1
|
Laing PAF, Vervliet B, Dunsmoor JE, Harrison BJ. Pavlovian safety learning: An integrative theoretical review. Psychon Bull Rev 2024:10.3758/s13423-024-02559-4. [PMID: 39167292 DOI: 10.3758/s13423-024-02559-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/22/2024] [Indexed: 08/23/2024]
Abstract
Safety learning involves associating stimuli with the absence of threats, enabling the inhibition of fear and anxiety. Despite growing interest in psychology, psychiatry, and neuroscience, safety learning lacks a formal consensus definition, leading to inconsistent methodologies and varied results. Conceptualized as a form of inhibitory learning (conditioned inhibition), safety learning can be understood through formal learning theories, such as the Rescorla-Wagner and Pearce-Hall models. This review aims to establish a principled conceptualization of 'Pavlovian safety learning', identifying cognitive mechanisms that generate safety and the boundary conditions that constrain it. Based on these observations, we define Pavlovian safety learning as an active associative process, where surprising threat-omission (safety prediction error) acts as a salient reinforcing event. Instead of producing merely neutral or nonaversive states, safety learning endows stimuli with active positive associations to 'safety'. The resulting stimulus-safety memories counteract the influence of fear memories, promoting fear regulation, positive affect, and relief. We critically analyze traditional criteria of conditioned inhibition for their relevance to safety and propose areas for future innovation. A principled concept of Pavlovian safety learning may reduce methodological inconsistencies, stimulate translational research, and facilitate a comprehensive understanding of an indispensable psychological construct.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Patrick A F Laing
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Dell Medical School, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, 78712, USA.
- Institute for Neuroscience, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, 78712, USA.
| | - Bram Vervliet
- Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
- Leuven Brain Institute, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Joseph E Dunsmoor
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Dell Medical School, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, 78712, USA
- Institute for Neuroscience, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, 78712, USA
- Department of Neuroscience, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, 78712, USA
| | - Ben J Harrison
- Melbourne Neuropsychiatry Centre, Department of Psychiatry, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Australia
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Biggs EE, Timmers I, Heathcote LC, Tremblay-McGaw AG, Noel M, Borsook D, Simons LE. Emotional memory bias in adolescents with chronic pain: examining the relationship with neural, stress, and psychological factors. Pain 2024:00006396-990000000-00688. [PMID: 39172857 DOI: 10.1097/j.pain.0000000000003382] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2023] [Accepted: 07/12/2024] [Indexed: 08/24/2024]
Abstract
ABSTRACT Memory biases for pain-related information may contribute to the development and maintenance of chronic pain; however, evidence for when (and for whom) these biases occur is mixed. Therefore, we examined neural, stress, and psychological factors that could influence memory bias, focusing on memories that motivate disabling behaviors: pain perception, conditioned responses to threat-and-safety cues, and responses to aversive nonnoxious stimuli. Two studies were conducted with adolescents with and without chronic pain. Data from 58 participants were included in study 1 (chronic pain n = 34, pain free n = 24, mean age = 16 years), and 39 participants were included in study 2 (chronic pain n = 26, pain free n = 13, mean age = 16 years). Both studies used a threat-safety learning paradigm with memory recall (≈1 month later). Participants completed structural and functional (resting-state) magnetic resonance imaging, salivary cortisol measurements, and self-report measures. Adolescents with pain and pain-free peers consistently recalled being more afraid of safety cues (CS-) and, during heightened stress at encoding (higher cortisol levels), also reported being more afraid of threat cues (CS+). However, no memory bias was present for the emotional response to an aversive stimulus (US; loud scream) or for the recall of pain intensity. Functional connectivity of the amygdala and hippocampus with memory circuits related to the degree of memory bias, but the specific connections varied between the studies, and we observed no relationship between memory bias and brain morphology. Our findings highlight the value of considering the interaction between implicit and explicit memory systems, contributing to a more comprehensive understanding of emotional memory biases in the context of chronic pain.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Emma E Biggs
- Department of Anesthesiology, Perioperative, and Pain Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Palo Alto, CA, United States
- Department of Medical and Clinical Psychology, Tilburg University, Tilburg, the Netherlands
| | - Inge Timmers
- Department of Anesthesiology, Perioperative, and Pain Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Palo Alto, CA, United States
- Department of Medical and Clinical Psychology, Tilburg University, Tilburg, the Netherlands
| | - Lauren C Heathcote
- Department of Anesthesiology, Perioperative, and Pain Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Palo Alto, CA, United States
- Health Psychology Section, Institute of Psychiatry Psychology and Neuroscience, King's College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Alexandra G Tremblay-McGaw
- Department of Anesthesiology, Perioperative, and Pain Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Palo Alto, CA, United States
| | - Melanie Noel
- Department of Psychology, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
| | - David Borsook
- Center for Pain and the Brain, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Laura E Simons
- Department of Anesthesiology, Perioperative, and Pain Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Palo Alto, CA, United States
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Cooper SE, Hennings AC, Bibb SA, Lewis-Peacock JA, Dunsmoor JE. Semantic structures facilitate threat memory integration throughout the medial temporal lobe and medial prefrontal cortex. Curr Biol 2024; 34:3522-3536.e5. [PMID: 39059393 PMCID: PMC11303100 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2024.06.071] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2024] [Revised: 05/20/2024] [Accepted: 06/26/2024] [Indexed: 07/28/2024]
Abstract
Emotional experiences can profoundly impact our conceptual model of the world, modifying how we represent and remember a host of information even indirectly associated with that experienced in the past. Yet, how a new emotional experience infiltrates and spreads across pre-existing semantic knowledge structures (e.g., categories) is unknown. We used a modified aversive sensory preconditioning paradigm in fMRI (n = 35) to investigate whether threat memories integrate with a pre-established category to alter the representation of the entire category. We observed selective but transient changes in the representation of conceptually related items in the amygdala, medial prefrontal cortex, and occipitotemporal cortex following threat conditioning to a simple cue (geometric shape) pre-associated with a different, but related, set of category exemplars. These representational changes persisted beyond 24 h in the hippocampus and perirhinal cortex. Reactivation of the semantic category during threat conditioning, combined with activation of the hippocampus or medial prefrontal cortex, was predictive of subsequent amygdala reactivity toward novel category members at test. This provides evidence for online integration of emotional experiences into semantic categories, which then promotes threat generalization. Behaviorally, threat conditioning by proxy selectively and retroactively enhanced recognition memory and increased the perceived typicality of the semantic category indirectly associated with threat. These findings detail a complex route through which new emotional learning generalizes by modifying semantic structures built up over time and stored in memory as conceptual knowledge.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Samuel E Cooper
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA.
