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Dwijesha AS, Eswaran A, Berry JA, Phan A. Diverse memory paradigms in Drosophila reveal diverse neural mechanisms. Learn Mem 2024; 31:a053810. [PMID: 38862165 PMCID: PMC11199951 DOI: 10.1101/lm.053810.123] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2023] [Accepted: 01/12/2024] [Indexed: 06/13/2024]
Abstract
In this review, we aggregated the different types of learning and memory paradigms developed in adult Drosophila and attempted to assess the similarities and differences in the neural mechanisms supporting diverse types of memory. The simplest association memory assays are conditioning paradigms (olfactory, visual, and gustatory). A great deal of work has been done on these memories, revealing hundreds of genes and neural circuits supporting this memory. Variations of conditioning assays (reversal learning, trace conditioning, latent inhibition, and extinction) also reveal interesting memory mechanisms, whereas mechanisms supporting spatial memory (thermal maze, orientation memory, and heat box) and the conditioned suppression of innate behaviors (phototaxis, negative geotaxis, anemotaxis, and locomotion) remain largely unexplored. In recent years, there has been an increased interest in multisensory and multicomponent memories (context-dependent and cross-modal memory) and higher-order memory (sensory preconditioning and second-order conditioning). Some of this work has revealed how the intricate mushroom body (MB) neural circuitry can support more complex memories. Finally, the most complex memories are arguably those involving social memory: courtship conditioning and social learning (mate-copying and egg-laying behaviors). Currently, very little is known about the mechanisms supporting social memories. Overall, the MBs are important for association memories of multiple sensory modalities and multisensory integration, whereas the central complex is important for place, orientation, and navigation memories. Interestingly, several different types of memory appear to use similar or variants of the olfactory conditioning neural circuitry, which are repurposed in different ways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amoolya Sai Dwijesha
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 2R3, Canada
| | - Akhila Eswaran
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 2R3, Canada
| | - Jacob A Berry
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 2R3, Canada
- Neuroscience and Mental Health Institute, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 2R3, Canada
| | - Anna Phan
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 2R3, Canada
- Neuroscience and Mental Health Institute, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 2R3, Canada
- Women and Children's Health Research Institute, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 2R3, Canada
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2
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Wei T, Guo Q, Webb B. Learning with sparse reward in a gap junction network inspired by the insect mushroom body. PLoS Comput Biol 2024; 20:e1012086. [PMID: 38781280 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pcbi.1012086] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2023] [Revised: 06/05/2024] [Accepted: 04/17/2024] [Indexed: 05/25/2024] Open
Abstract
Animals can learn in real-life scenarios where rewards are often only available when a goal is achieved. This 'distal' or 'sparse' reward problem remains a challenge for conventional reinforcement learning algorithms. Here we investigate an algorithm for learning in such scenarios, inspired by the possibility that axo-axonal gap junction connections, observed in neural circuits with parallel fibres such as the insect mushroom body, could form a resistive network. In such a network, an active node represents the task state, connections between nodes represent state transitions and their connection to actions, and current flow to a target state can guide decision making. Building on evidence that gap junction weights are adaptive, we propose that experience of a task can modulate the connections to form a graph encoding the task structure. We demonstrate that the approach can be used for efficient reinforcement learning under sparse rewards, and discuss whether it is plausible as an account of the insect mushroom body.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tianqi Wei
- Institute of Perception, Action, and Behaviour, School of Informatics, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
- School of Artificial Intelligence, Sun Yat-sen University, Zhuhai, Guangdong, China
| | - Qinghai Guo
- Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd., Shenzhen, Guangdong, China
| | - Barbara Webb
- Institute of Perception, Action, and Behaviour, School of Informatics, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
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3
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Sen E, El-Keredy A, Jacob N, Mancini N, Asnaz G, Widmann A, Gerber B, Thoener J. Cognitive limits of larval Drosophila: testing for conditioned inhibition, sensory preconditioning, and second-order conditioning. Learn Mem 2024; 31:a053726. [PMID: 38862170 PMCID: PMC11199949 DOI: 10.1101/lm.053726.122] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2023] [Accepted: 01/18/2024] [Indexed: 06/13/2024]
Abstract
Drosophila larvae are an established model system for studying the mechanisms of innate and simple forms of learned behavior. They have about 10 times fewer neurons than adult flies, and it was the low total number of their neurons that allowed for an electron microscopic reconstruction of their brain at synaptic resolution. Regarding the mushroom body, a central brain structure for many forms of associative learning in insects, it turned out that more than half of the classes of synaptic connection had previously escaped attention. Understanding the function of these circuit motifs, subsequently confirmed in adult flies, is an important current research topic. In this context, we test larval Drosophila for their cognitive abilities in three tasks that are characteristically more complex than those previously studied. Our data provide evidence for (i) conditioned inhibition, as has previously been reported for adult flies and honeybees. Unlike what is described for adult flies and honeybees, however, our data do not provide evidence for (ii) sensory preconditioning or (iii) second-order conditioning in Drosophila larvae. We discuss the methodological features of our experiments as well as four specific aspects of the organization of the larval brain that may explain why these two forms of learning are observed in adult flies and honeybees, but not in larval Drosophila.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edanur Sen
