and obsessive-compulsive disorders. The AR learning mechanism has remained elusive, as successful avoidance trials produce no obvious reinforcer. We used a novel outcome-devaluation procedure in rats to show that ARs are positively reinforced by response-produced feedback (FB) cues that develop into safety signals during training. Males were sensitive to FB-devaluation after moderate training, but not overtraining, consistent with a transition from goal-directed to habitual avoidance. Using chemogenetics and FB-devaluation, we also show that goal-directed vs. habitual ARs depend on dorsomedial vs. dorsolateral striatum, suggesting a significant overlap between the mechanisms of avoidance and rewarded instrumental behavior. Females were insensitive to FB-devaluation due to a remarkable context-dependence of counterconditioning. However, degrading the AR-FB contingency suggests that both sexes rely on safety signals to perform goal-directed ARs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert M Sears
- Department of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, NYU Grossman School of Medicine, 1 Park Avenue, 8 Floor, New York, NY 10016
- Emotional Brain Institute, Nathan Kline Institute for Psychiatric Research, 140 Old Orangeburg Road, Orangeburg, NY 10962
- These authors contributed equally
| | - Erika C Andrade
- Emotional Brain Institute, Nathan Kline Institute for Psychiatric Research, 140 Old Orangeburg Road, Orangeburg, NY 10962
- These authors contributed equally
| | - Shanna B Samels
- Emotional Brain Institute, Nathan Kline Institute for Psychiatric Research, 140 Old Orangeburg Road, Orangeburg, NY 10962
| | - Lindsay C Laughlin
- Emotional Brain Institute, Nathan Kline Institute for Psychiatric Research, 140 Old Orangeburg Road, Orangeburg, NY 10962
| | - Danielle M Moloney
- Department of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, NYU Grossman School of Medicine, 1 Park Avenue, 8 Floor, New York, NY 10016
| | - Donald A Wilson
- Department of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, NYU Grossman School of Medicine, 1 Park Avenue, 8 Floor, New York, NY 10016
- Emotional Brain Institute, Nathan Kline Institute for Psychiatric Research, 140 Old Orangeburg Road, Orangeburg, NY 10962
| | - Matthew R Alwood
- Department of Psychological & Brain Sciences, Texas A&M Institute for Neuroscience, Texas A&M University, 301 Old Main, TAMU MS 3474, College Station, TX 77843-3474
| | - Justin M Moscarello
- Department of Psychological & Brain Sciences, Texas A&M Institute for Neuroscience, Texas A&M University, 301 Old Main, TAMU MS 3474, College Station, TX 77843-3474
| | - Christopher K Cain
- Department of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, NYU Grossman School of Medicine, 1 Park Avenue, 8 Floor, New York, NY 10016
- Emotional Brain Institute, Nathan Kline Institute for Psychiatric Research, 140 Old Orangeburg Road, Orangeburg, NY 10962
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7
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Hutschemaekers MHM, de Kleine RA, Kampman M, Smits JAJ, Roelofs K. Social avoidance and testosterone enhanced exposure efficacy in women with social anxiety disorder: A pilot investigation. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2023; 158:106372. [PMID: 37672935 DOI: 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2023.106372] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2023] [Revised: 07/12/2023] [Accepted: 08/23/2023] [Indexed: 09/08/2023]
Abstract
Social avoidance has been associated with more persistent social anxiety disorder (SAD) symptoms and low testosterone levels in individuals with SAD. We tested whether pre-treatment avoidance tendencies moderate the efficacy of testosterone-augmented exposure therapy. Fifty-five females with SAD received two exposure sessions during which fear levels were assessed. Session 1 was augmented with testosterone (0.50 mg) or placebo. Avoidance tendencies and symptom severity were assessed pre- and post-exposure. Participants showed stronger avoidance for social versus non-social stimuli and this tendency remained stable over time. Stronger pretreatment avoidance tendencies were associated with larger fear reduction in the testosterone but not the placebo condition. This effect did not transfer to the second non-enhanced session or symptom severity. The findings support the hypothesis that individuals suffering from SAD with relatively stronger pretreatment avoidance tendencies benefit more from testosterone-augmentation, pointing to a potential behavioral marker for testosterone enhancement of exposure therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Moniek H M Hutschemaekers
- Overwaal Centre of Expertise for Anxiety Disorders, OCD and PTSD, Pro Persona Institute for Integrated Mental Health Care, Nijmegen, the Netherlands; Behavioural Science Institute, Radboud University Nijmegen, the Netherlands.
| | | | - Mirjam Kampman
- Overwaal Centre of Expertise for Anxiety Disorders, OCD and PTSD, Pro Persona Institute for Integrated Mental Health Care, Nijmegen, the Netherlands; Behavioural Science Institute, Radboud University Nijmegen, the Netherlands
| | - Jasper A J Smits
- Department of Psychology and Institute for Mental Health Research, The University of Texas at Austin, United States
| | - Karin Roelofs
- Behavioural Science Institute, Radboud University Nijmegen, the Netherlands; Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Centre for Cognitive Neuroimaging, Radboud University, the Netherlands
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8
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Giovanniello J, Bravo-Rivera C, Rosenkranz A, Matthew Lattal K. Stress, associative learning, and decision-making. Neurobiol Learn Mem 2023; 204:107812. [PMID: 37598745 DOI: 10.1016/j.nlm.2023.107812] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2023] [Revised: 06/02/2023] [Accepted: 08/17/2023] [Indexed: 08/22/2023]
Abstract
Exposure to acute and chronic stress has significant effects on the basic mechanisms of associative learning and memory. Stress can both impair and enhance associative learning depending on type, intensity, and persistence of the stressor, the subject's sex, the context that the stress and behavior is experienced in, and the type of associative learning taking place. In some cases, stress can cause or exacerbate the maladaptive behavior that underlies numerous psychiatric conditions including anxiety disorders, obsessive-compulsive disorder, post-traumatic stress disorder, substance use disorder, and others. Therefore, it is critical to understand how the varied effects of stress, which may normally facilitate adaptive behavior, can also become maladaptive and even harmful. In this review, we highlight several findings of associative learning and decision-making processes that are affected by stress in both human and non-human subjects and how they are related to one another. An emerging theme from this work is that stress biases behavior towards less flexible strategies that may reflect a cautious insensitivity to changing contingencies. We consider how this inflexibility has been observed in different associative learning procedures and suggest that a goal for the field should be to clarify how factors such as sex and previous experience influence this inflexibility.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Christian Bravo-Rivera
- Departments of Psychiatry and Anatomy & Neurobiology, University of Puerto Rico School of Medicine, San Juan, PR 00935, United States.
| | - Amiel Rosenkranz
- Center for Neurobiology of Stress Resilience and Psychiatric Disorders, Chicago Medical School, Rosalind Franklin University of Medicine and Science, United States.
| | - K Matthew Lattal
- Department of Behavioral Neuroscience, Oregon Health & Science University, United States.
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9
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Lloyd K, Dayan P. Reframing dopamine: A controlled controller at the limbic-motor interface. PLoS Comput Biol 2023; 19:e1011569. [PMID: 37847681 PMCID: PMC10610519 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pcbi.1011569] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2023] [Revised: 10/27/2023] [Accepted: 10/03/2023] [Indexed: 10/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Pavlovian influences notoriously interfere with operant behaviour. Evidence suggests this interference sometimes coincides with the release of the neuromodulator dopamine in the nucleus accumbens. Suppressing such interference is one of the targets of cognitive control. Here, using the examples of active avoidance and omission behaviour, we examine the possibility that direct manipulation of the dopamine signal is an instrument of control itself. In particular, when instrumental and Pavlovian influences come into conflict, dopamine levels might be affected by the controlled deployment of a reframing mechanism that recasts the prospect of possible punishment as an opportunity to approach safety, and the prospect of future reward in terms of a possible loss of that reward. We operationalize this reframing mechanism and fit the resulting model to rodent behaviour from two paradigmatic experiments in which accumbens dopamine release was also measured. We show that in addition to matching animals' behaviour, the model predicts dopamine transients that capture some key features of observed dopamine release at the time of discriminative cues, supporting the idea that modulation of this neuromodulator is amongst the repertoire of cognitive control strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin Lloyd
- Max Planck Institute for Biological Cybernetics, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Peter Dayan
- Max Planck Institute for Biological Cybernetics, Tübingen, Germany
- University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
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10
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Penzo MA, Moscarello JM. From aversive associations to defensive programs: experience-dependent synaptic modifications in the central amygdala. Trends Neurosci 2023; 46:701-711. [PMID: 37495461 PMCID: PMC10529247 DOI: 10.1016/j.tins.2023.06.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2023] [Revised: 06/15/2023] [Accepted: 06/29/2023] [Indexed: 07/28/2023]
Abstract
Plasticity elicited by fear conditioning (FC) is thought to support the storage of aversive associative memories. Although work over the past decade has revealed FC-induced plasticity beyond canonical sites in the basolateral complex of the amygdala (BLA), it is not known whether modifications across distributed circuits make equivalent or distinct contributions to aversive memory. Here, we review evidence demonstrating that experience-dependent synaptic plasticity in the central nucleus of the amygdala (CeA) has a circumscribed role in memory expression per se, guiding the selection of defensive programs in response to acquired threats. We argue that the CeA may be a key example of a broader phenomenon by which synaptic plasticity at specific nodes of a distributed network makes a complementary contribution to distinct memory processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mario A Penzo
- Unit on the Neurobiology of Affective Memory, National Institute of Mental Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Justin M Moscarello
- Department of Psychological & Brain Sciences, Institute for Neuroscience, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA.
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11
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Abend R. Understanding anxiety symptoms as aberrant defensive responding along the threat imminence continuum. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2023; 152:105305. [PMID: 37414377 PMCID: PMC10528507 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2023.105305] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2022] [Revised: 06/22/2023] [Accepted: 07/03/2023] [Indexed: 07/08/2023]
Abstract
Threat-anticipatory defensive responses have evolved to promote survival in a dynamic world. While inherently adaptive, aberrant expression of defensive responses to potential threat could manifest as pathological anxiety, which is prevalent, impairing, and associated with adverse outcomes. Extensive translational neuroscience research indicates that normative defensive responses are organized by threat imminence, such that distinct response patterns are observed in each phase of threat encounter and orchestrated by partially conserved neural circuitry. Anxiety symptoms, such as excessive and pervasive worry, physiological arousal, and avoidance behavior, may reflect aberrant expression of otherwise normative defensive responses, and therefore follow the same imminence-based organization. Here, empirical evidence linking aberrant expression of specific, imminence-dependent defensive responding to distinct anxiety symptoms is reviewed, and plausible contributing neural circuitry is highlighted. Drawing from translational and clinical research, the proposed framework informs our understanding of pathological anxiety by grounding anxiety symptoms in conserved psychobiological mechanisms. Potential implications for research and treatment are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rany Abend
- School of Psychology, Reichman University, P.O. Box 167, Herzliya 4610101, Israel; Section on Development and Affective Neuroscience, National Institute of Mental Health, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA.