| | | | - Sophia A Bibb
- Neuroscience Graduate Program, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA
| | - Jarrod A Lewis-Peacock
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA; Department of Psychology, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA; Center for Learning and Memory, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA; Department of Neuroscience, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA
| | - Joseph E Dunsmoor
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA; Center for Learning and Memory, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA; Department of Neuroscience, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Kunčická D, Krajčovič B, Stuchlík A, Brožka H. Neuroscientist's Behavioral Toolbox for Studying Episodic-Like Memory. eNeuro 2024; 11:ENEURO.0073-24.2024. [PMID: 39214694 PMCID: PMC11366770 DOI: 10.1523/eneuro.0073-24.2024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2024] [Revised: 07/12/2024] [Accepted: 07/22/2024] [Indexed: 09/04/2024] Open
Abstract
Episodic memory, the ability to recall specific events and experiences, is a cornerstone of human cognition with profound clinical implications. While animal studies have provided valuable insights into the neuronal underpinnings of episodic memory, research has largely relied on a limited subset of tasks that model only some aspects of episodic memory. In this narrative review, we provide an overview of rodent episodic-like memory tasks that expand the methodological repertoire and diversify the approaches used in episodic-like memory research. These tasks assess various aspects of human episodic memory, such as integrated what-where-when or what-where memory, source memory, free recall, temporal binding, and threshold retrieval dynamics. We review each task's general principle and consider whether alternative non-episodic mechanisms can account for the observed behavior. While our list of tasks is not exhaustive, we hope it will guide researchers in selecting models that align with their specific research objectives, leading to novel advancements and a more comprehensive understanding of mechanisms underlying specific aspects of episodic memory.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Daniela Kunčická
- Laboratory of Neurophysiology of Memory, Institute of Physiology, Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague 142 20, Czechia
| | - Branislav Krajčovič
- Department of Physiology, Second Faculty of Medicine, Charles University, Prague 150 06, Czechia
| | - Aleš Stuchlík
- Laboratory of Neurophysiology of Memory, Institute of Physiology, Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague 142 20, Czechia
| | - Hana Brožka
- Laboratory of Neurophysiology of Memory, Institute of Physiology, Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague 142 20, Czechia
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Bhattacharyya S, Bhattarai N, Pfannenstiel DM, Wilkins B, Singh A, Harshey RM. A heritable iron memory enables decision-making in Escherichia coli. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2023; 120:e2309082120. [PMID: 37988472 PMCID: PMC10691332 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2309082120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2023] [Accepted: 10/12/2023] [Indexed: 11/23/2023] Open
Abstract
The importance of memory in bacterial decision-making is relatively unexplored. We show here that a prior experience of swarming is remembered when Escherichia coli encounters a new surface, improving its future swarming efficiency. We conducted >10,000 single-cell swarm assays to discover that cells store memory in the form of cellular iron levels. This "iron" memory preexists in planktonic cells, but the act of swarming reinforces it. A cell with low iron initiates swarming early and is a better swarmer, while the opposite is true for a cell with high iron. The swarming potential of a mother cell, which tracks with its iron memory, is passed down to its fourth-generation daughter cells. This memory is naturally lost by the seventh generation, but artificially manipulating iron levels allows it to persist much longer. A mathematical model with a time-delay component faithfully recreates the observed dynamic interconversions between different swarming potentials. We demonstrate that cellular iron levels also track with biofilm formation and antibiotic tolerance, suggesting that iron memory may impact other physiologies.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Souvik Bhattacharyya
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX78712
- LaMontagne Center for Infectious Diseases, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX78712
| | - Nabin Bhattarai
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX78712
- LaMontagne Center for Infectious Diseases, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX78712
| | - Dylan M. Pfannenstiel
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX78712
- LaMontagne Center for Infectious Diseases, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX78712
| | - Brady Wilkins
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX78712
- LaMontagne Center for Infectious Diseases, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX78712
| | - Abhyudai Singh
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Delaware, Newark, DE19716
| | - Rasika M. Harshey
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX78712
- LaMontagne Center for Infectious Diseases, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX78712
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Kang S, Larrabee G, Nair S, Goldfarb EV. Perceptual Generalization of Alcohol-Related Value Characterizes Risky Drinkers. Psychol Sci 2023; 34:1146-1162. [PMID: 37682597 PMCID: PMC10985388 DOI: 10.1177/09567976231181516] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2023] [Accepted: 05/13/2023] [Indexed: 09/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Generalizing from past experiences to novel situations is critical for adaptive behavior, whereas overgeneralization can promote maladaptive responses (e.g., context-inappropriate fear in anxiety). Here, we propose that overgeneralizing alcohol-related associations characterizes risky drinking. We conducted two online experiments assessing generalization of alcohol-related gains (Study 1) and losses (Study 2) among individuals who engaged in light or risky patterns of drinking (Study 1: N = 88, 24-44 years old; Study 2: N = 87, 21-44 years old). After learning to associate cards with alcohol and non-alcohol-related outcomes, participants chose whether to play with cards varying in perceptual similarity to those shown during conditioning. Finally, participants completed a surprise recognition memory test for all outcomes. Although both groups showed comparable conditioning, we found that risky drinkers overgeneralized alcohol-related gains and losses. Risky drinkers also showed a bias toward recognizing alcohol-related images. These results indicate a novel role for overgeneralization of alcohol-related gains and losses as a mechanism associated with risky drinking.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Elizabeth V. Goldfarb
- Department of Psychiatry, Yale University
- Department of Psychology, Yale University
- Wu Tsai Institute, Yale University
- National Center for PTSD, US Department of Veterans Affairs, West Haven, Connecticut
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Bhattacharyya S, Bhattarai N, Pfannenstiel DM, Wilkins B, Singh A, Harshey RM. Iron Memory in E. coli. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.05.19.541523. [PMID: 37609133 PMCID: PMC10441380 DOI: 10.1101/2023.05.19.541523] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/24/2023]
Abstract
The importance of memory in bacterial decision-making is relatively unexplored. We show here that a prior experience of swarming is remembered when E. coli encounters a new surface, improving its future swarming efficiency. We conducted >10,000 single-cell swarm assays to discover that cells store memory in the form of cellular iron levels. This memory pre-exists in planktonic cells, but the act of swarming reinforces it. A cell with low iron initiates swarming early and is a better swarmer, while the opposite is true for a cell with high iron. The swarming potential of a mother cell, whether low or high, is passed down to its fourth-generation daughter cells. This memory is naturally lost by the seventh generation, but artificially manipulating iron levels allows it to persist much longer. A mathematical model with a time-delay component faithfully recreates the observed dynamic interconversions between different swarming potentials. We also demonstrate that iron memory can integrate multiple stimuli, impacting other bacterial behaviors such as biofilm formation and antibiotic tolerance.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Souvik Bhattacharyya