- Department of Genetics, Leibniz Institute for Neurobiology, 39118 Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Amira El-Keredy
- Department of Genetics, Leibniz Institute for Neurobiology, 39118 Magdeburg, Germany
- Department of Genetics, Faculty of Agriculture, Tanta University, 31111 Tanta, Egypt
| | - Nina Jacob
- Department of Genetics, Leibniz Institute for Neurobiology, 39118 Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Nino Mancini
- Department of Genetics, Leibniz Institute for Neurobiology, 39118 Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Gülüm Asnaz
- Department of Molecular Neurobiology of Behavior, University of Göttingen, 37077 Göttingen, Germany
| | - Annekathrin Widmann
- Department of Molecular Neurobiology of Behavior, University of Göttingen, 37077 Göttingen, Germany
| | - Bertram Gerber
- Department of Genetics, Leibniz Institute for Neurobiology, 39118 Magdeburg, Germany
- Otto von Guericke University Magdeburg, Institute of Biology, 39106 Magdeburg, Germany
- Center for Behavioral Brain Sciences, 39106 Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Juliane Thoener
- Department of Genetics, Leibniz Institute for Neurobiology, 39118 Magdeburg, Germany
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4
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Zhou F, Tichy AM, Imambocus BN, Sakharwade S, Rodriguez Jimenez FJ, González Martínez M, Jahan I, Habib M, Wilhelmy N, Burre V, Lömker T, Sauter K, Helfrich-Förster C, Pielage J, Grunwald Kadow IC, Janovjak H, Soba P. Optimized design and in vivo application of optogenetically functionalized Drosophila dopamine receptors. Nat Commun 2023; 14:8434. [PMID: 38114457 PMCID: PMC10730509 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-43970-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2023] [Accepted: 11/24/2023] [Indexed: 12/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Neuromodulatory signaling via G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) plays a pivotal role in regulating neural network function and animal behavior. The recent development of optogenetic tools to induce G protein-mediated signaling provides the promise of acute and cell type-specific manipulation of neuromodulatory signals. However, designing and deploying optogenetically functionalized GPCRs (optoXRs) with accurate specificity and activity to mimic endogenous signaling in vivo remains challenging. Here we optimize the design of optoXRs by considering evolutionary conserved GPCR-G protein interactions and demonstrate the feasibility of this approach using two Drosophila Dopamine receptors (optoDopRs). These optoDopRs exhibit high signaling specificity and light sensitivity in vitro. In vivo, we show receptor and cell type-specific effects of dopaminergic signaling in various behaviors, including the ability of optoDopRs to rescue the loss of the endogenous receptors. This work demonstrates that optoXRs can enable optical control of neuromodulatory receptor-specific signaling in functional and behavioral studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fangmin Zhou
- Institute of Physiology and Pathophysiology, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, 91054, Erlangen, Germany
- LIMES Institute, Department of Molecular Brain Physiology and Behavior, University of Bonn, Carl-Troll-Str. 31, 53115, Bonn, Germany
- Neuronal Patterning and Connectivity laboratory, Center for Molecular Neurobiology (ZMNH), University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, 20251, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Alexandra-Madelaine Tichy
- Australian Regenerative Medicine Institute (ARMI), Faculty of Medicine, Nursing and Health Sciences, Monash University, 3800, Clayton, Victoria, Australia
- European Molecular Biology Laboratory Australia (EMBL Australia), Monash University, 3800, Clayton, Victoria, Australia
| | - Bibi Nusreen Imambocus
- LIMES Institute, Department of Molecular Brain Physiology and Behavior, University of Bonn, Carl-Troll-Str. 31, 53115, Bonn, Germany
| | - Shreyas Sakharwade
- Institute of Physiology and Pathophysiology, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, 91054, Erlangen, Germany
- LIMES Institute, Department of Molecular Brain Physiology and Behavior, University of Bonn, Carl-Troll-Str. 31, 53115, Bonn, Germany
| | - Francisco J Rodriguez Jimenez
- Institute of Physiology II, University Clinic Bonn (UKB), University of Bonn, 53115, Bonn, Germany
- ZIEL-Institute of Life and Health, Technical University of Munich, School of Life Sciences, 85354, Freising, Germany
| | - Marco González Martínez
- Institute of Physiology II, University Clinic Bonn (UKB), University of Bonn, 53115, Bonn, Germany
| | - Ishrat Jahan
- Institute of Physiology II, University Clinic Bonn (UKB), University of Bonn, 53115, Bonn, Germany
| | - Margarita Habib
- Neurobiology and Genetics, Biocenter, University of Würzburg, Am Hubland, 97074, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Nina Wilhelmy
- Division of Neurobiology and Zoology, RPTU University of Kaiserslautern, 67663, Kaiserslautern, Germany
| | - Vanessa Burre
- Division of Neurobiology and Zoology, RPTU University of Kaiserslautern, 67663, Kaiserslautern, Germany
| | - Tatjana Lömker
- Neuronal Patterning and Connectivity laboratory, Center for Molecular Neurobiology (ZMNH), University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, 20251, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Kathrin Sauter
- Neuronal Patterning and Connectivity laboratory, Center for Molecular Neurobiology (ZMNH), University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, 20251, Hamburg, Germany
| | | | - Jan Pielage
- Division of Neurobiology and Zoology, RPTU University of Kaiserslautern, 67663, Kaiserslautern, Germany
| | - Ilona C Grunwald Kadow
- Institute of Physiology II, University Clinic Bonn (UKB), University of Bonn, 53115, Bonn, Germany
- ZIEL-Institute of Life and Health, Technical University of Munich, School of Life Sciences, 85354, Freising, Germany
| | - Harald Janovjak
- Australian Regenerative Medicine Institute (ARMI), Faculty of Medicine, Nursing and Health Sciences, Monash University, 3800, Clayton, Victoria, Australia
- European Molecular Biology Laboratory Australia (EMBL Australia), Monash University, 3800, Clayton, Victoria, Australia
- Flinders Health and Medical Research Institute, College of Medicine and Public Health, Flinders University, 5042, Bedford Park, South Australia, Australia
| | - Peter Soba
- Institute of Physiology and Pathophysiology, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, 91054, Erlangen, Germany.
- LIMES Institute, Department of Molecular Brain Physiology and Behavior, University of Bonn, Carl-Troll-Str. 31, 53115, Bonn, Germany.
- Neuronal Patterning and Connectivity laboratory, Center for Molecular Neurobiology (ZMNH), University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, 20251, Hamburg, Germany.