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12
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Guerra DP, Wang W, Souza KA, Moscarello JM. A sex-specific role for the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis in proactive defensive behavior. Neuropsychopharmacology 2023; 48:1234-1244. [PMID: 37142666 PMCID: PMC10267121 DOI: 10.1038/s41386-023-01581-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2022] [Revised: 03/28/2023] [Accepted: 03/30/2023] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
The bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BNST) is a forebrain region implicated in aversive responses to uncertain threat. Much of the work on the role of BNST in defensive behavior has used Pavlovian paradigms in which the subject reacts to aversive stimuli delivered in a pattern determined entirely by the experimenter. Here, we explore the contribution of BNST to a task in which subjects learn a proactive response that prevents the delivery of an aversive outcome. To this end, male and female rats were trained to shuttle during a tone to avoid shock in a standard two-way signaled active avoidance paradigm. Chemogenetic inhibition (hM4Di) of BNST attenuated the expression of the avoidance response in male but not female rats. Inactivation of the neighboring medial septum in males produced no effect on avoidance, demonstrating that our effect was specific to BNST. A follow up study comparing hM4Di inhibition to hM3Dq activation of BNST in males replicated the effect of inhibition and demonstrated that activation of BNST extended the period of tone-evoked shuttling. These data support the novel conclusion that BNST mediates two-way avoidance behavior in male rats and suggest the intriguing possibility that the systems underlying proactive defensive behavior are sex-specific.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diana P Guerra
- Department of Psychological & Brain Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA
| | - Wei Wang
- Department of Neuroscience, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Karienn A Souza
- Department of Neuroscience and Experimental Therapeutics, Texas A&M Health Science Center, Bryan, TX, USA
- Texas A&M Institute for Neuroscience (TAMIN), Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA
| | - Justin M Moscarello
- Department of Psychological & Brain Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA.
- Texas A&M Institute for Neuroscience (TAMIN), Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA.
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13
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Radostova D, Kuncicka D, Krajcovic B, Hejtmanek L, Petrasek T, Svoboda J, Stuchlik A, Brozka H. Incidental temporal binding in rats: A novel behavioral task. PLoS One 2023; 18:e0274437. [PMID: 37347773 PMCID: PMC10286974 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0274437] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2022] [Accepted: 06/01/2023] [Indexed: 06/24/2023] Open
Abstract
We designed a behavioral task called One-Trial Trace Escape Reaction (OTTER), in which rats incidentally associate two temporally discontinuous stimuli: a neutral acoustic cue (CS) with an aversive stimulus (US) which occurs two seconds later (CS-2s-US sequence). Rats are first habituated to two similar environmental contexts (A and B), each consisting of an interconnected dark and light chamber. Next, rats experience the CS-2s-US sequence in the dark chamber of one of the contexts (either A or B); the US is terminated immediately after a rat escapes into the light chamber. The CS-2s-US sequence is presented only once to ensure the incidental acquisition of the association. The recall is tested 24 h later when rats are presented with only the CS in the alternate context (B or A), and their behavioral response is observed. Our results show that 59% of the rats responded to the CS by escaping to the light chamber, although they experienced only one CS-2s-US pairing. The OTTER task offers a flexible high throughput tool to study memory acquired incidentally after a single experience. Incidental one-trial acquisition of association between temporally discontinuous events may be one of the essential components of episodic memory formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dominika Radostova
- Institute of Physiology, Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague, Czechia
- Second Faculty of Medicine, Charles University, Prague, Czechia
| | - Daniela Kuncicka
- Institute of Physiology, Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague, Czechia
- Second Faculty of Medicine, Charles University, Prague, Czechia
| | - Branislav Krajcovic
- Institute of Physiology, Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague, Czechia
- Third Faculty of Medicine, Charles University, Prague, Czechia
| | - Lukas Hejtmanek
- Institute of Physiology, Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague, Czechia
| | - Tomas Petrasek
- Institute of Physiology, Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague, Czechia
- National Institute of Mental Health, Klecany, Czechia
| | - Jan Svoboda
- Institute of Physiology, Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague, Czechia
| | - Ales Stuchlik
- Institute of Physiology, Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague, Czechia
| | - Hana Brozka
- Institute of Physiology, Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague, Czechia
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14
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Martínez-Rivera FJ, Pérez-Torres J, Velázquez-Díaz CD, Sánchez-Navarro MJ, Huertas-Pérez CI, Diehl MM, Phillips ML, Haber SN, Quirk GJ. A Novel Insular/Orbital-Prelimbic Circuit That Prevents Persistent Avoidance in a Rodent Model of Compulsive Behavior. Biol Psychiatry 2023; 93:1000-1009. [PMID: 35491274 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2022.02.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2021] [Revised: 01/24/2022] [Accepted: 02/11/2022] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND A common symptom of obsessive-compulsive disorder is the persistent avoidance of cues incorrectly associated with negative outcomes. This maladaptation becomes increasingly evident as subjects fail to respond to extinction-based treatments such as exposure-with-response prevention therapy. While previous studies have highlighted the role of the insular-orbital cortex in fine-tuning avoidance-based decisions, little is known about the projections from this area that might modulate compulsive-like avoidance. METHODS Here, we used anatomical tract-tracing, single-unit recording, and optogenetics to characterize the projections from the insular-orbital cortex. To model exposure-with-response prevention and persistent avoidance in rats, we used the platform-mediated avoidance task followed by extinction-with-response prevention training. RESULTS Using tract-tracing and unit recording, we found that projections from the agranular insular/lateral orbital (AI/LO) cortex to the prefrontal cortex predominantly target the rostral portion of the prelimbic (rPL) cortex and excite rPL neurons. Photoinhibiting this projection induced persistent avoidance after extinction-with-response prevention training, an effect that was still present 1 week later. Consistent with this, photoexcitation of this projection prevented persistent avoidance in overtrained rats. This projection to rPL appears to be key for AI/LO's effects, considering that there was no effect of photoinhibiting AI/LO projections to the ventral striatum or basolateral amygdala. CONCLUSIONS Our findings suggest that projections from the AI/LO to the rPL decreases the likelihood of avoidance behavior following extinction. In humans, this connectivity may share some homology of projections from lateral prefrontal cortices (i.e., ventrolateral prefrontal cortex, orbitofrontal cortex, and insula) to other prefrontal areas and the anterior cingulate cortex, suggesting that reduced activity in these pathways may contribute to obsessive-compulsive disorder.
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Affiliation(s)
- Freddyson J Martínez-Rivera
- Departments of Psychiatry and Anatomy & Neurobiology, School of Medicine, Medical Sciences Campus, University of Puerto Rico, San Juan, Puerto Rico.
| | - José Pérez-Torres
- Departments of Psychiatry and Anatomy & Neurobiology, School of Medicine, Medical Sciences Campus, University of Puerto Rico, San Juan, Puerto Rico
| | - Coraly D Velázquez-Díaz
- Departments of Psychiatry and Anatomy & Neurobiology, School of Medicine, Medical Sciences Campus, University of Puerto Rico, San Juan, Puerto Rico
| | - Marcos J Sánchez-Navarro
- Departments of Psychiatry and Anatomy & Neurobiology, School of Medicine, Medical Sciences Campus, University of Puerto Rico, San Juan, Puerto Rico
| | - Carlos I Huertas-Pérez
- Departments of Psychiatry and Anatomy & Neurobiology, School of Medicine, Medical Sciences Campus, University of Puerto Rico, San Juan, Puerto Rico
| | - Maria M Diehl
- Departments of Psychiatry and Anatomy & Neurobiology, School of Medicine, Medical Sciences Campus, University of Puerto Rico, San Juan, Puerto Rico
| | - Mary L Phillips
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Suzanne N Haber
- Department of Pharmacology and Physiology, University of Rochester School of Medicine, Rochester, New York; McLean Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Belmont, Massachusetts
| | - Gregory J Quirk
- Departments of Psychiatry and Anatomy & Neurobiology, School of Medicine, Medical Sciences Campus, University of Puerto Rico, San Juan, Puerto Rico
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15
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Barnett WH, Kuznetsov A, Lapish CC. Distinct cortico-striatal compartments drive competition between adaptive and automatized behavior. PLoS One 2023; 18:e0279841. [PMID: 36943842 PMCID: PMC10030038 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0279841] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2022] [Accepted: 12/15/2022] [Indexed: 03/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Cortical and basal ganglia circuits play a crucial role in the formation of goal-directed and habitual behaviors. In this study, we investigate the cortico-striatal circuitry involved in learning and the role of this circuitry in the emergence of inflexible behaviors such as those observed in addiction. Specifically, we develop a computational model of cortico-striatal interactions that performs concurrent goal-directed and habit learning. The model accomplishes this by distinguishing learning processes in the dorsomedial striatum (DMS) that rely on reward prediction error signals as distinct from the dorsolateral striatum (DLS) where learning is supported by salience signals. These striatal subregions each operate on unique cortical input: the DMS receives input from the prefrontal cortex (PFC) which represents outcomes, and the DLS receives input from the premotor cortex which determines action selection. Following an initial learning of a two-alternative forced choice task, we subjected the model to reversal learning, reward devaluation, and learning a punished outcome. Behavior driven by stimulus-response associations in the DLS resisted goal-directed learning of new reward feedback rules despite devaluation or punishment, indicating the expression of habit. We repeated these simulations after the impairment of executive control, which was implemented as poor outcome representation in the PFC. The degraded executive control reduced the efficacy of goal-directed learning, and stimulus-response associations in the DLS were even more resistant to the learning of new reward feedback rules. In summary, this model describes how circuits of the dorsal striatum are dynamically engaged to control behavior and how the impairment of executive control by the PFC enhances inflexible behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- William H. Barnett
- Department of Psychology, Indiana University—Purdue University Indianapolis, Indianapolis, Indiana, United States of America
| | - Alexey Kuznetsov
- Department of Mathematics, Indiana University—Purdue University Indianapolis, Indianapolis, Indiana, United States of America
| | - Christopher C. Lapish
- Department of Psychology, Indiana University—Purdue University Indianapolis, Indianapolis, Indiana, United States of America
- Stark Neurosciences Research Institute, Indiana University—Purdue University Indianapolis, Indianapolis, Indiana, United States of America
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16