- Department of Molecular Biosciences and LaMontagne Center for Infectious Diseases, University of Texas at Austin; Austin, TX 78712
| | - Nabin Bhattarai
- Department of Molecular Biosciences and LaMontagne Center for Infectious Diseases, University of Texas at Austin; Austin, TX 78712
| | - Dylan M. Pfannenstiel
- Department of Molecular Biosciences and LaMontagne Center for Infectious Diseases, University of Texas at Austin; Austin, TX 78712
| | - Brady Wilkins
- Department of Molecular Biosciences and LaMontagne Center for Infectious Diseases, University of Texas at Austin; Austin, TX 78712
| | - Abhyudai Singh
- Electrical & Computer Engineering, University of Delaware, Newark, DE 19716
| | - Rasika M. Harshey
- Department of Molecular Biosciences and LaMontagne Center for Infectious Diseases, University of Texas at Austin; Austin, TX 78712
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Laing PAF, Dunsmoor JE. Pattern separation of fear extinction memory. Learn Mem 2023; 30:110-115. [PMID: 37433642 PMCID: PMC10353259 DOI: 10.1101/lm.053760.123] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2023] [Accepted: 06/13/2023] [Indexed: 07/13/2023]
Abstract
While fear generalizes widely, extinction is stimulus-specific. Using a hybrid conditioning/episodic memory paradigm, subjects encoded nonrepeating category exemplars during fear conditioning and extinction. Twenty-four hours later, a surprise memory test included old, similar, and novel category exemplars. Results showed strong dissociation between pattern completion (generalization) and pattern separation (discrimination) in episodic memory for items encoded during fear conditioning versus extinction, respectively. These data suggest that directly threat-conditioned stimuli are better recognized at the expense of mnemonic precision, whereas discrimination is enhanced for extinguished stimuli. Overly precise extinction memory may be a contributing factor to fear relapse.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Patrick A F Laing
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Dell Medical School, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas 78712, USA
- Institute for Neuroscience, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas 78712, USA
| | - Joseph E Dunsmoor
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Dell Medical School, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas 78712, USA
- Institute for Neuroscience, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas 78712, USA
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas 78712, USA
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Baczkowski BM, Haaker J, Schwabe L. Inferring danger with minimal aversive experience. Trends Cogn Sci 2023; 27:456-467. [PMID: 36941184 DOI: 10.1016/j.tics.2023.02.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2022] [Revised: 01/11/2023] [Accepted: 02/23/2023] [Indexed: 03/22/2023]
Abstract
Learning about threats is crucial for survival and fundamentally rests upon Pavlovian conditioning. However, Pavlovian threat learning is largely limited to detecting known (or similar) threats and involves first-hand exposure to danger, which inevitably poses a risk of harm. We discuss how individuals leverage a rich repertoire of mnemonic processes that operate largely in safety and significantly expand our ability to recognize danger beyond Pavlovian threat associations. These processes result in complementary memories - acquired individually or through social interactions - that represent potential threats and the relational structure of our environment. The interplay between these memories allows danger to be inferred rather than directly learned, thereby flexibly protecting us from potential harm in novel situations despite minimal prior aversive experience.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Blazej M Baczkowski
- Department of Cognitive Psychology, Universität Hamburg, Von-Melle-Park 5, 20146 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Jan Haaker
- Department of Systems Neuroscience, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, 20246 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Lars Schwabe
- Department of Cognitive Psychology, Universität Hamburg, Von-Melle-Park 5, 20146 Hamburg, Germany.
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Observational extinction reduces fear and its retention among adolescents and adults. Behav Res Ther 2022; 159:104207. [PMID: 36279765 DOI: 10.1016/j.brat.2022.104207] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2022] [Revised: 09/22/2022] [Accepted: 10/05/2022] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Observational fear learning has been notably understudied in fear learning research, especially the potential benefits of observational extinction. Additionally, no studies have investigated observational extinction during adolescence, a key developmental stage for the emergence of anxiety disorders. This study compared observational and direct fear extinction following observational fear acquisition among adolescents and adults. Participants underwent differential observational fear acquisition. Next, participants underwent one of three fear extinctions: (1) observational extinction, (2) direct extinction, (3) no-extinction. Thereafter, participants underwent a US reminder and finally, a direct exposure test. Skin conductance response (SCR), self-reported fear, and risk assessment were measured. Differential observational fear acquisition was demonstrated by both age groups across all measures. During extinction, the observational and direct extinction groups did not differ in differential extinction, however, during the US reminder the observational group exhibited higher SCR compared to the direct group, but not the no-extinction group. Finally, during the direct exposure test, the no-extinction group showed greater differential risk assessment and higher SCR compared to the observational and direct groups. Additionally, adolescents showed poorer discrimination between the CSs compared to adults. Observational extinction successfully reduced fear and its retention amongst youth and adults pointing to the potential benefit of vicarious exposure therapy.
Collapse
|
11
|
Yue Y, Jiang Y, Zhou F, Jiang Y, Long Y, Wang K. Reward Uncertainty and Expected Value Enhance Generalization of Episodic Memory. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2022; 19:14389. [PMID: 36361266 PMCID: PMC9654143 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph192114389] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2022] [Revised: 10/30/2022] [Accepted: 10/31/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Previous research has revealed some mechanisms underlying the generalization of reward expectation of generalization stimuli, but little is known about the generalization of episodic memory for rewarding events, its consolidation, and how reward components such as expected value and reward uncertainty affect it. Participants underwent a Pavlovian reward-conditioning task to test whether reward conditioning would enhance episodic memory generalization and which reward components would directly affect it. Counterbalanced across participants, one semantic category was paired with a reward, while the other was never paired. Following a delay of either 5 min or 24 h, participants took a memory test consisting of old, highly similar, and new items. We found that participants were more likely to falsely recognize lure items as old in the reward-paired category after 5 min and 24 h delays. These results indicate that reward conditioning enhanced the generalization of episodic memory, but this effect was not necessarily dependent on consolidation. The composite score and raw data of generalization further showed that the uncertainty and expected value enhanced generalization. Together, these findings revealed an effect of reward conditioning on episodic memory generalization and supported the enhancement effects of expected value and uncertainty.