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Mancini N, Thoener J, Tafani E, Pauls D, Mayseless O, Strauch M, Eichler K, Champion A, Kobler O, Weber D, Sen E, Weiglein A, Hartenstein V, Chytoudis-Peroudis CC, Jovanic T, Thum AS, Rohwedder A, Schleyer M, Gerber B. Rewarding Capacity of Optogenetically Activating a Giant GABAergic Central-Brain Interneuron in Larval Drosophila. J Neurosci 2023; 43:7393-7428. [PMID: 37734947 PMCID: PMC10621887 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.2310-22.2023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2022] [Revised: 07/19/2023] [Accepted: 08/26/2023] [Indexed: 09/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Larvae of the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster are a powerful study case for understanding the neural circuits underlying behavior. Indeed, the numerical simplicity of the larval brain has permitted the reconstruction of its synaptic connectome, and genetic tools for manipulating single, identified neurons allow neural circuit function to be investigated with relative ease and precision. We focus on one of the most complex neurons in the brain of the larva (of either sex), the GABAergic anterior paired lateral neuron (APL). Using behavioral and connectomic analyses, optogenetics, Ca2+ imaging, and pharmacology, we study how APL affects associative olfactory memory. We first provide a detailed account of the structure, regional polarity, connectivity, and metamorphic development of APL, and further confirm that optogenetic activation of APL has an inhibiting effect on its main targets, the mushroom body Kenyon cells. All these findings are consistent with the previously identified function of APL in the sparsening of sensory representations. To our surprise, however, we found that optogenetically activating APL can also have a strong rewarding effect. Specifically, APL activation together with odor presentation establishes an odor-specific, appetitive, associative short-term memory, whereas naive olfactory behavior remains unaffected. An acute, systemic inhibition of dopamine synthesis as well as an ablation of the dopaminergic pPAM neurons impair reward learning through APL activation. Our findings provide a study case of complex circuit function in a numerically simple brain, and suggest a previously unrecognized capacity of central-brain GABAergic neurons to engage in dopaminergic reinforcement.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT The single, identified giant anterior paired lateral (APL) neuron is one of the most complex neurons in the insect brain. It is GABAergic and contributes to the sparsening of neuronal activity in the mushroom body, the memory center of insects. We provide the most detailed account yet of the structure of APL in larval Drosophila as a neurogenetically accessible study case. We further reveal that, contrary to expectations, the experimental activation of APL can exert a rewarding effect, likely via dopaminergic reward pathways. The present study both provides an example of unexpected circuit complexity in a numerically simple brain, and reports an unexpected effect of activity in central-brain GABAergic circuits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nino Mancini
- Leibniz Institute for Neurobiology, Department Genetics of Learning and Memory, Magdeburg, 39118, Germany
| | - Juliane Thoener
- Leibniz Institute for Neurobiology, Department Genetics of Learning and Memory, Magdeburg, 39118, Germany
| | - Esmeralda Tafani
- Leibniz Institute for Neurobiology, Department Genetics of Learning and Memory, Magdeburg, 39118, Germany
| | - Dennis Pauls
- Department of Animal Physiology, Institute of Biology, Leipzig University, Leipzig, 04103, Germany
| | - Oded Mayseless
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, 7610001, Israel
| | - Martin Strauch
- Institute of Imaging and Computer Vision, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, 52074, Germany
| | - Katharina Eichler
- Institute of Neurobiology, University of Puerto Rico Medical Science Campus, Old San Juan, Puerto Rico, 00901
| | - Andrew Champion
- Department of Physiology, Development and Neuroscience, Cambridge University, Cambridge, CB2 3EL, United Kingdom
- Janelia Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Ashburn, 20147, Virginia
| | - Oliver Kobler
- Leibniz Institute for Neurobiology, Combinatorial Neuroimaging Core Facility, Magdeburg, 39118, Germany
| | - Denise Weber
- Department of Genetics, Institute of Biology, Leipzig University, Leipzig, 04103, Germany
| | - Edanur Sen
- Leibniz Institute for Neurobiology, Department Genetics of Learning and Memory, Magdeburg, 39118, Germany
| | - Aliće Weiglein
- Leibniz Institute for Neurobiology, Department Genetics of Learning and Memory, Magdeburg, 39118, Germany
| | - Volker Hartenstein
- University of California, Department of Molecular, Cell and Developmental Biology, Los Angeles, California 90095-1606
| | | | - Tihana Jovanic
- Université Paris-Saclay, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Institut des neurosciences Paris-Saclay, Saclay, 91400, France
| | - Andreas S Thum
- Department of Genetics, Institute of Biology, Leipzig University, Leipzig, 04103, Germany
| | - Astrid Rohwedder
- Department of Genetics, Institute of Biology, Leipzig University, Leipzig, 04103, Germany
| | - Michael Schleyer
- Leibniz Institute for Neurobiology, Department Genetics of Learning and Memory, Magdeburg, 39118, Germany
| | - Bertram Gerber
- Leibniz Institute for Neurobiology, Department Genetics of Learning and Memory, Magdeburg, 39118, Germany
- Center for Behavioral Brain Sciences, Magdeburg, 39106, Germany
- Institute for Biology, Otto von Guericke University, Magdeburg, 39120, Germany
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6
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Lin S. Internal-state-dependent modulation of olfactory responses: a tale of dopamine neurons in the adult Drosophila mushroom body. CURRENT OPINION IN INSECT SCIENCE 2023; 59:101104. [PMID: 37611806 DOI: 10.1016/j.cois.2023.101104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2023] [Revised: 08/02/2023] [Accepted: 08/17/2023] [Indexed: 08/25/2023]
Abstract
Olfaction is a vital sense that insects use to forage and interact with each other. When an insect smells an odor, its nervous system processes the odor information and transforms it into an appropriate behavioral decision. Olfactory processing and transformation are not label-lined, but instead are modulated by internal states. The vinegar fly, Drosophila melanogaster, has become a primary model organism for studying this modulation. It has been observed that internal state modulates olfactory behaviors in multiple sites of the fly brain. In this review article, I focus on the mushroom body, a computational center in the fly brain, and discuss how the dopamine system in this brain region mediates internal-state signals and shapes olfactory responses in adult flies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suewei Lin
- Institute of Molecular Biology, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan.