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Garcia-Burgos D, Wilhelm P, Vögele C, Munsch S. Food Restriction in Anorexia Nervosa in the Light of Modern Learning Theory: A Narrative Review. Behav Sci (Basel) 2023; 13:bs13020096. [PMID: 36829325 PMCID: PMC9952578 DOI: 10.3390/bs13020096] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2022] [Revised: 01/07/2023] [Accepted: 01/18/2023] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Improvements in the clinical management of anorexia nervosa (AN) are urgently needed. To do so, the search for innovative approaches continues at laboratory and clinical levels to translate new findings into more effective treatments. In this sense, modern learning theory provides a unifying framework that connects concepts, methodologies and data from preclinical and clinical research to inspire novel interventions in the field of psychopathology in general, and of disordered eating in particular. Indeed, learning is thought to be a crucial factor in the development/regulation of normal and pathological eating behaviour. Thus, the present review not only tries to provide a comprehensive overview of modern learning research in the field of AN, but also follows a transdiagnostic perspective to offer testable explanations for the origin and maintenance of pathological food rejection. This narrative review was informed by a systematic search of research papers in the electronic databases PsycInfo, Scopus and Web of Science following PRISMA methodology. By considering the number and type of associations (Pavlovian, goal-directed or habitual) and the affective nature of conditioning processes (appetitive versus aversive), this approach can explain many features of AN, including why some patients restrict food intake to the point of life-threatening starvation and others restrict calorie intake to lose weight and binge on a regular basis. Nonetheless, it is striking how little impact modern learning theory has had on the current AN research agenda and practice.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Garcia-Burgos
- Department of Psychology, University of Fribourg, 1700 Fribourg, Switzerland
- Department of Psychobiology, The “Federico Olóriz” Institute of Neurosciences, Biomedical Research Centre, University of Granada, 18071 Granada, Spain
- Correspondence:
| | - Peter Wilhelm
- Department of Psychology, University of Fribourg, 1700 Fribourg, Switzerland
| | - Claus Vögele
- Institute for Health and Behaviour, Department of Behavioural and Cognitive Sciences, University of Luxembourg, 4365 Esch-sur-Alzette, Luxembourg
| | - Simone Munsch
- Department of Psychology, University of Fribourg, 1700 Fribourg, Switzerland
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17
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d'Isa R, Gerlai R. Designing animal-friendly behavioral tests for neuroscience research: The importance of an ethological approach. Front Behav Neurosci 2023; 16:1090248. [PMID: 36703720 PMCID: PMC9871504 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2022.1090248] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2022] [Accepted: 12/16/2022] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Raffaele d'Isa
- Institute of Experimental Neurology (INSPE), Division of Neuroscience (DNS), IRCCS San Raffaele Scientific Institute, Milan, Italy
| | - Robert Gerlai
- Department of Psychology, University of Toronto Mississauga, Mississauga, ON, Canada
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18
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Cain CK. Beyond Fear, Extinction, and Freezing: Strategies for Improving the Translational Value of Animal Conditioning Research. Curr Top Behav Neurosci 2023; 64:19-57. [PMID: 37532965 PMCID: PMC10840073 DOI: 10.1007/7854_2023_434] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/04/2023]
Abstract
Translational neuroscience for anxiety has had limited success despite great progress in understanding the neurobiology of Pavlovian fear conditioning and extinction. This chapter explores the idea that conditioning paradigms have had a modest impact on translation because studies in animals and humans are misaligned in important ways. For instance, animal conditioning studies typically use imminent threats to assess short-duration fear states with single behavioral measures (e.g., freezing), whereas human studies typically assess weaker or more prolonged anxiety states with physiological (e.g., skin conductance) and self-report measures. A path forward may be more animal research on conditioned anxiety phenomena measuring dynamic behavioral and physiological responses in more complex environments. Exploring transitions between defensive brain states during extinction, looming threats, and post-threat recovery may be particularly informative. If care is taken to align paradigms, threat levels, and measures, this strategy may reveal stable patterns of non-conscious defense in animals and humans that correlate better with conscious anxiety. This shift in focus is also warranted because anxiety is a bigger problem than fear, even in disorders defined by dysfunctional fear or panic reactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher K Cain
- Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, NYU Langone Health, New York, NY, USA.
- Emotional Brain Institute, Nathan Kline Institute for Psychiatric Research, Orangeburg, NY, USA.
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19
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Triana-Del Rio R, Ranade S, Guardado J, LeDoux J, Klann E, Shrestha P. The modulation of emotional and social behaviors by oxytocin signaling in limbic network. Front Mol Neurosci 2022; 15:1002846. [PMID: 36466805 PMCID: PMC9714608 DOI: 10.3389/fnmol.2022.1002846] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2022] [Accepted: 09/22/2022] [Indexed: 01/21/2024] Open
Abstract
Neuropeptides can exert volume modulation in neuronal networks, which account for a well-calibrated and fine-tuned regulation that depends on the sensory and behavioral contexts. For example, oxytocin (OT) and oxytocin receptor (OTR) trigger a signaling pattern encompassing intracellular cascades, synaptic plasticity, gene expression, and network regulation, that together function to increase the signal-to-noise ratio for sensory-dependent stress/threat and social responses. Activation of OTRs in emotional circuits within the limbic forebrain is necessary to acquire stress/threat responses. When emotional memories are retrieved, OTR-expressing cells act as gatekeepers of the threat response choice/discrimination. OT signaling has also been implicated in modulating social-exposure elicited responses in the neural circuits within the limbic forebrain. In this review, we describe the cellular and molecular mechanisms that underlie the neuromodulation by OT, and how OT signaling in specific neural circuits and cell populations mediate stress/threat and social behaviors. OT and downstream signaling cascades are heavily implicated in neuropsychiatric disorders characterized by emotional and social dysregulation. Thus, a mechanistic understanding of downstream cellular effects of OT in relevant cell types and neural circuits can help design effective intervention techniques for a variety of neuropsychiatric disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Sayali Ranade
- Department of Neurobiology and Behavior, School of Medicine, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, United States
| | - Jahel Guardado
- Center for Neural Science, New York University, New York, NY, United States
| | - Joseph LeDoux
- Center for Neural Science, New York University, New York, NY, United States
| | - Eric Klann
- Center for Neural Science, New York University, New York, NY, United States
| | - Prerana Shrestha
- Department of Neurobiology and Behavior, School of Medicine, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, United States
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20
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Mennella R, Bavard S, Mentec I, Grèzes J. Spontaneous instrumental avoidance learning in social contexts. Sci Rep 2022; 12:17528. [PMID: 36266316 PMCID: PMC9585085 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-22334-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2022] [Accepted: 10/13/2022] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Adaptation to our social environment requires learning how to avoid potentially harmful situations, such as encounters with aggressive individuals. Threatening facial expressions can evoke automatic stimulus-driven reactions, but whether their aversive motivational value suffices to drive instrumental active avoidance remains unclear. When asked to freely choose between different action alternatives, participants spontaneously-without instruction or monetary reward-developed a preference for choices that maximized the probability of avoiding angry individuals (sitting away from them in a waiting room). Most participants showed clear behavioral signs of instrumental learning, even in the absence of an explicit avoidance strategy. Inter-individual variability in learning depended on participants' subjective evaluations and sensitivity to threat approach feedback. Counterfactual learning best accounted for avoidance behaviors, especially in participants who developed an explicit avoidance strategy. Our results demonstrate that implicit defensive behaviors in social contexts are likely the product of several learning processes, including instrumental learning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rocco Mennella
- grid.508487.60000 0004 7885 7602Laboratoire des Interactions Cognition, Action, Émotion (LICAÉ), Université Paris Nanterre, 200 Avenue de La République, 92001 Nanterre Cedex, France ,grid.440907.e0000 0004 1784 3645Cognitive and Computational Neuroscience Laboratory (LNC2), Inserm U960, Department of Cognitive Studies, École Normale Supérieure, PSL University, 29 Rue d’Ulm, 75005 Paris, France
| | - Sophie Bavard
- grid.440907.e0000 0004 1784 3645Cognitive and Computational Neuroscience Laboratory (LNC2), Inserm U960, Department of Cognitive Studies, École Normale Supérieure, PSL University, 29 Rue d’Ulm, 75005 Paris, France ,grid.9026.d0000 0001 2287 2617Department of Psychology, University of Hamburg, Von-Melle-Park 11, 20146 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Inès Mentec
- grid.440907.e0000 0004 1784 3645Cognitive and Computational Neuroscience Laboratory (LNC2), Inserm U960, Department of Cognitive Studies, École Normale Supérieure, PSL University, 29 Rue d’Ulm, 75005 Paris, France
| | - Julie Grèzes
- grid.440907.e0000 0004 1784 3645Cognitive and Computational Neuroscience Laboratory (LNC2), Inserm U960, Department of Cognitive Studies, École Normale Supérieure, PSL University, 29 Rue d’Ulm, 75005 Paris, France
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21
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Habit Formation and the Effect of Repeated Stress Exposures on Cognitive Flexibility Learning in Horses. Animals (Basel) 2022; 12:ani12202818. [DOI: 10.3390/ani12202818] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2022] [Revised: 10/13/2022] [Accepted: 10/13/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Horse training exposes horses to an array of cognitive and ethological challenges. Horses are routinely required to perform behaviours that are not aligned to aspects of their ethology, which may delay learning. While horses readily form habits during training, not all of these responses are considered desirable, resulting in the horse being subject to retraining. This is a form of cognitive flexibility and is critical to the extinction of habits and the learning of new responses. It is underpinned by complex neural processes which can be impaired by chronic or repeated stress. Domestic horses may be repeatedly exposed to multiples stressors. The potential contribution of stress impairments of cognitive flexibility to apparent training failures is not well understood, however research from neuroscience can be used to understand horses’ responses to training. We trained horses to acquire habit-like responses in one of two industry-style aversive instrumental learning scenarios (moving away from the stimulus-instinctual or moving towards the stimulus-non-instinctual) and evaluated the effect of repeated stress exposures on their cognitive flexibility in a reversal task. We measured heart rate as a proxy for noradrenaline release, salivary cortisol and serum Brain Derived Neurotrophic Factor (BDNF) to infer possible neural correlates of the learning outcomes. The instinctual task which aligned with innate equine escape responses to aversive stimuli was acquired significantly faster than the non-instinctual task during both learning phases, however contrary to expectations, the repeated stress exposure did not impair the reversal learning. We report a preliminary finding that serum BDNF and salivary cortisol concentrations in horses are positively correlated. The ethological salience of training tasks and cognitive flexibility learning can significantly affect learning in horses and trainers should adapt their practices where such tasks challenge innate equine behaviour.