Collapse
|
12
|
|
13
|
Merz CJ, Wolf OT. How stress hormones shape memories of fear and anxiety in humans. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2022; 142:104901. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2022.104901] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2022] [Revised: 09/30/2022] [Accepted: 10/01/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
|
14
|
Reich N, Hölscher C. Beyond Appetite: Acylated Ghrelin As A Learning, Memory and Fear Behavior-modulating Hormone. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2022; 143:104952. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2022.104952] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2021] [Revised: 04/27/2022] [Accepted: 11/05/2022] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
|
15
|
Vogt KM, Pryor KO. Anesthesia and the neurobiology of fear and posttraumatic stress disorder. Curr Opin Anaesthesiol 2022; 35:593-599. [PMID: 35993581 PMCID: PMC9469898 DOI: 10.1097/aco.0000000000001176] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW Dysfunction of fear memory systems underlie a cluster of clinically important and highly prevalent psychological morbidities seen in perioperative and critical care patients, most archetypally posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Several sedative-hypnotics and analgesics are known to modulate fear systems, and it is theoretically plausible that clinical decisions of the anesthesiologist could impact psychological outcomes. This review aims to provide a focused synthesis of relevant literature from multiple fields of research. RECENT FINDINGS There is evidence in some contexts that unconscious fear memory systems are less sensitive to anesthetics than are conscious memory systems. Opiates may suppress the activation of fear systems and have benefit in the prevention of PTSD following trauma. There is inconsistent evidence that the use of propofol and benzodiazepines for sedation following trauma may potentiate the development of PTSD relative to other drugs. The benefits of ketamine seen in the treatment of major depression are not clearly replicated in PTSD-cluster psychopathologies, and its effects on fear processes are complex. SUMMARY There are multiple theoretical mechanisms by which anesthetic drugs can modulate fear systems and clinically important fear-based psychopathologies. The current state of research provides some evidence to support further hypothesis investigation. However, the absence of effectiveness studies and the inconsistent signals from smaller studies provide insufficient evidence to currently offer firm clinical guidance.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Keith M. Vogt
- Department of Anesthesiology and Perioperative Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, School of Medicine
- Department of Bioengineering, Swanson School of Engineering, University of Pittsburgh
- Center for the Neural Basis of Cognition
- Clinical and Translational Science Institute, University of Pittsburgh
| | - Kane O. Pryor
- Department of Anesthesiology, Weill Cornell Medicine
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
Dunsmoor JE, Cisler JM, Fonzo GA, Creech SK, Nemeroff CB. Laboratory models of post-traumatic stress disorder: The elusive bridge to translation. Neuron 2022; 110:1754-1776. [PMID: 35325617 PMCID: PMC9167267 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuron.2022.03.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2022] [Revised: 02/18/2022] [Accepted: 02/28/2022] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a debilitating mental illness composed of a heterogeneous collection of symptom clusters. The unique nature of PTSD as arising from a precipitating traumatic event helps simplify cross-species translational research modeling the neurobehavioral effects of stress and fear. However, the neurobiological progress on these complex neural circuits informed by animal models has yet to produce novel, evidence-based clinical treatment for PTSD. Here, we provide a comprehensive overview of popular laboratory models of PTSD and provide concrete ideas for improving the validity and clinical translational value of basic research efforts in humans. We detail modifications to simplified animal paradigms to account for myriad cognitive factors affected in PTSD, which may contribute to abnormalities in regulating fear. We further describe new avenues for integrating different areas of psychological research underserved by animal models of PTSD. This includes incorporating emerging trends in the cognitive neuroscience of episodic memory, emotion regulation, social-emotional processes, and PTSD subtyping to provide a more comprehensive recapitulation of the human experience to trauma in laboratory research.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Joseph E Dunsmoor
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of Texas at Austin Dell Medical School, Austin, TX, USA; Center for Psychedelic Research and Therapy, University of Texas at Austin Dell Medical School, Austin, TX, USA.
| | - Josh M Cisler
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of Texas at Austin Dell Medical School, Austin, TX, USA; Institute for Early Life Adversity Research, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA; Center for Psychedelic Research and Therapy, University of Texas at Austin Dell Medical School, Austin, TX, USA
| | - Gregory A Fonzo
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of Texas at Austin Dell Medical School, Austin, TX, USA; Institute for Early Life Adversity Research, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA; Center for Psychedelic Research and Therapy, University of Texas at Austin Dell Medical School, Austin, TX, USA
| | - Suzannah K Creech
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of Texas at Austin Dell Medical School, Austin, TX, USA; Institute for Early Life Adversity Research, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA
| | - Charles B Nemeroff
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of Texas at Austin Dell Medical School, Austin, TX, USA; Institute for Early Life Adversity Research, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA; Center for Psychedelic Research and Therapy, University of Texas at Austin Dell Medical School, Austin, TX, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
17
|
Hennings AC, McClay M, Drew MR, Lewis-Peacock JA, Dunsmoor JE. Neural reinstatement reveals divided organization of fear and extinction memories in the human brain. Curr Biol 2022; 32:304-314.e5. [PMID: 34813732 PMCID: PMC8792329 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2021.11.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2021] [Revised: 09/28/2021] [Accepted: 11/02/2021] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
Neurobiological research in rodents has revealed that competing experiences of fear and extinction are stored as distinct memory traces in the brain. This divided organization is adaptive for mitigating overgeneralization of fear to related stimuli that are learned to be safe while also maintaining threat associations for unsafe stimuli. The mechanisms involved in organizing these competing memories in the human brain remain unclear. Here, we used a hybrid form of Pavlovian conditioning with an episodic memory component to identify overlapping multivariate patterns of fMRI activity associated with the formation and retrieval of fear versus extinction. In healthy adults, distinct regions of the medial prefrontal cortex (PFC) and hippocampus showed selective reactivation of fear versus extinction memories based on the temporal context in which these memories were encoded. This dissociation was absent in participants with posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms. The divided neural organization of fear and extinction may support flexible retrieval of context-appropriate emotional memories, while their disorganization may promote overgeneralization and increased fear relapse in affective disorders.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Augustin C Hennings
- Institute for Neuroscience, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA; Center for Learning and Memory, Department of Neuroscience, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA
| | - Mason McClay
- Department of Psychology, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Michael R Drew
- Institute for Neuroscience, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA; Center for Learning and Memory, Department of Neuroscience, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA
| | - Jarrod A Lewis-Peacock
- Institute for Neuroscience, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA; Center for Learning and Memory, Department of Neuroscience, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA; Department of Psychology, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA; Department of Psychiatry, Dell Medical School, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA
| | - Joseph E Dunsmoor