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7
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Davis RL. Learning and memory using Drosophila melanogaster: a focus on advances made in the fifth decade of research. Genetics 2023; 224:iyad085. [PMID: 37212449 PMCID: PMC10411608 DOI: 10.1093/genetics/iyad085] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2023] [Accepted: 05/03/2023] [Indexed: 05/23/2023] Open
Abstract
In the last decade, researchers using Drosophila melanogaster have made extraordinary progress in uncovering the mysteries underlying learning and memory. This progress has been propelled by the amazing toolkit available that affords combined behavioral, molecular, electrophysiological, and systems neuroscience approaches. The arduous reconstruction of electron microscopic images resulted in a first-generation connectome of the adult and larval brain, revealing complex structural interconnections between memory-related neurons. This serves as substrate for future investigations on these connections and for building complete circuits from sensory cue detection to changes in motor behavior. Mushroom body output neurons (MBOn) were discovered, which individually forward information from discrete and non-overlapping compartments of the axons of mushroom body neurons (MBn). These neurons mirror the previously discovered tiling of mushroom body axons by inputs from dopamine neurons and have led to a model that ascribes the valence of the learning event, either appetitive or aversive, to the activity of different populations of dopamine neurons and the balance of MBOn activity in promoting avoidance or approach behavior. Studies of the calyx, which houses the MBn dendrites, have revealed a beautiful microglomeruluar organization and structural changes of synapses that occur with long-term memory (LTM) formation. Larval learning has advanced, positioning it to possibly lead in producing new conceptual insights due to its markedly simpler structure over the adult brain. Advances were made in how cAMP response element-binding protein interacts with protein kinases and other transcription factors to promote the formation of LTM. New insights were made on Orb2, a prion-like protein that forms oligomers to enhance synaptic protein synthesis required for LTM formation. Finally, Drosophila research has pioneered our understanding of the mechanisms that mediate permanent and transient active forgetting, an important function of the brain along with acquisition, consolidation, and retrieval. This was catalyzed partly by the identification of memory suppressor genes-genes whose normal function is to limit memory formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ronald L Davis
- Department of Neuroscience, Herbert Wertheim UF Scripps Institute for Biomedical Innovation & Technology, University of Florida, 130 Scripps Way, Jupiter, FL 33458, USA
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8
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Truman JW, Price J, Miyares RL, Lee T. Metamorphosis of memory circuits in Drosophila reveals a strategy for evolving a larval brain. eLife 2023; 12:80594. [PMID: 36695420 PMCID: PMC9984194 DOI: 10.7554/elife.80594] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2022] [Accepted: 01/24/2023] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Mushroom bodies (MB) of adult Drosophila have a core of thousands of Kenyon neurons; axons of the early-born g class form a medial lobe and those from later-born α'β' and αβ classes form both medial and vertical lobes. The larva, however, hatches with only γ neurons and forms a vertical lobe 'facsimile' using larval-specific axon branches from its γ neurons. MB input (MBINs) and output (MBONs) neurons divide the Kenyon neuron lobes into discrete computational compartments. The larva has 10 such compartments while the adult has 16. We determined the fates of 28 of the 32 MBONs and MBINs that define the 10 larval compartments. Seven compartments are subsequently incorporated into the adult MB; four of their MBINs die, while 12 MBINs/MBONs remodel to function in adult compartments. The remaining three compartments are larval specific. At metamorphosis their MBIN/MBONs trans-differentiate, leaving the MB for other adult brain circuits. The adult vertical lobes are made de novo using MBONs/MBINs recruited from pools of adult-specific neurons. The combination of cell death, compartment shifting, trans-differentiation, and recruitment of new neurons result in no larval MBIN-MBON connections being maintained through metamorphosis. At this simple level, then, we find no anatomical substrate for a memory trace persisting from larva to adult. The adult phenotype of the trans-differentiating neurons represents their evolutionarily ancestral phenotype while their larval phenotype is a derived adaptation for the larval stage. These cells arise primarily within lineages that also produce permanent MBINs and MBONs, suggesting that larval specifying factors may allow information related to birth-order or sibling identity to be interpreted in a modified manner in the larva to allow these neurons to acquire larval phenotypic modifications. The loss of such factors at metamorphosis then allows these neurons to revert to their ancestral functions in the adult.
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Affiliation(s)
- James W Truman
- Janelia Research CampusAshburnUnited States
- Department of Biology, Friday Harbor Laboratories, University of WashingtonFriday HarborUnited States
| | | | | | - Tzumin Lee
- Janelia Research CampusAshburnUnited States
- Life Sciences Institute, University of MichiganAnn ArborUnited States
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9
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Poppinga H, Çoban B, Meltzer H, Mayseless O, Widmann A, Schuldiner O, Fiala A. Pruning deficits of the developing Drosophila mushroom body result in mild impairment in associative odour learning and cause hyperactivity. Open Biol 2022; 12:220096. [PMID: 36128716 PMCID: PMC9490343 DOI: 10.1098/rsob.220096] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The principles of how brain circuits establish themselves during development are largely conserved across animal species. Connections made during embryonic development that are appropriate for an early life stage are frequently remodelled later in ontogeny via pruning and subsequent regrowth to generate adult-specific connectivity. The mushroom body of the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster is a well-established model circuit for examining the cellular mechanisms underlying neurite remodelling. This central brain circuit integrates sensory information with learned and innate valences to adaptively instruct behavioural decisions. Thereby, the mushroom body organizes adaptive behaviour, such as associative learning. However, little is known about the specific aspects of behaviour that require mushroom body remodelling. Here, we used genetic interventions to prevent the intrinsic neurons of the larval mushroom body (γ-type Kenyon cells) from remodelling. We asked to what degree remodelling deficits resulted in impaired behaviour. We found that deficits caused hyperactivity and mild impairment in differential aversive olfactory learning, but not appetitive learning. Maintenance of circadian rhythm and sleep were not affected. We conclude that neurite pruning and regrowth of γ-type Kenyon cells is not required for the establishment of circuits that mediate associative odour learning per se, but it does improve distinct learning tasks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haiko Poppinga
- Department of Molecular Neurobiology of Behaviour, University of Göttingen, Julia-Lermontowa-Weg 3, 37077 Göttingen, Germany
| | - Büşra Çoban
- Department of Molecular Neurobiology of Behaviour, University of Göttingen, Julia-Lermontowa-Weg 3, 37077 Göttingen, Germany
| | - Hagar Meltzer
- Departments for Molecular Cell Biology and Molecular Neuroscience, Weizmann Institute of Science, Ullmann Building of Life Sciences, Rehovot 7610001, Israel
| | - Oded Mayseless
- Departments for Molecular Cell Biology and Molecular Neuroscience, Weizmann Institute of Science, Ullmann Building of Life Sciences, Rehovot 7610001, Israel
| | - Annekathrin Widmann
- Department of Molecular Neurobiology of Behaviour, University of Göttingen, Julia-Lermontowa-Weg 3, 37077 Göttingen, Germany
| | - Oren Schuldiner
- Departments for Molecular Cell Biology and Molecular Neuroscience, Weizmann Institute of Science, Ullmann Building of Life Sciences, Rehovot 7610001, Israel
| | - André Fiala
- Department of Molecular Neurobiology of Behaviour, University of Göttingen, Julia-Lermontowa-Weg 3, 37077 Göttingen, Germany
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10
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Barrett M, Godfrey RK, Sterner EJ, Waddell EA. Impacts of development and adult sex on brain cell numbers in the Black Soldier Fly, Hermetia illucens L. (Diptera: Stratiomyidae). ARTHROPOD STRUCTURE & DEVELOPMENT 2022; 70:101174. [PMID: 35809527 DOI: 10.1016/j.asd.2022.101174] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2022] [Revised: 04/28/2022] [Accepted: 05/06/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
The Black Soldier Fly (Hermetia illucens, Diptera: Stratiomyidae) has been introduced across the globe, with numerous industry applications predicated on its tremendous growth during the larval stage. However, basic research on H. illucens biology (for example, studies of their central nervous system) are lacking. Despite their small brain volumes, insects are capable of complex behaviors; understanding how these behaviors are completed with such a small amount of neural tissue requires understanding processing power (e.g. number of cells) within the brain. Brain cell counts have been completed in only a few insect species (mostly Hymenoptera), and almost exclusively in adults. This limits the taxonomic breadth of comparative analyses, as well as any conclusions about how development and body size growth may impact brain cell populations. Here, we present the first images and cell counts of the H. illucens brain at four time points across development (early, mid, and late larval stages, and both male and female adults) using immunohistochemistry and isotropic fractionation. To assess sexual dimorphism in adults, we quantified the number of cells in the central brain vs. optic lobes of males and females separately. To assess if increases in body size during development might independently affect different regions of the CNS, we quantified the larval ventral nerve cord and central brain separately at all three stages. Together, these data provide the first description of the nervous system of a popular, farmed invertebrate and the first study of brain cell numbers using IF across developmental stages in any insect.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meghan Barrett
- Department of Biology, Drexel University, 3245 Chestnut St, Philadelphia, PA, 19104, USA.