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22
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Incentive disengagement and the adaptive significance of frustrative nonreward. Learn Behav 2022; 50:372-388. [DOI: 10.3758/s13420-022-00519-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 02/15/2022] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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23
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Moscarello JM, Penzo MA. The central nucleus of the amygdala and the construction of defensive modes across the threat-imminence continuum. Nat Neurosci 2022; 25:999-1008. [PMID: 35915178 DOI: 10.1038/s41593-022-01130-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2021] [Accepted: 06/23/2022] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
In nature, animals display defensive behaviors that reflect the spatiotemporal distance of threats. Laboratory-based paradigms that elicit specific defensive responses in rodents have provided valuable insight into the brain mechanisms that mediate the construction of defensive modes with varying degrees of threat imminence. In this Review, we discuss accumulating evidence that the central nucleus of the amygdala (CeA) plays a key role in this process. Specifically, we propose that the mutually inhibitory circuits of the CeA use a winner-takes-all strategy that supports transitioning across defensive modes and the execution of specific defensive behaviors to previously formed threat associations. Our proposal provides a conceptual framework in which seemingly divergent observations regarding CeA function can be interpreted and identifies various areas of priority for future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Justin M Moscarello
- Department of Psychological & Brain Sciences, Institute for Neuroscience, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA.
| | - Mario A Penzo
- Unit on the Neurobiology of Affective Memory, National Institute of Mental Health, Bethesda, MD, USA.
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24
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Roberts C, Apergis-Schoute AM, Bruhl A, Nowak M, Baldwin DS, Sahakian BJ, Robbins TW. Threat reversal learning and avoidance habits in generalised anxiety disorder. Transl Psychiatry 2022; 12:216. [PMID: 35641488 PMCID: PMC9156703 DOI: 10.1038/s41398-022-01981-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2021] [Revised: 04/26/2022] [Accepted: 05/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Avoidance and heightened responses to perceived threats are key features of anxiety disorders. These disorders are characterised by inflexibility in dynamically updating behavioural and physiological responses to aversively conditioned cues or environmental contexts which are no longer objectively threatening, often manifesting in perseverative avoidance. However, less is known about how anxiety disorders might differ in adjusting to threat and safety shifts in the environment or how idiosyncratic avoidance responses are learned and persist. Twenty-eight patients with generalised anxiety disorder (GAD), without DSM co-morbidities, and 27 matched healthy controls were administered two previously established paradigms: Pavlovian threat reversal and shock avoidance habits through overtraining (assessed following devaluation with measures of perseverative responding). For both tasks we used subjective report scales and skin conductance responses (SCR). In the Pavlovian threat reversal task, patients with GAD showed a significantly overall higher SCR as well as a reduced differential SCR response compared to controls in the early but not late reversal phase. During the test of habitual avoidance responding, GAD patients did not differ from controls in task performance, habitual active avoidance responses during devaluation, or corresponding SCR during trials, but showed a trend toward more abstract confirmatory subjective justifications for continued avoidance following the task. GAD patients exhibited significantly greater skin conductance responses to signals of threat than controls, but did not exhibit the major deficits in reversal and safety signal learning shown previously by patients with OCD. Moreover, this patient group, again unlike OCD patients, did not show evidence of altered active avoidance learning or enhanced instrumental avoidance habits. Overall, these findings indicate no deficits in instrumental active avoidance or persistent avoidance habits, despite enhanced responses to Pavlovian threat cues in GAD. They suggest that GAD is characterised by passive, and not excessively rigid, avoidance styles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Clark Roberts
- grid.5335.00000000121885934Department of Psychiatry, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK ,grid.5335.00000000121885934Behavioural and Clinical Neuroscience Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Annemieke M. Apergis-Schoute
- grid.5335.00000000121885934Department of Psychology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK ,grid.9918.90000 0004 1936 8411Department of Neuroscience, Psychology and Behaviour, University of Leicester, Leicester, UK
| | - Annette Bruhl
- grid.412004.30000 0004 0478 9977University Hospital of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Magda Nowak
- grid.5491.90000 0004 1936 9297Clinical and Experimental Sciences (CNS and Psychiatry), Faculty of Medicine, University of Southampton, Southampton, UK
| | - David S. Baldwin
- grid.5491.90000 0004 1936 9297Clinical and Experimental Sciences (CNS and Psychiatry), Faculty of Medicine, University of Southampton, Southampton, UK ,grid.7836.a0000 0004 1937 1151University Department of Psychiatry and Mental Health, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Barbara J. Sahakian
- grid.5335.00000000121885934Department of Psychiatry, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK ,grid.5335.00000000121885934Behavioural and Clinical Neuroscience Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Trevor W. Robbins
- grid.5335.00000000121885934Behavioural and Clinical Neuroscience Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK ,grid.5335.00000000121885934Department of Psychology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
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25
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Tang J, Yang C, Shi M, Chen W. Activation of dopamine D 2 receptors in the shell of nucleus accumbens triggers conditioned avoidance responses in rats. Behav Brain Res 2022; 422:113759. [PMID: 35051488 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2022.113759] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2021] [Revised: 12/11/2021] [Accepted: 01/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Conditioned avoidance responses (CAR) behavior is a classical instrumental response paradigm, which is widely used to study aversive conditioning and defensive motivation behavior. Previous studies have shown that dopamine D1 and D2 receptors are involved in CAR behavior; however, it is unclear in which brain regions that dopamine evokes CAR behavior. The aim of the study is to investigate whether dopamine triggers CAR behavior via activating dopamine D1 or D2 receptors in the shell of nucleus accumbens or dorsolateral striatum. The present study found that infusion of the dopamine D2 receptor agonist quinpirole, but not D1 receptor agonist SKF38393, into the shell of nucleus accumbens evoked CAR behavior in reserpine-treated rats. Whereas, infusion of neither SKF38393 nor quinpirole into the dorsolateral striatum evoked CAR behavior. In addition, infusion of quinpirole into the shell of nucleus accumbens enhanced CAR behavior in the unsuccessful trained rats without affecting the motor function in the balance beam and locomotor tests. In conclusion, activation of dopamine D2, but not D1 receptors in the shell of nucleus accumbens evokes CAR behavior. However, activation of dopamine D1 and D2 receptors in the dorsolateral striatum does not evoke CAR behavior. It is suggested that the shell of nucleus accumbens is the critical brain region for dopamine to invoke CAR behavior, and activation of dopamine D2 receptors in the shell of nucleus accumbens is sufficient and necessary to evoke CAR behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiaxin Tang
- Key Laboratory of Cognition and Personality (Southwest University), Ministry of Education, Chongqing, China; Faculty of Psychology, Southwest University, Chongqing, China
| | - Chengmei Yang
- Key Laboratory of Cognition and Personality (Southwest University), Ministry of Education, Chongqing, China; Faculty of Psychology, Southwest University, Chongqing, China
| | - Mengwen Shi
- Key Laboratory of Cognition and Personality (Southwest University), Ministry of Education, Chongqing, China; Faculty of Psychology, Southwest University, Chongqing, China
| | - Weihai Chen
- Key Laboratory of Cognition and Personality (Southwest University), Ministry of Education, Chongqing, China; Faculty of Psychology, Southwest University, Chongqing, China.