- Institute for Neuroscience, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA; Center for Learning and Memory, Department of Neuroscience, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA; Department of Psychiatry, Dell Medical School, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
18
|
Wang J, Smeets T, Otgaar H, Howe ML. Manipulating Memory Associations Minimizes Avoidance Behavior. Front Behav Neurosci 2021; 15:746161. [PMID: 34803623 PMCID: PMC8595481 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2021.746161] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2021] [Accepted: 10/13/2021] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Memories of the past can guide humans to avoid harm. The logical consequence of this is if memories are changed, avoidance behavior should be affected. More than 80 years of false memory research has shown that people's memory can be re-constructed or distorted by receiving suggestive false feedback. The current study examined whether manipulating people's memories of learned associations would impact fear related behavior. A modified sensory preconditioning paradigm of fear learning was used. Critically, in a memory test after fear learning, participants received verbal false feedback to change their memory associations. After receiving the false feedback, participants' beliefs and memories ratings for learned associations decreased significantly compared to the no feedback condition. Furthermore, in the false feedback condition, participants no longer showed avoidance to fear conditioned stimuli and relevant subjective fear ratings dropped significantly. Our results suggest that manipulating memory associations might minimize avoidance behavior in fear conditioning. These data also highlight the role of memory in higher order conditioning.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jianqin Wang
- Laboratory of Social Psychology and Behavioral Science, Department of Psychology, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Tom Smeets
- Department of Medical and Clinical Psychology, Tilburg University, Tilburg, Netherlands
| | - Henry Otgaar
- Faculty of Law, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
- Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Maastricht, Netherlands
| | - Mark L. Howe
- Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Maastricht, Netherlands
- Department of Psychology, City University of London, London, United Kingdom
| |
Collapse
|
19
|
Palombo DJ, Elizur L, Tuen YJ, Te AA, Madan CR. Transfer of negative valence in an episodic memory task. Cognition 2021; 217:104874. [PMID: 34390888 DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2021.104874] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2021] [Revised: 07/20/2021] [Accepted: 07/30/2021] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Emotion can color what we perceive and subsequently remember in myriad ways. Indeed, it is well established that emotion enhances some aspects of memory, while impairing others. For example, a number of recent episodic memory studies show that emotion-particularly negative emotion-weakens associative memory, including item-item associations. Other literature shows that emotion biases our later attitudes and preferences. That is, the coincident pairing of a negative stimulus with a neutral one can reduce one's preference for that neutral stimulus upon subsequent encounter-a 'transfer of valence' effect. In an effort to connect these two phenomena, here we ask if and under what circumstances they co-occur. Across multiple experiments, we show that negative emotion impairs associative memory for item-item pairings, in accordance with prior work. We also show a transfer of valence effect in this paradigm, such that items paired with negative versus neutral stimuli are subsequently rated as less pleasant. Our data further show that transfer of valence is contingent on episodic memory. These findings highlight the complexity and multifaceted nature of emotional effects on memory.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Daniela J Palombo
- Department of Psychology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada.
| | - Leor Elizur
- Department of Psychology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Young Ji Tuen
- Department of Psychology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Alessandra A Te
- Department of Psychology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | | |
Collapse
|
20
|
Abstract
We rely on our long-term memories to guide future behaviors, making it adaptive to prioritize the retention of goal-relevant, salient information in memory. In this review, we discuss findings from rodent and human research to demonstrate that active processes during post-encoding consolidation support the selective stabilization of recent experience into adaptive, long-term memories. Building upon literatures focused on dynamics at the cellular level, we highlight that consolidation also transforms memories at the systems level to support future goal-relevant behavior, resulting in more generalized memory traces in the brain and behavior. We synthesize previous literatures spanning animal research, human cognitive neuroscience, and cognitive psychology to propose an integrative framework for adaptive consolidation by which goal-relevant memoranda are "tagged" for subsequent consolidation, resulting in selective transformations to the structure of memories that support flexible, goal-relevant behaviors.
Collapse
|
21
|
Hagedorn B, Wolf OT, Merz CJ. Stimulus-Based Extinction Generalization: Neural Correlates and Modulation by Cortisol. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol 2021; 24:354-365. [PMID: 33196833 PMCID: PMC8059492 DOI: 10.1093/ijnp/pyaa085] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2020] [Revised: 10/07/2020] [Accepted: 11/10/2020] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND While healthy individuals and patients with anxiety disorders easily generalize fear responses, extinction learning is more stimulus specific. Treatments aiming to generalize extinction learning are urgently needed, since they comprise the potential to overcome stimulus specificity and reduce relapses, particularly in the face of stressful events. METHODS In the current 3-day functional magnetic resonance imaging fear conditioning paradigm, we aimed to create a generalized extinction memory trace in 60 healthy men and women by presenting multiple sizes of 1 conditioned stimulus during extinction training (CS+G; generalized), whereas the other conditioned stimulus was solely presented in its original size (CS+N; nongeneralized). Recall was tested on the third day after pharmacological administration of either the stress hormone cortisol or placebo. RESULTS After successful fear acquisition, prolonged activation of the amygdala and insula and deactivation of the ventromedial prefrontal cortex for CS+G compared with CS+N during extinction learning indicated sustained fear to the generalization stimuli. In line with our hypotheses, reduced amygdala activation was observed after extinction generalization on the third day in the contrast CS+G minus CS+N, possibly reflecting an attenuated return of fear. Cortisol administration before recall, however, blocked this effect. CONCLUSIONS Taken together, the findings show that extinction generalization was associated with decreased activation of the fear network during recall after prolonged activation of the fear network during extinction learning. However, the generalization of the extinction memory did not counteract the detrimental effects of stress hormones on recall. Thus, stimulus-based extinction generalization may not be sufficient to reduce relapses after stressful experiences.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Bianca Hagedorn
- Department of Cognitive Psychology, Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, Faculty of Psychology, Ruhr University, Bochum, Germany
| | - Oliver T Wolf
- Department of Cognitive Psychology, Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, Faculty of Psychology, Ruhr University, Bochum, Germany
| | - Christian J Merz
- Department of Cognitive Psychology, Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, Faculty of Psychology, Ruhr University, Bochum, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
22
|