| | - R Keating Godfrey
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Arizona, 1200 E. University Blvd, Tucson, AZ, 85721, USA
| | - Emily J Sterner
- Department of Biology, Drexel University, 3245 Chestnut St, Philadelphia, PA, 19104, USA
| | - Edward A Waddell
- Department of Biology, Holy Family University, 9801 Frankford Ave, Philadelphia, PA, 19114, USA
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11
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Thoener J, Weiglein A, Gerber B, Schleyer M. Optogenetically induced reward and 'frustration' memory in larval Drosophila. J Exp Biol 2022; 225:276423. [PMID: 35924545 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.244565] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2022] [Accepted: 07/27/2022] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Humans and animals alike form oppositely valenced memories for stimuli that predict the occurrence versus the termination of a reward: appetitive 'reward' memory for stimuli associated with the occurrence of a reward and aversive 'frustration' memory for stimuli that are associated with its termination. We characterize these memories in larval Drosophila using a combination of Pavlovian conditioning, optogenetic activation of the dopaminergic central-brain DAN-i1864 neuron, and high-resolution video-tracking. This reveals their dependency on the number of training trials and the duration of DAN-i1864 activation, their temporal stability, and the parameters of locomotion that are modulated during memory expression. Together with previous results on 'punishment' versus 'relief' learning by DAN-f1 neuron activation, this reveals a 2x2 matrix of timing-dependent memory valence for the occurrence/ termination of reward/ punishment. These findings should aid the understanding and modelling of how brains decipher the predictive, causal structure of events around a target reinforcing occurrence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juliane Thoener
- Leibniz Institute for Neurobiology, Department of Genetics, Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Aliće Weiglein
- Leibniz Institute for Neurobiology, Department of Genetics, Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Bertram Gerber
- Leibniz Institute for Neurobiology, Department of Genetics, Magdeburg, Germany.,Institute of Biology, Otto von Guericke University Magdeburg, Germany.,Center for Behavioral Brain Sciences, Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Michael Schleyer
- Leibniz Institute for Neurobiology, Department of Genetics, Magdeburg, Germany
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12
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Zhang X, Zhu X, Bi X, Huang J, Zhou L. The Insulin Receptor: An Important Target for the Development of Novel Medicines and Pesticides. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23147793. [PMID: 35887136 PMCID: PMC9325136 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23147793] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2022] [Revised: 07/10/2022] [Accepted: 07/12/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
The insulin receptor (IR) is a transmembrane protein that is activated by ligands in insulin signaling pathways. The IR has been considered as a novel therapeutic target for clinical intervention, considering the overexpression of its protein and A-isoform in multiple cancers, Alzheimer’s disease, and Type 2 diabetes mellitus in humans. Meanwhile, it may also serve as a potential target in pest management due to its multiple physiological influences in insects. In this review, we provide an overview of the structural and molecular biology of the IR, functions of IRs in humans and insects, physiological and nonpeptide small molecule modulators of the IR, and the regulating mechanisms of the IR. Xenobiotic compounds and the corresponding insecticidal chemicals functioning on the IR are also discussed. This review is expected to provide useful information for a better understanding of human IR-related diseases, as well as to facilitate the development of novel small-molecule activators and inhibitors of the IR for use as medicines or pesticides.
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13
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Matejek B, Wei D, Chen T, Tsourakakis CE, Mitzenmacher M, Pfister H. Edge-colored directed subgraph enumeration on the connectome. Sci Rep 2022; 12:11349. [PMID: 35790766 PMCID: PMC9256670 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-15027-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2022] [Accepted: 06/16/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Following significant advances in image acquisition, synapse detection, and neuronal segmentation in connectomics, researchers have extracted an increasingly diverse set of wiring diagrams from brain tissue. Neuroscientists frequently represent these wiring diagrams as graphs with nodes corresponding to a single neuron and edges indicating synaptic connectivity. The edges can contain "colors" or "labels", indicating excitatory versus inhibitory connections, among other things. By representing the wiring diagram as a graph, we can begin to identify motifs, the frequently occurring subgraphs that correspond to specific biological functions. Most analyses on these wiring diagrams have focused on hypothesized motifs-those we expect to find. However, one of the goals of connectomics is to identify biologically-significant motifs that we did not previously hypothesize. To identify these structures, we need large-scale subgraph enumeration to find the frequencies of all unique motifs. Exact subgraph enumeration is a computationally expensive task, particularly in the edge-dense wiring diagrams. Furthermore, most existing methods do not differentiate between types of edges which can significantly affect the function of a motif. We propose a parallel, general-purpose subgraph enumeration strategy to count motifs in the connectome. Next, we introduce a divide-and-conquer community-based subgraph enumeration strategy that allows for enumeration per brain region. Lastly, we allow for differentiation of edges by types to better reflect the underlying biological properties of the graph. We demonstrate our results on eleven connectomes and publish for future analyses extensive overviews for the 26 trillion subgraphs enumerated that required approximately 9.25 years of computation time.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brian Matejek
- John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA.