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26
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Labrenz F, Woud ML, Elsenbruch S, Icenhour A. The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly-Chances, Challenges, and Clinical Implications of Avoidance Research in Psychosomatic Medicine. Front Psychiatry 2022; 13:841734. [PMID: 35250678 PMCID: PMC8894646 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2022.841734] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2021] [Accepted: 01/28/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Avoidance behaviors are shaped by associative learning processes in response to fear of impending threats, particularly physical harm. As part of a defensive repertoire, avoidance is highly adaptive in case of acute danger, serving a potent protective function. However, persistent or excessive fear and maladaptive avoidance are considered key factors in the etiology and pathophysiology of anxiety- and stress-related psychosomatic disorders. In these overlapping conditions, avoidance can increase the risk of mental comorbidities and interfere with the efficacy of cognitive behavioral treatment approaches built on fear extinction. Despite resurging interest in avoidance research also in the context of psychosomatic medicine, especially in conditions associated with pain, disturbed interoception, and disorders of the gut-brain axis, current study designs and their translation into the clinical context face significant challenges limiting both, the investigation of mechanisms involved in avoidance and the development of novel targeted treatment options. We herein selectively review the conceptual framework of learning and memory processes, emphasizing how classical and operant conditioning, fear extinction, and return of fear shape avoidance behaviors. We further discuss pathological avoidance and safety behaviors as hallmark features in psychosomatic diseases, with a focus on anxiety- and stress-related disorders. Aiming to emphasize chances of improved translational knowledge across clinical conditions, we further point out limitations in current experimental avoidance research. Based on these considerations, we propose means to improve existing avoidance paradigms to broaden our understanding of underlying mechanisms, moderators and mediators of avoidance, and to inspire tailored treatments for patients suffering from psychosomatic disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Franziska Labrenz
- Department of Medical Psychology and Medical Sociology, Ruhr University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
| | - Marcella L Woud
- Mental Health Research and Treatment Center, Department of Psychology, Ruhr-University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
| | - Sigrid Elsenbruch
- Department of Medical Psychology and Medical Sociology, Ruhr University Bochum, Bochum, Germany.,Department of Neurology and Center for Translational Neuro- and Behavioral Sciences, University Hospital Essen, Essen, Germany
| | - Adriane Icenhour
- Department of Medical Psychology and Medical Sociology, Ruhr University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
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Fernandez-Leon JA, Engelke DS, Aquino-Miranda G, Goodson A, Rasheed MN, Do Monte FH. Neural correlates and determinants of approach-avoidance conflict in the prelimbic prefrontal cortex. eLife 2021; 10:74950. [PMID: 34913438 PMCID: PMC8853658 DOI: 10.7554/elife.74950] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2021] [Accepted: 12/13/2021] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
The recollection of environmental cues associated with threat or reward allows animals to select the most appropriate behavioral responses. Neurons in the prelimbic (PL) cortex respond to both threat- and reward-associated cues. However, it remains unknown whether PL regulates threat-avoidance vs. reward-approaching responses when an animals’ decision depends on previously associated memories. Using a conflict model in which male Long–Evans rats retrieve memories of shock- and food-paired cues, we observed two distinct phenotypes during conflict: (1) rats that continued to press a lever for food (Pressers) and (2) rats that exhibited a complete suppression in food seeking (Non-pressers). Single-unit recordings revealed that increased risk-taking behavior in Pressers is associated with persistent food-cue responses in PL, and reduced spontaneous activity in PL glutamatergic (PLGLUT) neurons during conflict. Activating PLGLUT neurons in Pressers attenuated food-seeking responses in a neutral context, whereas inhibiting PLGLUT neurons in Non-pressers reduced defensive responses and increased food approaching during conflict. Our results establish a causal role for PLGLUT neurons in mediating individual variability in memory-based risky decision-making by regulating threat-avoidance vs. reward-approach behaviors.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Douglas S Engelke
- Department of Neurobiology and Anatomy, The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, United States
| | - Guillermo Aquino-Miranda
- Department of Neurobiology and Anatomy, The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, United States
| | | | - Maria N Rasheed
- Department of Neurobiology and Anatomy, The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, United States
| | - Fabricio H Do Monte
- Department of Neurobiology and Anatomy, The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, United States
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28
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Gerhard DM, Meyer HC. Extinction trial spacing across days differentially impacts fear regulation in adult and adolescent male mice. Neurobiol Learn Mem 2021; 186:107543. [PMID: 34748926 PMCID: PMC8744067 DOI: 10.1016/j.nlm.2021.107543] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2021] [Revised: 10/15/2021] [Accepted: 10/25/2021] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Fear regulation changes as a function of age and adolescence is a key developmental period for the continued maturation of fear neural circuitry. A consistent finding in the literature is diminished extinction retention in adolescents. However, these studies often directly compare adolescents to adults using a single protocol and therefore provide little insight into learning parameters that improve adolescent fear regulation. Studies in adults highlight the benefits of spaced learning over massed learning. These findings have been extended to fear regulation, with adult rodents exhibiting improved extinction learning and retention when cues are distributed over days versus a single session. However, similar studies have not been performed in adolescents. Here, we systematically examine the impact of trial spacing across days on fear regulation. Adolescent or adult male mice were exposed to one of three extinction paradigms that presented the same number of trials but differed in the temporal distribution of trials across days (one day, two days, or four days). We found that introducing consolidation events into the protocol improves adult extinction learning and short-term extinction retention but these effects disappear after two weeks. For adolescents, all three protocols were comparably effective in reducing freezing across extinction training and improved retention at both short-term and long-term fear recall time points relative to extinction-naive mice. These findings suggest that extinction protocols that incorporate consolidation events are optimal for adults but additional booster training may be required for enduring efficacy. In contrast, protocols incorporating either massed or spaced presentations show immediate and enduring benefits for adolescents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Danielle M Gerhard
- Department of Psychiatry, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, United States.
| | - Heidi C Meyer
- Department of Psychiatry, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, United States; Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Boston University, Boston, MA, United States.
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29
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Campese VD, Brannigan LA, LeDoux JE. Conditional Control of Instrumental Avoidance by Context Following Extinction. Front Behav Neurosci 2021; 15:730113. [PMID: 34650411 PMCID: PMC8505733 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2021.730113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2021] [Accepted: 08/31/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Using rodents, three training arrangements (i.e., ABB vs. ABA, AAA vs. AAB and ABB vs. ABC) explored whether extinction influences the expression of avoidance in a manner controlled by context. Retention testing following extinction showed that more avoidance responding (i.e., renewal) was observed when extinguished cues were tested outside of the context where they had undergone extinction. In contrast, response rates were significantly lower when stimuli were tested within the context where extinction learning had occurred. These findings add to the emerging literature assessing the role of Pavlovian extinction processes in the development of instrumental avoidance responding by demonstrating conditional control over extinguished responding by context. This study was conducted using a within-subjects approach that minimized the potential for context-outcome associations to bias responding, and thus, reflects hierarchical control over behavior based on the specific associative status of each tested cue in each training context.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vincent D Campese
- Department of Psychology, University of Evansville, Evansville, IN, United States
| | - Lauren A Brannigan
- Center for Neural Science, New York University, New York, NY, United States
| | - Joseph E LeDoux
- Center for Neural Science, New York University, New York, NY, United States.,Emotional Brain Institute, Nathan Kline Institute for Psychiatric Research, Orangeburg, NY, United States
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30
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Ma J, du Hoffmann J, Kindel M, Beas BS, Chudasama Y, Penzo MA. Divergent projections of the paraventricular nucleus of the thalamus mediate the selection of passive and active defensive behaviors. Nat Neurosci 2021; 24:1429-1440. [PMID: 34413514 PMCID: PMC8484052 DOI: 10.1038/s41593-021-00912-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2021] [Accepted: 07/15/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
The appropriate selection of passive and active defensive behaviors in threatening situations is essential for survival. Previous studies have shown that passive defensive responses depend on activity of the central nucleus of the amygdala (CeA), whereas active ones primarily rely on the nucleus accumbens (NAc). However, the mechanisms underlying flexible switching between these two types of responses remain unknown. Here, we show in mice that the paraventricular thalamus (PVT) mediates the selection of defensive behaviors through its interaction with the CeA and the NAc. We show that the PVT–CeA pathway drives conditioned freezing responses, whereas the PVT–NAc pathway is inhibited during freezing and instead signals active avoidance events. Optogenetic manipulations revealed that activity in the PVT–CeA or PVT–NAc pathway biases behavior toward the selection of passive or active defensive responses, respectively. These findings provide evidence that the PVT mediates flexible switching between opposing defensive behaviors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jun Ma
- Unit on the Neurobiology of Affective Memory, National Institute of Mental Health, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Johann du Hoffmann
- Central Nervous System Diseases Research, Boehringer Ingelheim Pharma GmbH & Co. KG, Biberach an der Riß, Germany.,Rodent Behavioral Core, National Institute of Mental Health, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Morgan Kindel
- Unit on the Neurobiology of Affective Memory, National Institute of Mental Health, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - B Sofia Beas
- Unit on the Neurobiology of Affective Memory, National Institute of Mental Health, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Yogita Chudasama
- Rodent Behavioral Core, National Institute of Mental Health, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA.,Section on Behavioral Neuroscience, National Institute of Mental Health, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Mario A Penzo
- Unit on the Neurobiology of Affective Memory, National Institute of Mental Health, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA.
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31
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Campese VD. The lesser evil: Pavlovian-instrumental transfer & aversive motivation. Behav Brain Res 2021; 412:113431. [PMID: 34175357 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2021.113431] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/01/2021] [Revised: 06/13/2021] [Accepted: 06/22/2021] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
While our understanding of appetitive motivation includes accounts of rich cognitive phenomena, such as choice, sensory-specificity and outcome valuation, the same is not true in aversive processes. A highly sophisticated picture has emerged of Pavlovian fear conditioning and extinction, but progress in aversive motivation has been somewhat limited to these fundamental behaviors. Many differences between appetitive and aversive stimuli permit different kinds of analyses; a widely used procedure in appetitive studies that can expand the scope of aversive motivation is Pavlovian-instrumental transfer (PIT). Recently, this motivational transfer effect has been used to examine issues pertaining to sensory-specificity and the nature of defensive control in avoidance learning. Given enduring controversies and unresolved criticisms surrounding avoidance research, PIT offers a valuable, well-controlled procedure with which to similarly probe this form of motivation. Furthermore, while avoidance itself can be criticized as artificial, PIT can be an effective model for how skills learned through avoidance can be practically applied to encounters with threatening or fearful stimuli and stress. Despite sensory-related challenges presented by the limited aversive unconditioned stimuli typically used in research, transfer testing can nevertheless provide valuable information on the psychological nature of this historically controversial phenomenon.