Svrakic DM, Zorumski CF. Neuroscience of Object Relations in Health and Disorder: A Proposal for an Integrative Model. Front Psychol 2021; 12:583743. [PMID: 33790822 PMCID: PMC8005655 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.583743] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2020] [Accepted: 01/08/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Recent advances in the neuroscience of episodic memory provide a framework to integrate object relations theory, a psychoanalytic model of mind development, with potential neural mechanisms. Object relations are primordial cognitive-affective units of the mind derived from survival- and safety-level experiences with caretakers during phase-sensitive periods of infancy and toddlerhood. Because these are learning experiences, their neural substrate likely involves memory, here affect-enhanced episodic memory. Inaugural object relations are encoded by the hippocampus-amygdala synaptic plasticity, and systems-consolidated by medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC). Self- and object-mental representations, extracted from these early experiences, are at first dichotomized by contradictory affects evoked by frustrating and rewarding interactions ("partial object relations"). Such affective dichotomization appears to be genetically hardwired the amygdala. Intrinsic propensity of mPFC to form schematic frameworks for episodic memories may pilot non-conscious integration of dichotomized mental representations in neonates and infants. With the emergence of working memory in toddlers, an activated self- and object-representation of a particular valence can be juxtaposed with its memorized opposites creating a balanced cognitive-affective frame (conscious "integration of object relations"). Specific events of object relations are forgotten but nevertheless profoundly influence the mental future of the individual, acting (i) as implicit schema-affect templates that regulate attentional priorities, relevance, and preferential assimilation of new information based on past experience, and (ii) as basic units of experience that are, under normal circumstances, integrated as attractors or "focal points" for interactive self-organization of functional brain networks that underlie the mind. A failure to achieve integrated object relations is predictive of poor adult emotional and social outcomes, including personality disorder. Cognitive, cellular-, and systems-neuroscience of episodic memory appear to support key postulates of object relations theory and help elucidate neural mechanisms of psychodynamic psychotherapy. Derived through the dual prism of psychoanalysis and neuroscience, the gained insights may offer new directions to enhance mental health and improve treatment of multiple forms of psychopathology.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Dragan M. Svrakic
- Department of Psychiatry, Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO, United States
| | - Charles F. Zorumski
- Department of Psychiatry, Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO, United States
- Department of Psychiatry, Taylor Family Institute for Innovative Psychiatric Research, Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO, United States
| |
Collapse
|
23
|
Forester G, Halbeisen G, Walther E, Kamp SM. Frontal ERP slow waves during memory encoding are associated with affective attitude formation. Int J Psychophysiol 2020; 158:389-399. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2020.11.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2020] [Revised: 11/04/2020] [Accepted: 11/05/2020] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
|
24
|
Samide R, Ritchey M. Reframing the Past: Role of Memory Processes in Emotion Regulation. COGNITIVE THERAPY AND RESEARCH 2020. [DOI: 10.1007/s10608-020-10166-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
|
25
|
Hennings AC, Bibb SA, Lewis-Peacock JA, Dunsmoor JE. Thought suppression inhibits the generalization of fear extinction. Behav Brain Res 2020; 398:112931. [PMID: 33053386 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2020.112931] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2020] [Revised: 09/04/2020] [Accepted: 09/21/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
A challenge for translating fear extinction research into clinical treatments for stress and anxiety disorders is that extinction learning tends not to generalize beyond the treatment context. This may be because the hippocampus limits the expression of extinction memories. Consequently, downregulating the hippocampus may help to promote the generalization of extinction learning. One nonpharmacological strategy to downregulate hippocampal activity in humans is motivated forgetting, in which a participant deliberately attempts to suppress the encoding and/or retrieval of episodic memories. Here, we evaluated whether this strategy could facilitate extinction generalization by augmenting extinction training with thought suppression. Participants were threat conditioned using two conditioned stimulus (CS) categories paired with an electrical shock. Subsequently, during extinction training, one CS category was accompanied by thought suppression. Participants were tested for extinction generalization 24h later with conceptual variations of the extinguished stimuli. Contrary to our prediction, we found that extinction training paired with thought suppression resulted in enhanced shock expectancy (i.e., worse generalization) relative to standard extinction. We conclude that thought suppression during memory encoding likely acts as an inhibitory cue that blocks the acquisition of extinction memories, and therefore may not be a viable tactic to promote extinction generalization in the treatment of anxiety disorders.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Augustin C Hennings
- Institute for Neuroscience, University of Texas at Austin, United States; Center for Learning and Memory, Department of Neuroscience, University of Texas at Austin, United States
| | - Sophia A Bibb
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Texas at Austin, United States
| | - Jarrod A Lewis-Peacock
- Institute for Neuroscience, University of Texas at Austin, United States; Center for Learning and Memory, Department of Neuroscience, University of Texas at Austin, United States; Department of Neuroscience, University of Texas at Austin, United States; Department of Psychology, University of Texas at Austin, United States; Department of Psychiatry, Dell Medical School, University of Texas at Austin, United States
| | - Joseph E Dunsmoor
- Institute for Neuroscience, University of Texas at Austin, United States; Center for Learning and Memory, Department of Neuroscience, University of Texas at Austin, United States; Department of Psychiatry, Dell Medical School, University of Texas at Austin, United States.
| |
Collapse
|
26
|
Hennings AC, McClay M, Lewis-Peacock JA, Dunsmoor JE. Contextual reinstatement promotes extinction generalization in healthy adults but not PTSD. Neuropsychologia 2020; 147:107573. [PMID: 32735802 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2020.107573] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2020] [Revised: 07/24/2020] [Accepted: 07/26/2020] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
For episodic memories, reinstating the mental context of a past experience improves retrieval of memories formed during that experience. Does context reinstatement serve a similar role for implicit, associative memories such as fear and extinction? Here, we used a fear extinction paradigm to investigate whether the retrieval of extinction (safety) memories is associated with reactivation of the mental context from extinction memory formation. In a two-day Pavlovian conditioning, extinction, and renewal protocol, we collected functional MRI data while healthy adults and adults with PTSD symptoms learned that conditioned stimuli (CSs) signaled threat through association with an electrical shock. Following acquisition, conceptually related exemplars from the CS category no longer signaled threat (i.e., extinction). Critically, during extinction only, task-irrelevant stimuli were presented between each CS trial to serve as "context tags" for subsequent identification of the possible reinstatement of this extinction context during a test of fear renewal the next day. We found that healthy adults exhibited extinction context reinstatement, as measured via multivariate pattern analysis of fMRI data, in the medial temporal lobe that related to behavioral performance, such that greater reinstatement predicted CSs being rated as safe instead of threatening. Moreover, context reinstatement positively correlated with univariate activity in the ventromedial prefrontal cortex and hippocampus, regions which are thought to be important for extinction learning. These relationships were not observed in the PTSD symptom group. These findings provide new evidence of a contextual reinstatement mechanism that helps resolve competition between the retrieval of opposing associative memories of threat and safety in the healthy adult brain that is dysregulated in PTSD.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Augustin C Hennings
- Institute for Neuroscience, University of Texas at Austin, United States; Center for Learning and Memory, Department of Neuroscience, University of Texas at Austin, United States
| | - Mason McClay
- Department of Psychiatry, Dell Medical School, University of Texas at Austin, United States
| | - Jarrod A Lewis-Peacock
- Institute for Neuroscience, University of Texas at Austin, United States; Center for Learning and Memory, Department of Neuroscience, University of Texas at Austin, United States; Department of Psychology, University of Texas at Austin, United States
| | - Joseph E Dunsmoor
- Institute for Neuroscience, University of Texas at Austin, United States; Center for Learning and Memory, Department of Neuroscience, University of Texas at Austin, United States; Department of Psychiatry, Dell Medical School, University of Texas at Austin, United States.