- Computer Science Laboratory, SRI International, Washington, DC, USA.
| | - Donglai Wei
- John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA
- Department of Computer Science, Boston College, Chestnut Hill, MA, USA
| | - Tianyi Chen
- Department of Computer Science, Boston University, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Charalampos E Tsourakakis
- John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA
- Department of Computer Science, Boston University, Boston, MA, USA
- ISI Foundation, Turin, Italy
| | - Michael Mitzenmacher
- John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Hanspeter Pfister
- John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA
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14
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Corgiat EB, List SM, Rounds JC, Yu D, Chen P, Corbett AH, Moberg KH. The Nab2 RNA-binding protein patterns dendritic and axonal projections through a planar cell polarity-sensitive mechanism. G3 (BETHESDA, MD.) 2022; 12:jkac100. [PMID: 35471546 PMCID: PMC9157165 DOI: 10.1093/g3journal/jkac100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2022] [Accepted: 04/19/2022] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
RNA-binding proteins support neurodevelopment by modulating numerous steps in post-transcriptional regulation, including splicing, export, translation, and turnover of mRNAs that can traffic into axons and dendrites. One such RNA-binding protein is ZC3H14, which is lost in an inherited intellectual disability. The Drosophila melanogaster ZC3H14 ortholog, Nab2, localizes to neuronal nuclei and cytoplasmic ribonucleoprotein granules and is required for olfactory memory and proper axon projection into brain mushroom bodies. Nab2 can act as a translational repressor in conjunction with the Fragile-X mental retardation protein homolog Fmr1 and shares target RNAs with the Fmr1-interacting RNA-binding protein Ataxin-2. However, neuronal signaling pathways regulated by Nab2 and their potential roles outside of mushroom body axons remain undefined. Here, we present an analysis of a brain proteomic dataset that indicates that multiple planar cell polarity proteins are affected by Nab2 loss, and couple this with genetic data that demonstrate that Nab2 has a previously unappreciated role in restricting the growth and branching of dendrites that elaborate from larval body-wall sensory neurons. Further analysis confirms that Nab2 loss sensitizes sensory dendrites to the genetic dose of planar cell polarity components and that Nab2-planar cell polarity genetic interactions are also observed during Nab2-dependent control of axon projection in the central nervous system mushroom bodies. Collectively, these data identify the conserved Nab2 RNA-binding protein as a likely component of post-transcriptional mechanisms that limit dendrite growth and branching in Drosophila sensory neurons and genetically link this role to the planar cell polarity pathway. Given that mammalian ZC3H14 localizes to dendritic spines and controls spine density in hippocampal neurons, these Nab2-planar cell polarity genetic data may highlight a conserved path through which Nab2/ZC3H14 loss affects morphogenesis of both axons and dendrites in diverse species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edwin B Corgiat
- Department of Cell Biology, Emory University School of Medicine, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
- Department of Biology, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
- Genetics and Molecular Biology Graduate Program, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
| | - Sara M List
- Neuroscience Graduate Program, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
| | - J Christopher Rounds
- Department of Cell Biology, Emory University School of Medicine, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
- Department of Biology, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
- Genetics and Molecular Biology Graduate Program, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
| | - Dehong Yu
- Department of Cell Biology, Emory University School of Medicine, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
| | - Ping Chen
- Department of Cell Biology, Emory University School of Medicine, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
| | - Anita H Corbett
- Department of Biology, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
| | - Kenneth H Moberg
- Department of Cell Biology, Emory University School of Medicine, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
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15
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Agrawal S, Tuthill JC. The two-body problem: Proprioception and motor control across the metamorphic divide. Curr Opin Neurobiol 2022; 74:102546. [PMID: 35512562 DOI: 10.1016/j.conb.2022.102546] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2021] [Revised: 03/11/2022] [Accepted: 03/27/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Like a rocket being propelled into space, evolution has engineered flies to launch into adulthood via multiple stages. Flies develop and deploy two distinct bodies, linked by the transformative process of metamorphosis. The fly larva is a soft hydraulic tube that can crawl to find food and avoid predators. The adult fly has a stiff exoskeleton with articulated limbs that enable long-distance navigation and rich social interactions. Because the larval and adult forms are so distinct in structure, they require distinct strategies for sensing and moving the body. The metamorphic divide thus presents an opportunity for comparative analysis of neural circuits. Here, we review recent progress toward understanding the neural mechanisms of proprioception and motor control in larval and adult Drosophila. We highlight commonalities that point toward general principles of sensorimotor control and differences that may reflect unique constraints imposed by biomechanics. Finally, we discuss emerging opportunities for comparative analysis of neural circuit architecture in the fly and other animal species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sweta Agrawal
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA.