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32
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Pittig A, Boschet JM, Glück VM, Schneider K. Elevated costly avoidance in anxiety disorders: Patients show little downregulation of acquired avoidance in face of competing rewards for approach. Depress Anxiety 2021; 38:361-371. [PMID: 33258530 DOI: 10.1002/da.23119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2020] [Revised: 10/26/2020] [Accepted: 11/14/2020] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Pathological avoidance is a transdiagnostic characteristic of anxiety disorders. Avoidance conditioning re-emerged as a translational model to examine mechanisms and treatment of avoidance. However, its validity for anxiety disorders remains unclear. METHODS This study tested for altered avoidance in patients with anxiety disorders compared to matched controls (n = 40/group) using instrumental conditioning assessing low-cost avoidance (avoiding a single aversive outcome) and costly avoidance (avoidance conflicted with gaining rewards). Autonomic arousal and threat expectancy were assessed as indicators of conditioned fear. Associations with dimensional symptom severity were examined. RESULTS Patients and controls showed frequent low-cost avoidance without group differences. Controls subsequently inhibited avoidance to gain rewards, which was amplified when aversive outcomes discontinued. In contrast, patients failed to reduce avoidance when aversive and positive outcomes competed (elevated costly avoidance) and showed limited reduction when aversive outcomes discontinued (persistent costly avoidance). Interestingly, elevated costly avoidance was not linked to higher conditioned fear in patients. Moreover, individual data revealed a bimodal distribution of costly avoidance: Some patients showed persistent avoidance, others showed little to no avoidance. Persistent versus low avoiders did not differ in other task-related variables, response to gains and losses in absence of threat, sociodemographic data, or clinical characteristics. CONCLUSIONS Findings suggest that anxious psychopathology is associated with a deficit to inhibit avoidance in presence of competing positive outcomes. This offers novel perspectives for research on mechanisms and treatment of anxiety disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andre Pittig
- Department of Psychology (Biological Psychology, Clinical Psychology, and Psychotherapy), University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany.,Center of Mental Health, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Juliane M Boschet
- Department of Psychology (Biological Psychology, Clinical Psychology, and Psychotherapy), University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Valentina M Glück
- Department of Psychology (Biological Psychology, Clinical Psychology, and Psychotherapy), University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Kristina Schneider
- Department of Psychology (Biological Psychology, Clinical Psychology, and Psychotherapy), University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany.,Center of Mental Health, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
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33
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Lapointe T, Wolter M, Leri F. Analysis of memory modulation by conditioned stimuli. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2021; 28:87-94. [PMID: 33593927 PMCID: PMC7888238 DOI: 10.1101/lm.052407.120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2020] [Accepted: 12/02/2020] [Indexed: 12/03/2022]
Abstract
Conditioned stimuli (CS) have multiple psychological functions that can potentially contribute to their effect on memory formation. It is generally believed that CS-induced memory modulation is primarily due to conditioned emotional responses, however, well-learned CSs not only generate the appropriate behavioral and physiological reactions required to best respond to an upcoming unconditioned stimulus (US), but they also serve as signals that the US is about to occur. Therefore, it is possible that CSs can impact memory consolidation even when their ability to elicit conditioned emotional arousal is significantly reduced. To test this, male Sprague–Dawley rats trained on a signaled active avoidance task were divided into “Avoider” and “Non-Avoider” subgroups on the basis of percentage avoidance after 6 d of training. Subgroup differences in responding to the CS complex were maintained during a test carried out in the absence of the US. Moreover, the subgroups displayed significant differences in stress-induced analgesia (hot-plate test) immediately after this test, suggesting significant subgroup differences in conditioned emotionality. Importantly, using the spontaneous object recognition task, it was found that immediate post-sample exposure to the avoidance CS complex had a similar enhancing effect on object memory in the two subgroups. Therefore, to our knowledge, this is the first study to demonstrate that a significant conditioned emotional response is not necessary for the action of a predictive CS on modulation of memory consolidation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Lapointe
- Department of Psychology, Collaborative Program in Neuroscience, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario N1G 2W1, Canada
| | - Michael Wolter
- Department of Psychology, Collaborative Program in Neuroscience, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario N1G 2W1, Canada
| | - Francesco Leri
- Department of Psychology, Collaborative Program in Neuroscience, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario N1G 2W1, Canada
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34
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Hulsman AM, Terburg D, Roelofs K, Klumpers F. Roles of the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis and amygdala in fear reactions. HANDBOOK OF CLINICAL NEUROLOGY 2021; 179:419-432. [PMID: 34225979 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-819975-6.00027-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
The bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BNST) plays a critical modulatory role in driving fear responses. Part of the so-called extended amygdala, this region shares many functions and connections with the substantially more investigated amygdala proper. In this chapter, we review contributions of the BNST and amygdala to subjective, behavioral, and physiological aspects of fear. Despite the fact that both regions are together involved in each of these aspects of fear, they appear complimentary in their contributions. Specifically, the basolateral amygdala (BLA), through its connections to sensory and orbitofrontal regions, is ideally poised for fast learning and controlling fear reactions in a variety of situations. The central amygdala (CeA) relies on BLA input and is particularly important for adjusting physiological and behavioral responses under acute threat. In contrast, the BNST may profit from more extensive striatal and dorsomedial prefrontal connections to drive anticipatory responses under more ambiguous conditions that allow more time for planning. Thus current evidence suggests that the BNST is ideally suited to play a critical role responding to distant or ambiguous threats and could thereby facilitate goal-directed defensive action.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anneloes M Hulsman
- Experimental Psychopathology & Treatment, Behavioural Science Institute, Radboud University, Nijmegen, The Netherlands; Affective Neuroscience, Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Centre for Cognitive Neuroimaging, Radboud University, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - David Terburg
- Department of Experimental Psychology, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands; Department of Psychiatry and Mental Health, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Karin Roelofs
- Experimental Psychopathology & Treatment, Behavioural Science Institute, Radboud University, Nijmegen, The Netherlands; Affective Neuroscience, Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Centre for Cognitive Neuroimaging, Radboud University, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Floris Klumpers
- Experimental Psychopathology & Treatment, Behavioural Science Institute, Radboud University, Nijmegen, The Netherlands; Affective Neuroscience, Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Centre for Cognitive Neuroimaging, Radboud University, Nijmegen, The Netherlands.
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35
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Mennella R, Vilarem E, Grèzes J. Rapid approach-avoidance responses to emotional displays reflect value-based decisions: Neural evidence from an EEG study. Neuroimage 2020; 222:117253. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2020.117253] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2020] [Revised: 07/03/2020] [Accepted: 08/09/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
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36
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Campese VD, Kim IT, Kurpas B, Branigan L, Draus C, LeDoux JE. Motivational factors underlying aversive Pavlovian-instrumental transfer. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2020; 27:477-482. [PMID: 33060285 PMCID: PMC7571266 DOI: 10.1101/lm.052316.120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2020] [Accepted: 08/18/2020] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
While interest in active avoidance has recently been resurgent, many concerns relating to the nature of this form of learning remain unresolved. By separating stimulus and response acquisition, aversive Pavlovian-instrumental transfer can be used to measure the effect of avoidance learning on threat processing with more control than typical avoidance procedures. However, the motivational substrates that contribute to the aversive transfer effect have not been thoroughly examined. In three studies using rodents, the impact of a variety of aversive signals on shock-avoidance responding (i.e., two-way shuttling) was evaluated. Fox urine, as well as a tone paired with the delivery of the predator odor were insufficient modulatory stimuli for the avoidance response. Similarly, a signal for the absence of food did not generate appropriate aversive motivation to enhance shuttling. Only conditioned Pavlovian stimuli that had been paired with unconditioned threats were capable of augmenting shock-avoidance responding. This was true whether the signaled outcome was the same (e.g., shock) or different (e.g., klaxon) from the avoidance outcome (i.e., shock). These findings help to characterize the aversive transfer effect and provide a more thorough analysis of its generalization to warning signals for different kinds of threats. This feature of aversive motivation has not been demonstrated using conventional avoidance procedures and could be potentially useful for applying avoidance in treatment settings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vinn D Campese
- Department of Psychology, University of Evansville, Evansville, Indiana 47722, USA
| | - Ian T Kim
- Behavioral and Neural Sciences Graduate Program, Rutgers University-Newark, Newark, New Jersey 07102, USA.,Center for Molecular and Behavioral Neuroscience, Rutgers University-Newark, Newark, New Jersey 07102, USA
| | - Botagoz Kurpas
- Department of Psychology, Kingsborough College, Brooklyn, New York 11235, USA
| | - Lauren Branigan
- Center for Neural Science, New York University, New York, New York 10010, USA
| | - Cassandra Draus
- Center for Neural Science, New York University, New York, New York 10010, USA
| | - Joseph E LeDoux
- Center for Neural Science, New York University, New York, New York 10010, USA.,Emotional Brain Institute, Nathan Kline Institute for Psychiatric Research, Orangeburg, New York 10962, USA
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37
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McCullough KM, Chatzinakos C, Hartmann J, Missig G, Neve RL, Fenster RJ, Carlezon WA, Daskalakis NP, Ressler KJ. Genome-wide translational profiling of amygdala Crh-expressing neurons reveals role for CREB in fear extinction learning. Nat Commun 2020; 11:5180. [PMID: 33057013 PMCID: PMC7560654 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-020-18985-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2020] [Accepted: 09/25/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Fear and extinction learning are adaptive processes caused by molecular changes in specific neural circuits. Neurons expressing the corticotropin-releasing hormone gene (Crh) in central amygdala (CeA) are implicated in threat regulation, yet little is known of cell type-specific gene pathways mediating adaptive learning. We translationally profiled the transcriptome of CeA Crh-expressing cells (Crh neurons) after fear conditioning or extinction in mice using translating ribosome affinity purification (TRAP) and RNAseq. Differential gene expression and co-expression network analyses identified diverse networks activated or inhibited by fear vs extinction. Upstream regulator analysis demonstrated that extinction associates with reduced CREB expression, and viral vector-induced increased CREB expression in Crh neurons increased fear expression and inhibited extinction. These findings suggest that CREB, within CeA Crh neurons, may function as a molecular switch that regulates expression of fear and its extinction. Cell-type specific translational analyses may suggest targets useful for understanding and treating stress-related psychiatric illness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kenneth M McCullough
- McLean Hospital, Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, Belmont, MA, 02478, USA
| | - Chris Chatzinakos
- McLean Hospital, Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, Belmont, MA, 02478, USA
| | - Jakob Hartmann
- McLean Hospital, Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, Belmont, MA, 02478, USA
| | - Galen Missig
- McLean Hospital, Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, Belmont, MA, 02478, USA
| | - Rachael L Neve
- Gene Transfer Core, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, 02114, USA
| | - Robert J Fenster
- McLean Hospital, Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, Belmont, MA, 02478, USA
| | - William A Carlezon
- McLean Hospital, Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, Belmont, MA, 02478, USA
| | - Nikolaos P Daskalakis
- McLean Hospital, Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, Belmont, MA, 02478, USA.
| | - Kerry J Ressler
- McLean Hospital, Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, Belmont, MA, 02478, USA.
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Manning EE, Bradfield LA, Iordanova MD. Adaptive behaviour under conflict: Deconstructing extinction, reversal, and active avoidance learning. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2020; 120:526-536. [PMID: 33035525 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2020.09.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2020] [Revised: 09/28/2020] [Accepted: 09/30/2020] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
In complex environments, organisms must respond adaptively to situations despite conflicting information. Under natural (i.e. non-laboratory) circumstances, it is rare that cues or responses are consistently paired with a single outcome. Inconsistent pairings are more common, as are situations where cues and responses are associated with multiple outcomes. Such inconsistency creates conflict, and a response that is adaptive in one scenario may not be adaptive in another. Learning to adjust responses accordingly is important for species to survive and prosper. Here we review the behavioural and brain mechanisms of responding under conflict by focusing on three popular behavioural procedures: extinction, reversal learning, and active avoidance. Extinction involves adapting from reinforcement to non-reinforcement, reversal learning involves swapping the reinforcement of cues or responses, and active avoidance involves performing a response to avoid an aversive outcome, which may conflict with other defensive strategies. We note that each of these phenomena relies on somewhat overlapping neural circuits, suggesting that such circuits may be critical for the general ability to respond appropriately under conflict.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth E Manning
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh, Suite 223, 450 Technology Drive, Pittsburgh, PA, 15224, USA; School of Biomedical Sciences and Pharmacy, University of Newcastle, MS306, University Drive, Callaghan, NSW, 2308, Australia.
| | - Laura A Bradfield
- Centre for Neuroscience and Regenerative Medicine, University of Technology Sydney (St. Vincent's Campus), 405 Liverpool St, Darlinghurst, NSW, 2010, Australia; St. Vincent's Centre for Applied Medical Research, St. Vincent's Hospital Sydney Limited, 405 Liverpool St, Darlinghurst, NSW, 2010, Australia.
| | - Mihaela D Iordanova
- Department of Psychology/Centre for Studies in Behavioural Neurobiology, Concordia University, Montreal, Canada.