| |
Collapse
|
27
|
Measuring learning in human classical threat conditioning: Translational, cognitive and methodological considerations. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2020; 114:96-112. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2020.04.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2019] [Revised: 04/15/2020] [Accepted: 04/18/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
|
28
|
Boddez Y, Moors A, Mertens G, De Houwer J. Tackling fear: Beyond associative memory activation as the only determinant of fear responding. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2020; 112:410-419. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2020.02.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2019] [Revised: 01/08/2020] [Accepted: 02/10/2020] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
|
29
|
A review on mental imagery in fear conditioning research 100 years since the ‘Little Albert’ study. Behav Res Ther 2020; 126:103556. [DOI: 10.1016/j.brat.2020.103556] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2019] [Revised: 01/09/2020] [Accepted: 01/14/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
|
30
|
Keller NE, Hennings AC, Dunsmoor JE. Behavioral and neural processes in counterconditioning: Past and future directions. Behav Res Ther 2020; 125:103532. [PMID: 31881357 PMCID: PMC6983350 DOI: 10.1016/j.brat.2019.103532] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2019] [Revised: 12/06/2019] [Accepted: 12/11/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Counterconditioning refers both to the technique and putative process by which behavior is modified through a new association with a stimulus of an opposite valence. Similar to extinction, counterconditioning is considered a form of inhibition that interferes with the expression of the originally learned response without erasing it. But whereas interest in extinction continues to rise, counterconditioning has received far less attention. Here, we provide an in-depth review of counterconditioning research and detail whether counterconditioning is any more effective than extinction at preventing relapse of the originally learned behavior. We consider the clinical implications of counterconditioning, describe recent neurobiological and neuroimaging research in this area, and consider future avenues in need of further investigation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Nicole E Keller
- University of Texas at Austin, Institute for Neuroscience, Austin, TX, 78712, USA
| | - Augustin C Hennings
- University of Texas at Austin, Institute for Neuroscience, Austin, TX, 78712, USA
| | - Joseph E Dunsmoor
- University of Texas at Austin, Institute for Neuroscience, Austin, TX, 78712, USA; University of Texas at Austin, Department of Psychiatry, Austin, TX, 78712, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
31
|
The effects of aversive-to-appetitive counterconditioning on implicit and explicit fear memory. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2019; 27:12-19. [PMID: 31843978 PMCID: PMC6919193 DOI: 10.1101/lm.050740.119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2019] [Accepted: 10/15/2019] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
Counterconditioning (CC) is a form of retroactive interference that inhibits expression of learned behavior. But similar to extinction, CC can be a fairly weak and impermanent form of interference, and the original behavior is prone to relapse. Research on CC is limited, especially in humans, but prior studies suggest it is more effective than extinction at modifying some behaviors (e.g., preference or valence ratings) than others (e.g., physiological arousal). Here, we used a within-subjects design to compare the effects of aversive-to-appetitive CC versus standard extinction on two separate tests of long-term memory in human adults: implicit physiological arousal and explicit episodic memory. Participants underwent Pavlovian fear conditioning to two semantic categories (animals, tools) paired with an electric shock. Conditioned stimuli (i.e., category exemplars) from one category were then extinguished, while stimuli from the other category were paired with a positive outcome. Participants returned 24-h later for a test of skin conductance responses (SCR) to the conditioned exemplars, as well as a surprise recognition memory test for stimuli encoded the previous day. Results showed reduced SCRs at a test for unique stimuli from a category that had undergone CC, relative to stimuli from a category that had undergone standard extinction. Additionally, participants selectively remembered more stimuli encoded during CC than extinction. These results provide new evidence that aversive-to-appetitive CC, as compared to extinction, strengthens memory for items directly associated with a positive outcome, which may provide stronger retrieval competition against a fear memory at test to help diminish fear relapse.
Collapse
|
32
|
Seymour B. Pain: A Precision Signal for Reinforcement Learning and Control. Neuron 2019; 101:1029-1041. [PMID: 30897355 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuron.2019.01.055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2018] [Revised: 01/18/2019] [Accepted: 01/27/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Since noxious stimulation usually leads to the perception of pain, pain has traditionally been considered sensory nociception. But its variability and sensitivity to a broad array of cognitive and motivational factors have meant it is commonly viewed as inherently imprecise and intangibly subjective. However, the core function of pain is motivational-to direct both short- and long-term behavior away from harm. Here, we illustrate that a reinforcement learning model of pain offers a mechanistic understanding of how the brain supports this, illustrating the underlying computational architecture of the pain system. Importantly, it explains why pain is tuned by multiple factors and necessarily supported by a distributed network of brain regions, recasting pain as a precise and objectifiable control signal.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ben Seymour
- Center for Information and Neural Networks, National Institute of Information and Communications Technology, 1-4 Yamadaoka, Suita, Osaka 565-0871, Japan; Computational and Biological Learning Lab, Department of Engineering, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 1PZ, UK.
| |
Collapse
|
33
|
Ravi M, Stevens JS, Michopoulos V. Neuroendocrine pathways underlying risk and resilience to PTSD in women. Front Neuroendocrinol 2019; 55:100790. [PMID: 31542288 PMCID: PMC6876844 DOI: 10.1016/j.yfrne.2019.100790] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2019] [Revised: 08/26/2019] [Accepted: 09/18/2019] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
Women are twice as likely than men to suffer from posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). While women have increased exposure to traumatic events of many types and have greater prevalence of comorbid psychiatric disorders compared to men, these differences do not account for the overall sex difference in the prevalence of PTSD. The current review summarizes significant findings that implicate the role of estradiol, progesterone, and allopregnanolone in female risk for PTSD symptoms and dysregulation of fear psychophysiology that is cardinal to PTSD. We also discuss how these steroid hormones influence the stress axis and neural substrates critical for the regulation of fear responses. Understanding the role of ovarian steroid hormones in risk and resilience for trauma-related adverse mental health outcomes across the lifespan in women has important translational, clinical, and intergenerational implications for mitigating the consequences of trauma exposure.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Meghna Ravi
- Emory University Graduate Program in Neuroscience, Atlanta, GA, United States
| | - Jennifer S Stevens
- Emory University School of Medicine, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Atlanta, GA, United States
| | - Vasiliki Michopoulos
- Emory University School of Medicine, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Atlanta, GA, United States; Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Atlanta, GA, United States.