| | - John C Tuthill
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
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16
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Lesar A, Tahir J, Wolk J, Gershow M. Switch-like and persistent memory formation in individual Drosophila larvae. eLife 2021; 10:e70317. [PMID: 34636720 PMCID: PMC8510578 DOI: 10.7554/elife.70317] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2021] [Accepted: 08/27/2021] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Associative learning allows animals to use past experience to predict future events. The circuits underlying memory formation support immediate and sustained changes in function, often in response to a single example. Larval Drosophila is a genetic model for memory formation that can be accessed at molecular, synaptic, cellular, and circuit levels, often simultaneously, but existing behavioral assays for larval learning and memory do not address individual animals, and it has been difficult to form long-lasting memories, especially those requiring synaptic reorganization. We demonstrate a new assay for learning and memory capable of tracking the changing preferences of individual larvae. We use this assay to explore how activation of a pair of reward neurons changes the response to the innately aversive gas carbon dioxide (CO2). We confirm that when coupled to CO2 presentation in appropriate temporal sequence, optogenetic reward reduces avoidance of CO2. We find that learning is switch-like: all-or-none and quantized in two states. Memories can be extinguished by repeated unrewarded exposure to CO2 but are stabilized against extinction by repeated training or overnight consolidation. Finally, we demonstrate long-lasting protein synthesis dependent and independent memory formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amanda Lesar
- Department of Physics, New York UniversityNew YorkUnited States
| | - Javan Tahir
- Department of Physics, New York UniversityNew YorkUnited States
| | - Jason Wolk
- Department of Physics, New York UniversityNew YorkUnited States
| | - Marc Gershow
- Department of Physics, New York UniversityNew YorkUnited States
- Center for Neural Science, New York UniversityNew YorkUnited States
- NYU Neuroscience Institute, New York University Langone Medical CenterNew YorkUnited States
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17
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Komarov N, Sprecher SG. The chemosensory system of the Drosophila larva: an overview of current understanding. Fly (Austin) 2021; 16:1-12. [PMID: 34612150 PMCID: PMC8496535 DOI: 10.1080/19336934.2021.1953364] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Animals must sense their surroundings and be able to distinguish between relevant and irrelevant cues. An enticing area of research aims to uncover the mechanisms by which animals respond to chemical signals that constitute critical sensory input. In this review, we describe the principles of a model chemosensory system: the Drosophila larva. While distinct in many ways, larval behaviour is reminiscent of the dogmatic goals of life: to reach a stage of reproductive potential. It takes into account a number of distinct and identifiable parameters to ultimately provoke or modulate appropriate behavioural output. In this light, we describe current knowledge of chemosensory anatomy, genetic components, and the processing logic of chemical cues. We outline recent advancements and summarize the hypothesized neural circuits of sensory systems. Furthermore, we note yet-unanswered questions to create a basis for further investigation of molecular and systemic mechanisms of chemosensation in Drosophila and beyond.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nikita Komarov
- Institute of Cell and Developmental Biology, Department of Biology, University of Fribourg, Fribourg, Switzerland
| | - Simon G Sprecher
- Institute of Cell and Developmental Biology, Department of Biology, University of Fribourg, Fribourg, Switzerland
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18
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Thoener J, König C, Weiglein A, Toshima N, Mancini N, Amin F, Schleyer M. Associative learning in larval and adult Drosophila is impaired by the dopamine-synthesis inhibitor 3-Iodo-L-tyrosine. Biol Open 2021; 10:269081. [PMID: 34106227 PMCID: PMC8214425 DOI: 10.1242/bio.058198] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2020] [Accepted: 05/04/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Across the animal kingdom, dopamine plays a crucial role in conferring reinforcement signals that teach animals about the causal structure of the world. In the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster, dopaminergic reinforcement has largely been studied using genetics, whereas pharmacological approaches have received less attention. Here, we apply the dopamine-synthesis inhibitor 3-Iodo-L-tyrosine (3IY), which causes acute systemic inhibition of dopamine signaling, and investigate its effects on Pavlovian conditioning. We find that 3IY feeding impairs sugar-reward learning in larvae while leaving task-relevant behavioral faculties intact, and that additional feeding of a precursor of dopamine (L-3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine, L-DOPA), rescues this impairment. Concerning a different developmental stage and for the aversive valence domain. Moreover, we demonstrate that punishment learning by activating the dopaminergic neuron PPL1-γ1pedc in adult flies is also impaired by 3IY feeding, and can likewise be rescued by L-DOPA. Our findings exemplify the advantages of using a pharmacological approach in combination with the genetic techniques available in D. melanogaster to manipulate neuronal and behavioral function. Summary: We surveyed the effects of a dopamine-synthesis inhibitor on associative learning in larval and adult Drosophila. This approach can supplement genetic tools in investigating the conserved reinforcing function of dopamine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juliane Thoener
- Leibniz Institute for Neurobiology, Department of Genetics, 39118 Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Christian König
- Leibniz Institute for Neurobiology, Department of Genetics, 39118 Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Aliće Weiglein
- Leibniz Institute for Neurobiology, Department of Genetics, 39118 Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Naoko Toshima
- Leibniz Institute for Neurobiology, Department of Genetics, 39118 Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Nino Mancini
- Leibniz Institute for Neurobiology, Department of Genetics, 39118 Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Fatima Amin
- Leibniz Institute for Neurobiology, Department of Genetics, 39118 Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Michael Schleyer
- Leibniz Institute for Neurobiology, Department of Genetics, 39118 Magdeburg, Germany
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19
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Hückesfeld S, Schlegel P, Miroschnikow A, Schoofs A, Zinke I, Haubrich AN, Schneider-Mizell CM, Truman JW, Fetter RD, Cardona A, Pankratz MJ. Unveiling the sensory and interneuronal pathways of the neuroendocrine connectome in Drosophila. eLife 2021; 10:e65745. [PMID: 34085637 PMCID: PMC8177888 DOI: 10.7554/elife.65745] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2020] [Accepted: 05/19/2021] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Neuroendocrine systems in animals maintain organismal homeostasis and regulate stress response. Although a great deal of work has been done on the neuropeptides and hormones that are released and act on target organs in the periphery, the synaptic inputs onto these neuroendocrine outputs in the brain are less well understood. Here, we use the transmission electron microscopy reconstruction of a whole central nervous system in the Drosophila larva to elucidate the sensory pathways and the interneurons that provide synaptic input to the neurosecretory cells projecting to the endocrine organs. Predicted by network modeling, we also identify a new carbon dioxide-responsive network that acts on a specific set of neurosecretory cells and that includes those expressing corazonin (Crz) and diuretic hormone 44 (Dh44) neuropeptides. Our analysis reveals a neuronal network architecture for combinatorial action based on sensory and interneuronal pathways that converge onto distinct combinations of neuroendocrine outputs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sebastian Hückesfeld
- Department of Molecular Brain Physiology and Behavior, LIMES Institute, University of BonnBonnGermany
| | - Philipp Schlegel
- Department of Zoology, University of CambridgeCambridgeUnited Kingdom
| | - Anton Miroschnikow
- Department of Molecular Brain Physiology and Behavior, LIMES Institute, University of BonnBonnGermany
| | - Andreas Schoofs