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39
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Fernández-Teruel A, Tobeña A. Revisiting the role of anxiety in the initial acquisition of two-way active avoidance: pharmacological, behavioural and neuroanatomical convergence. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2020; 118:739-758. [PMID: 32916193 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2020.08.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2019] [Revised: 07/10/2020] [Accepted: 08/15/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Two-way active avoidance (TWAA) acquisition constitutes a particular case of approach -avoidance conflict for laboratory rodents. The present article reviews behavioural, psychopharmacological and neuroanatomical evidence accumulated along more than fifty years that provides strong support to the contention that anxiety is critical in the transition from CS (conditioned stimulus)-induced freezing to escape/avoidance responses during the initial stages of TWAA acquisition. Thus, anxiolytic drugs of different types accelerate avoidance acquisition, anxiogenic drugs impair it, and avoidance during these initial acquisition stages is negatively associated with other typical measures of anxiety. In addition behavioural and developmental treatments that reduce or increase anxiety/stress respectively facilitate or impair TWAA acquisition. Finally, evidence for the regulation of TWAA acquisition by septo-hippocampal and amygdala-related mechanisms is discussed. Collectively, the reviewed evidence gives support to the initial acquisition of TWAA as a paradigm with considerable predictive and (in particular) construct validity as an approach-avoidance conflict-based rodent anxiety model.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alberto Fernández-Teruel
- Medical Psychology Unit, Department of Psychiatry and Forensic Medicine, Institute of Neurosciences, School of Medicine, Autonomous University of Barcelona, 08193-Bellaterra, Barcelona, Spain.
| | - Adolf Tobeña
- Medical Psychology Unit, Department of Psychiatry and Forensic Medicine, Institute of Neurosciences, School of Medicine, Autonomous University of Barcelona, 08193-Bellaterra, Barcelona, Spain
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40
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Martínez-Rivera FJ, Sánchez-Navarro MJ, Huertas-Pérez CI, Greenberg BD, Rasmussen SA, Quirk GJ. Prolonged avoidance training exacerbates OCD-like behaviors in a rodent model. Transl Psychiatry 2020; 10:212. [PMID: 32620740 PMCID: PMC7334221 DOI: 10.1038/s41398-020-00892-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2019] [Revised: 06/05/2020] [Accepted: 06/10/2020] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is characterized by compulsive behaviors that often resemble avoidance of perceived danger. OCD can be treated with exposure-with-response prevention (ERP) therapy in which patients are exposed to triggers but are encouraged to refrain from compulsions, to extinguish compulsive responses. The compulsions of OCD are strengthened by many repeated exposures to triggers, but little is known about the effects of extended repetition of avoidance behaviors on extinction. Here we assessed the extent to which overtraining of active avoidance affects subsequent extinction-with-response prevention (Ext-RP) as a rodent model of ERP, in which rats are extinguished to triggers, while the avoidance option is prevented. Male rats conditioned for 8d or 20d produced similar avoidance behavior to a tone paired with a shock, however, the 20d group showed a severe impairment of extinction during Ext-RP, as well as heightened anxiety. Furthermore, the majority of overtrained (20d) rats (75%) exhibited persistent avoidance following Ext-RP. In the 8d group, only a minority of rats (37%) exhibited persistent avoidance, and this was associated with elevated activity (c-Fos) in the prelimbic cortex and nucleus accumbens. In the 20d group, the minority of non-persistent rats (25%) showed elevated activity in the insular-orbital cortex and paraventricular thalamus. Lastly, extending the duration of Ext-RP prevented the deleterious effects of overtraining on extinction and avoidance. These rodent findings suggest that repeated expression of compulsion-like behaviors biases individuals toward persistent avoidance and alters avoidance circuits, thereby reducing the effectiveness of current extinction-based therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Freddyson J Martínez-Rivera
- Departments of Psychiatry and Anatomy & Neurobiology, School of Medicine, Medical Sciences Campus, University of Puerto Rico, San Juan, PR, 00936, USA.
- Nash family Department of Neuroscience and Friedman Brain Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA.
| | - Marcos J Sánchez-Navarro
- Departments of Psychiatry and Anatomy & Neurobiology, School of Medicine, Medical Sciences Campus, University of Puerto Rico, San Juan, PR, 00936, USA
| | - Carlos I Huertas-Pérez
- Departments of Psychiatry and Anatomy & Neurobiology, School of Medicine, Medical Sciences Campus, University of Puerto Rico, San Juan, PR, 00936, USA
| | - Benjamin D Greenberg
- Department of Psychiatry and Human Behavior, Alpert Medical School of Brown University and Butler Hospital and the Providence VA Medical Center, Providence, RI, 02906, USA
| | - Steven A Rasmussen
- Department of Psychiatry and Human Behavior, Alpert Medical School of Brown University and Butler Hospital and the Providence VA Medical Center, Providence, RI, 02906, USA
| | - Gregory J Quirk
- Departments of Psychiatry and Anatomy & Neurobiology, School of Medicine, Medical Sciences Campus, University of Puerto Rico, San Juan, PR, 00936, USA
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41
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An active avoidance behavioral paradigm for use in a mild closed head model of traumatic brain injury in mice. J Neurosci Methods 2020; 343:108831. [PMID: 32592717 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneumeth.2020.108831] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2020] [Revised: 06/23/2020] [Accepted: 06/23/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND A mild traumatic brain injury (TBI) occurs to millions of people each year. Translational approaches to understanding the pathogenesis of neurological diseases and the testing of the effectiveness of interventions typically require cognitive function assays in rodents. NEW METHODS Our goal was to validate the active avoidance task using the GEMINI avoidance system in a mouse model of mild closed head injury (CHI). RESULTS We found that shock intensity had only a marginal effect on the test. We found that sex was an important biological variable, as female mice learned the task better than male mice. We demonstrate that a single mild CHI in mice caused deficits in the task at four weeks post-injury. COMPARISON WITH EXISTING METHODS Active avoidance is a classical conditioning test in which mice must pair the presence of a conditioned stimulus with moving between two chambers to avoid an electric shock. External conditions (i.e., apparatus), as well as inherent differences in the mice, which may not be directly linked to the model of the disease (i.e., sensory differences), can affect the reproducibility of a behavioral assay. Before our study, there was a lack of standard operating procedures and validated methods for the active avoidance behavior for phenotyping mouse models of injury and disease. CONCLUSION We offer a method for validating the active avoidance test, and a standard operating procedure, which will be useful in other models of neurological injury and disease.
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Laughlin LC, Moloney DM, Samels SB, Sears RM, Cain CK. Reducing shock imminence eliminates poor avoidance in rats. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2020; 27:270-274. [PMID: 32540916 PMCID: PMC7301752 DOI: 10.1101/lm.051557.120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2020] [Accepted: 04/16/2020] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
In signaled active avoidance (SigAA), rats learn to suppress Pavlovian freezing and emit actions to remove threats and prevent footshocks. SigAA is critical for understanding aversively motivated instrumental behavior and anxiety-related active coping. However, with standard protocols ∼25% of rats exhibit high freezing and poor avoidance. This has dampened enthusiasm for the paradigm and stalled progress. We demonstrate that reducing shock imminence with long-duration warning signals leads to greater freezing suppression and perfect avoidance in all subjects. This suggests that instrumental SigAA mechanisms evolved to cope with distant harm and protocols that promote inflexible Pavlovian reactions are poorly designed to study avoidance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lindsay C Laughlin
- Nathan Kline Institute for Psychiatric Research, Emotional Brain Institute, Orangeburg, New York 10962, USA
| | - Danielle M Moloney
- NYU School of Medicine, Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, New York, New York 10016, USA.,Nathan Kline Institute for Psychiatric Research, Emotional Brain Institute, Orangeburg, New York 10962, USA
| | - Shanna B Samels
- Nathan Kline Institute for Psychiatric Research, Emotional Brain Institute, Orangeburg, New York 10962, USA
| | - Robert M Sears
- NYU School of Medicine, Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, New York, New York 10016, USA.,Nathan Kline Institute for Psychiatric Research, Emotional Brain Institute, Orangeburg, New York 10962, USA
| | - Christopher K Cain
- NYU School of Medicine, Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, New York, New York 10016, USA.,Nathan Kline Institute for Psychiatric Research, Emotional Brain Institute, Orangeburg, New York 10962, USA
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43
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Prelimbic and Infralimbic Prefrontal Regulation of Active and Inhibitory Avoidance and Reward-Seeking. J Neurosci 2020; 40:4773-4787. [PMID: 32393535 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.0414-20.2020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2020] [Revised: 04/23/2020] [Accepted: 05/03/2020] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Flexible initiation or suppression of actions to avoid aversive events is crucial for survival. The prelimbic (PL) and infralimbic (IL) regions of the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) have been implicated in different aspects of avoidance and reward-seeking, but their respective contribution in instigating versus suppressing actions in aversive contexts remains to be clarified. We examined mPFC involvement in different forms of avoidance in rats well trained on different cued lever-press avoidance tasks. Active/inhibitory avoidance required flexible discrimination between auditory cues signaling foot-shock could be avoided by making or withholding instrumental responses. On a simpler active avoidance task, a single cue signaled when a lever press would avoid shock. PL inactivation disrupted active but not inhibitory avoidance on the discriminative task while having no effect on single-cued avoidance. In comparison, IL inactivation broadly impaired active and inhibitory avoidance. Conversely, on a cued appetitive go/no-go task, both IL and PL inactivation impaired inhibitory but not active reward-seeking, the latter effect being diametrically opposite to that observed on the avoidance task. These findings highlight the complex manner in which different mPFC regions aid in initiating or inhibiting actions in the service of avoiding aversive outcomes or obtaining rewarding ones. IL facilitates active avoidance but suppress inappropriate actions in appetitive and aversive contexts. In contrast, contextual valence plays a critical role in how the PL is recruited in initiating or suppressing actions, which may relate to the degree of cognitive control required to flexibly negotiate response or motivational conflicts and override prepotent behaviors.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Choosing to make or withhold actions in a context-appropriate manner to avoid aversive events or obtain other goals is a critical survival skill. Different medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) regions have been implicated in certain aspects of avoidance, but their contributions to instigating or suppressing actions remains to be clarified. Here, we show that the dorsal, prelimbic (PL) region of the medial PFC aids active avoidance in situations requiring flexible mitigation of response conflicts, but also aids in withholding responses to obtain rewards. In comparison the ventral infralimbic (IL) cortex plays a broader role in active and inhibitory avoidance as well as suppressing actions to obtain rewards. These findings provide insight into mechanisms underlying normal and maladaptive avoidance behaviors and response inhibition.