| |
Collapse
|
34
|
Vogt KM, Norton CM, Speer LE, Tremel JJ, Ibinson JW, Reder LM, Fiez JA. Memory for non-painful auditory items is influenced by whether they are experienced in a context involving painful electrical stimulation. Exp Brain Res 2019; 237:1615-1627. [PMID: 30941440 PMCID: PMC6586482 DOI: 10.1007/s00221-019-05534-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2018] [Accepted: 03/27/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
In this study, we sought to examine the effect of experimentally induced somatic pain on memory. Subjects heard a series of words and made categorization decisions in two different conditions. One condition included painful shocks administered just after presentation of some of the words; the other condition involved no shocks. For the condition that included painful stimulations, every other word was followed by a shock, and subjects were informed to expect this pattern. Word lists were repeated three times within each condition in randomized order, with different category judgments but consistent pain-word pairings. After a brief delay, recognition memory was assessed. Non-pain words from the pain condition were less strongly encoded than non-pain words from the completely pain-free condition. Recognition of pain-paired words was not significantly different than either subgroup of non-pain words. An important accompanying finding is that response times to repeated experimental items were slower for non-pain words from the pain condition, compared to non-pain words from the completely pain-free condition. This demonstrates that the effect of pain on memory may generalize to non-pain items experienced in the same experimental context.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Keith M Vogt
- Department of Anesthesiology and Perioperative Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA.
- Center for the Neural Basis of Cognition, Pittsburgh, PA, USA.
| | - Caroline M Norton
- Department of Anesthesiology and Perioperative Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Lauren E Speer
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Joshua J Tremel
- Department of Psychology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - James W Ibinson
- Department of Anesthesiology and Perioperative Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Lynne M Reder
- Center for the Neural Basis of Cognition, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
- Department of Psychology, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Julie A Fiez
- Center for the Neural Basis of Cognition, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
- Department of Psychology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| |
Collapse
|
35
|
Dunsmoor JE, Kroes MCW, Murty VP, Braren SH, Phelps EA. Emotional enhancement of memory for neutral information: The complex interplay between arousal, attention, and anticipation. Biol Psychol 2019; 145:134-141. [PMID: 31075362 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsycho.2019.05.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2019] [Revised: 04/03/2019] [Accepted: 05/03/2019] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
It can be challenging to explain why certain mundane details circumstantial to an emotional event are nonetheless remembered long after the experience. Here, we examined how attention selectively shapes memory for neutral objects that happen to coincide with either an unexpected or anticipated emotional event. Pictures of neutral objects were presented for 2 s and terminated with either a high-intensity shock, a low-intensity shock, or no shock. Recognition memory was tested 24 -hs later in a surprise test. Results showed no effect of shock intensity on memory for attended objects when shocks were unpredictable (Experiment 1). Similarly, there was no effect of shock intensity for attended objects when shock delivery was signaled before the object appeared (Experiment 2). There was a reduction in memory for unattended objects paired with an anticipated high-intensity shock (Experiment 3). Finally, subjects recognized slightly more attended objects paired with a high-intensity shock if shock intensity was signaled one second after the object was encoded (Experiment 4). We conclude that simply pairing objects with high-intensity shocks is insufficient to drive episodic memory enhancements for neutral information. But anticipation of an impending source of arousal can induce bidirectional effects: attending to an impending emotional event interferes with encoding of neutral information, but encoding an object just prior to anticipation of an emotional event can sometimes benefit memory. Overall, these results highlight a complex interplay between arousal, attention, and anticipation on emotion-induced memory for neutral information.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Joseph E Dunsmoor
- University of Texas at Austin, Department of Psychiatry, Austin, TX, 78712, USA.
| | - Marijn C W Kroes
- Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Centre, Department of Cognitive Neuroscience, Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Nijmegen, the Netherlands
| | - Vishnu P Murty
- Temple University, Department of Psychology, Philadelphia, PA, 19122, USA
| | - Stephen H Braren
- New York University, Department of Psychology, New York, NY, 10003, USA
| | | |
Collapse
|
36
|
Sep MSC, Gorter R, van Ast VA, Joëls M, Geuze E. No Time-Dependent Effects of Psychosocial Stress on Fear Contextualization and Generalization: A Randomized-Controlled Study With Healthy Participants. CHRONIC STRESS (THOUSAND OAKS, CALIF.) 2019; 3:2470547019896547. [PMID: 32440603 PMCID: PMC7219903 DOI: 10.1177/2470547019896547] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2019] [Accepted: 12/03/2019] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
The formation of context-dependent fear memories (fear contextualization) can aid the recognition of danger in new, similar, situations. Overgeneralization of fear is often seen as hallmark of anxiety and trauma-related disorders. In this randomized-controlled study, we investigated whether exposure to a psychosocial stressor influences retention of fear contextualization and generalization in a time-dependent manner. The Trier Social Stress Test was used to induce psychosocial stress. Healthy male participants (n = 117) were randomly divided into three experimental groups that were subjected to the acquisition phase of the Fear Generalization Task: (1) without stress, (2) immediately after acute stress, or (3) 2 h after acute stress. In this task, a male with neutral facial expression (conditioned stimuli) was depicted in two different contexts that modulated the conditioned stimuli-unconditioned stimuli (=shock) association (threat, safe). Salivary alpha-amylase and cortisol levels were measured throughout the experiment. After a 24-h delay, context-dependency of fear memory was investigated with an unannounced memory test consisting of the threat and safe contexts alternated with a novel context (the generalization context). Multilevel analyses revealed that participants showed increased fear-potentiated startle responses to the conditioned stimuli in the threat compared to the safe context, at the end of the acquisition phase, indicating adequate fear contextualization. Directly after acquisition, there were no time-dependent effects of psychosocial stress on fear contextualization. Context-dependency of fear memories was retained 24 h later, as fear-potentiated startle responding was modulated by context (threat > safe or novel). At that time, the context-dependency of fear memories was also not influenced by the early or late effects of the endogenous stress response during acquisition. These results with experimental stress deviate in some aspects from those earlier obtained with exogenous hydrocortisone administration, suggesting a distinct role for stress mediators other than cortisol.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Milou S. C. Sep
- Brain Research and Innovation
Centre, Ministry of Defence, Utrecht, the Netherlands
- Department of Translational
Neuroscience, UMC Utrecht Brain Center, Utrecht University, Utrecht, the
Netherlands
| | - Rosalie Gorter
- Brain Research and Innovation
Centre, Ministry of Defence, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Vanessa A. van Ast
- Department of Clinical Psychology,
University
of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the
Netherlands
| | - Marian Joëls
- Department of Translational
Neuroscience, UMC Utrecht Brain Center, Utrecht University, Utrecht, the
Netherlands
- University of Groningen, University
Medical Center Groningen, Groningen, the Netherlands
| | - Elbert Geuze
- Brain Research and Innovation
Centre, Ministry of Defence, Utrecht, the Netherlands
- Department of Psychiatry, UMC
Utrecht Brain Center, Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| |
Collapse
|