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Çavdaroğlu B, Toy J, Schumacher A, Carvalho G, Patel M, Ito R. Ventral hippocampus inactivation enhances the extinction of active avoidance responses in the presence of safety signals but leaves discrete trial operant active avoidance performance intact. Hippocampus 2020; 30:913-925. [DOI: 10.1002/hipo.23202] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2019] [Revised: 01/29/2020] [Accepted: 02/19/2020] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Bilgehan Çavdaroğlu
- Department of Psychology (Scarborough)University of Toronto Toronto Ontario Canada
| | - Jeffrey Toy
- Department of Psychology (Scarborough)University of Toronto Toronto Ontario Canada
| | - Anett Schumacher
- Department of Psychology (Scarborough)University of Toronto Toronto Ontario Canada
| | - Gabriel Carvalho
- Department of Psychology (Scarborough)University of Toronto Toronto Ontario Canada
| | - Mihilkumar Patel
- Department of Psychology (Scarborough)University of Toronto Toronto Ontario Canada
| | - Rutsuko Ito
- Department of Psychology (Scarborough)University of Toronto Toronto Ontario Canada
- Department of Cell and Systems BiologyUniversity of Toronto Toronto Ontario Canada
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45
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Pittig A, Wong AH, Glück VM, Boschet JM. Avoidance and its bi-directional relationship with conditioned fear: Mechanisms, moderators, and clinical implications. Behav Res Ther 2020; 126:103550. [DOI: 10.1016/j.brat.2020.103550] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2019] [Revised: 12/16/2019] [Accepted: 01/07/2020] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
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46
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Sangha S, Diehl MM, Bergstrom HC, Drew MR. Know safety, no fear. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2020; 108:218-230. [PMID: 31738952 PMCID: PMC6981293 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2019.11.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2019] [Revised: 09/27/2019] [Accepted: 11/11/2019] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Every day we are bombarded by stimuli that must be assessed for their potential for harm or benefit. Once a stimulus is learned to predict harm, it can elicit fear responses. Such learning can last a lifetime but is not always beneficial for an organism. For an organism to thrive in its environment, it must know when to engage in defensive, avoidance behaviors and when to engage in non-defensive, approach behaviors. Fear should be suppressed in situations that are not dangerous: when a novel, innocuous stimulus resembles a feared stimulus, when a feared stimulus no longer predicts harm, or when there is an option to avoid harm. A cardinal feature of anxiety disorders is the inability to suppress fear adaptively. In PTSD, for instance, learned fear is expressed inappropriately in safe situations and is resistant to extinction. In this review, we discuss mechanisms of suppressing fear responses during stimulus discrimination, fear extinction, and active avoidance, focusing on the well-studied tripartite circuit consisting of the amygdala, medial prefrontal cortex and hippocampus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susan Sangha
- Department of Psychological Sciences and Purdue Institute for Integrative Neuroscience, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA.
| | - Maria M Diehl
- Department of Psychological Sciences, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, USA.
| | - Hadley C Bergstrom
- Department of Psychological Science, Program in Neuroscience and Behavior, Vassar College, Poughkeepsie, NY, USA.
| | - Michael R Drew
- Center for Learning and Memory and Department of Neuroscience, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA.
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47
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Smith BM, Smith GS, Dymond S. Relapse of anxiety-related fear and avoidance: Conceptual analysis of treatment with acceptance and commitment therapy. J Exp Anal Behav 2019; 113:87-104. [PMID: 31875982 DOI: 10.1002/jeab.573] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2019] [Revised: 12/02/2019] [Accepted: 12/03/2019] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Excessive fear and avoidance in relatively safe situations can lead to a narrowing of one's behavioral repertoire and less engagement with valued aspects of living. Ultimately, these processes can reach clinical levels, as seen in anxiety, trauma, and obsessive-compulsive disorders. Research on the basic behavioral processes underlying successful treatment with exposure therapy is growing, yet little is known about the mechanisms contributing to clinical relapse. Until recently, these mechanisms have largely been conceptualized in terms of Pavlovian return of fear, with relatively little research into operant processes. In the current paper, we briefly review translational research in anxiety disorders and the connections between fear and avoidance, focusing on recent work in the acquisition, extinction, and relapse of avoidance behavior and the generalization of this learning through arbitrary symbolic relations. We then introduce one possible treatment approach to mitigating clinical relapse, acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT), and provide a conceptual analysis for why ACT may be especially well-situated to address this issue. Finally, we end with potential directions for future research on treatment and relapse of anxiety disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Gregory S Smith
- Applied Behavior Analysis Department, The Chicago School of Professional Psychology
| | - Simon Dymond
- Department of Psychology, Swansea University.,Department of Psychology, Reykjavík University
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48
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Diehl MM, Bravo-Rivera C, Quirk GJ. The study of active avoidance: A platform for discussion. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2019; 107:229-237. [PMID: 31509767 PMCID: PMC6936221 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2019.09.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2019] [Revised: 07/19/2019] [Accepted: 09/06/2019] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Traditional active avoidance tasks have advanced the field of aversive learning and memory for decades and are useful for studying simple avoidance responses in isolation; however, these tasks have limited clinical relevance because they do not model several key features of clinical avoidance. In contrast, platform-mediated avoidance (PMA) more closely resembles clinical avoidance because the response i) is associated with an unambiguous safe location, ii) is not associated with an artificial termination of the warning signal, and iii) is associated with a decision-based appetitive cost. Recent findings on the neuronal circuits of PMA have confirmed that amygdala-striatal circuits are essential for avoidance. In PMA, however, the prelimbic cortex facilitates the avoidance response early during the warning signal, perhaps through disinhibition of the striatum. Future studies on avoidance should account for additional factors such as sex differences and social interactions that will advance our understanding of maladaptive avoidance contributing to neuropsychiatric disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria M Diehl
- Departments of Psychiatry and Anatomy & Neurobiology, University of Puerto Rico School of Medicine, San Juan, PR, 00936, Puerto Rico; Department of Psychological Sciences, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, 66506 United States
| | | | - Gregory J Quirk
- Departments of Psychiatry and Anatomy & Neurobiology, University of Puerto Rico School of Medicine, San Juan, PR, 00936, Puerto Rico.
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49
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Campese VD, Kim IT, Hou M, Gupta S, Draus C, Kurpas B, Burke K, LeDoux JE. Chemogenetic Inhibition Reveals That Processing Relative But Not Absolute Threat Requires Basal Amygdala. J Neurosci 2019; 39:8510-8516. [PMID: 31492771 PMCID: PMC6807280 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.2530-18.2019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2018] [Revised: 08/26/2019] [Accepted: 08/28/2019] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
While our understanding of appetitive motivation has benefited immensely from the use of selective outcome devaluation tools, the same cannot be said about aversive motivation. Findings from appetitive conditioning studies have shown that basal amygdala is required for behaviors that are sensitive to updates in outcome value, but similar results in aversive motivation are difficult to interpret due to a lack of outcome specificity. The studies reported here sought to develop procedures to isolate sensory-specific processes in aversive learning and behavior and to assess the possible contribution of the basal amygdala. Post-training changes to outcome value produced commensurate changes to subsequently tested conditioned responding in male rodents. Specifically, increases in shock intensity (i.e., inflation) augmented, while repeated exposure to (i.e., habituation of) an aversive sound (klaxon-horn) reduced freezing to conditioned stimuli previously paired with these outcomes. This was extended to a discriminative procedure, in which following revaluation of one event, but not the other, responding was found to be dependent on outcome value signaled by each cue. Chemogenetic inactivation of basal amygdala impaired this discrimination between stimuli signaling differently valued outcomes, but did not affect the revaluation process itself. These findings demonstrate a contribution of the basal amygdala to aversive outcome-dependent motivational processes.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT The specific content of pavlovian associative learning has been well studied in appetitive motivation, where the value of different foods can be easily manipulated. This has facilitated our understanding of the neural circuits that generate different forms of motivation (i.e., sensory specific vs general). Studies of aversive learning have not produced the same degree of understanding with regard to sensory specificity due to a lack of tools for evaluating sensory-specific processes. Here we use a variant of outcome devaluation procedures with aversive stimuli to study the role of basal amygdala in discriminating between aversive stimuli conveying different degrees of threat. These findings have implications for how we study generalized threat to identify dysregulation that can contribute to generalized anxiety.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vincent D Campese
- Department of Psychology, University of Evansville, Evansville Indiana 47722,
| | - Ian T Kim
- Center for Neural Science, New York University, New York, New York 10003
| | - Mian Hou
- Center for Neural Science, New York University, New York, New York 10003
| | - Saurav Gupta
- Department of Psychology, University of Evansville, Evansville Indiana 47722
| | - Cassandra Draus
- Center for Neural Science, New York University, New York, New York 10003
| | - Botagoz Kurpas
- Department of Psychology, Kingsborough College, Brooklyn, New York 11235
| | - Kelsey Burke
- Department of Psychology, Hunter College, New York, New York 10065, and
| | - Joseph E LeDoux
- Center for Neural Science, New York University, New York, New York 10003
- Emotional Brain Institute, Nathan Kline institute for Psychiatric Research, Orangeburg New York 10962
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50
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Allen M, Handy J, Miller D, Servatius R. Avoidance learning and classical eyeblink conditioning as model systems to explore a learning diathesis model of PTSD. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2019; 100:370-386. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2019.03.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2018] [Revised: 03/04/2019] [Accepted: 03/05/2019] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
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