- Department of Molecular Brain Physiology and Behavior, LIMES Institute, University of BonnBonnGermany
| | - Ingo Zinke
- Department of Molecular Brain Physiology and Behavior, LIMES Institute, University of BonnBonnGermany
| | - André N Haubrich
- Life & Brain, Institute for Experimental Epileptology and Cognition Research, University of Bonn Medical Center GermanyBonnGermany
| | | | - James W Truman
- Janelia Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical InstituteAshburnUnited States
| | - Richard D Fetter
- Janelia Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical InstituteAshburnUnited States
| | - Albert Cardona
- Janelia Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical InstituteAshburnUnited States
- MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Cambridge Biomedical Campus, Francis Crick AvenueCambridgeUnited Kingdom
- Department of Physiology, Development and NeuroscienceCambridgeUnited Kingdom
| | - Michael J Pankratz
- Department of Molecular Brain Physiology and Behavior, LIMES Institute, University of BonnBonnGermany
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20
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Weiglein A, Thoener J, Feldbruegge I, Warzog L, Mancini N, Schleyer M, Gerber B. Aversive teaching signals from individual dopamine neurons in larval Drosophila show qualitative differences in their temporal "fingerprint". J Comp Neurol 2021; 529:1553-1570. [PMID: 32965036 DOI: 10.1002/cne.25037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2020] [Revised: 09/14/2020] [Accepted: 09/15/2020] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
Dopamine serves many functions, and dopamine neurons are correspondingly diverse. We use a combination of optogenetics, behavioral experiments, and high-resolution video-tracking to probe for the functional capacities of two single, identified dopamine neurons in larval Drosophila. The DAN-f1 and the DAN-d1 neuron were recently found to carry aversive teaching signals during Pavlovian olfactory learning. We enquire into a fundamental feature of these teaching signals, namely their temporal "fingerprint". That is, receiving punishment feels bad, whereas being relieved from it feels good, and animals and humans alike learn with opposite valence about the occurrence and the termination of punishment (the same principle applies in the appetitive domain, with opposite sign). We find that DAN-f1 but not DAN-d1 can mediate such timing-dependent valence reversal: presenting an odor before DAN-f1 activation leads to learned avoidance of the odor (punishment memory), whereas presenting the odor upon termination of DAN-f1 activation leads to learned approach (relief memory). In contrast, DAN-d1 confers punishment memory only. These effects are further characterized in terms of the impact of the duration of optogenetic activation, the temporal stability of the memories thus established, and the specific microbehavioral patterns of locomotion through which they are expressed. Together with recent findings in the appetitive domain and from adult Drosophila, our results suggest that heterogeneity in the temporal fingerprint of teaching signals might be a more general principle of reinforcement processing through dopamine neurons.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aliće Weiglein
- Department of Genetics, Leibniz Institute for Neurobiology, Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Juliane Thoener
- Department of Genetics, Leibniz Institute for Neurobiology, Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Irina Feldbruegge
- Department of Genetics, Leibniz Institute for Neurobiology, Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Louisa Warzog
- Department of Genetics, Leibniz Institute for Neurobiology, Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Nino Mancini
- Department of Genetics, Leibniz Institute for Neurobiology, Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Michael Schleyer
- Department of Genetics, Leibniz Institute for Neurobiology, Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Bertram Gerber
- Department of Genetics, Leibniz Institute for Neurobiology, Magdeburg, Germany
- Institute of Biology, Otto von Guericke University Magdeburg, Germany
- Center for Behavioral Brain Sciences, Otto von Guericke University, Magdeburg, Germany
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21
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Raman DV, O'Leary T. Frozen algorithms: how the brain's wiring facilitates learning. Curr Opin Neurobiol 2021; 67:207-214. [PMID: 33508698 PMCID: PMC8202511 DOI: 10.1016/j.conb.2020.12.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2020] [Revised: 12/21/2020] [Accepted: 12/30/2020] [Indexed: 12/03/2022]
Abstract
Synapses and neural connectivity are plastic and shaped by experience. But to what extent does connectivity itself influence the ability of a neural circuit to learn? Insights from optimization theory and AI shed light on how learning can be implemented in neural circuits. Though abstract in their nature, learning algorithms provide a principled set of hypotheses on the necessary ingredients for learning in neural circuits. These include the kinds of signals and circuit motifs that enable learning from experience, as well as an appreciation of the constraints that make learning challenging in a biological setting. Remarkably, some simple connectivity patterns can boost the efficiency of relatively crude learning rules, showing how the brain can use anatomy to compensate for the biological constraints of known synaptic plasticity mechanisms. Modern connectomics provides rich data for exploring this principle, and may reveal how brain connectivity is constrained by the requirement to learn efficiently.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dhruva V Raman
- Department of Engineering, University of Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Timothy O'Leary
- Department of Engineering, University of Cambridge, United Kingdom.
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22
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Kobler O, Weiglein A, Hartung K, Chen YC, Gerber B, Thomas U. A quick and versatile protocol for the 3D visualization of transgene expression across the whole body of larval Drosophila. J Neurogenet 2021; 35:306-319. [PMID: 33688796 DOI: 10.1080/01677063.2021.1892096] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Larval Drosophila are used as a genetically accessible study case in many areas of biological research. Here we report a fast, robust and user-friendly procedure for the whole-body multi-fluorescence imaging of Drosophila larvae; the protocol has been optimized specifically for larvae by systematically tackling the pitfalls associated with clearing this small but cuticularized organism. Tests on various fluorescent proteins reveal that the recently introduced monomeric infrared fluorescent protein (mIFP) is particularly suitable for our approach. This approach comprises an effective, low-cost clearing protocol with minimal handling time and reduced toxicity in the reagents employed. It combines a success rate high enough to allow for small-scale screening approaches and a resolution sufficient for cellular-level analyses with light sheet and confocal microscopy. Given that publications and database documentations typically specify expression patterns of transgenic driver lines only within a given organ system of interest, the present procedure should be versatile enough to extend such documentation systematically to the whole body. As examples, the expression patterns of transgenic driver lines covering the majority of neurons, or subsets of chemosensory, central brain or motor neurons, are documented in the context of whole larval body volumes (using nsyb-Gal4, IR76b-Gal4, APL-Gal4 and mushroom body Kenyon cells, or OK371-Gal4, respectively). Notably, the presented protocol allows for triple-color fluorescence imaging with near-infrared, red and yellow fluorescent proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oliver Kobler
- Leibniz Institute for Neurobiology, Combinatorial NeuroImaging Core Facility (CNI), Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Aliće Weiglein
- Department of Genetics of Learning and Memory, Leibniz Institute for Neurobiology, Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Kathrin Hartung
- Department of Neurochemistry and Molecular Biology, Leibniz Institute for Neurobiology, Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Yi-Chun Chen
- Department of Genetics of Learning and Memory, Leibniz Institute for Neurobiology, Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Bertram Gerber
- Department of Genetics of Learning and Memory, Leibniz Institute for Neurobiology, Magdeburg, Germany.,Institute of Biology, Otto von Guericke University, Magdeburg, Germany.,Center for Behavioral Brain Sciences, Otto von Guericke University, Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Ulrich Thomas
- Department of Neurochemistry and Molecular Biology, Leibniz Institute for Neurobiology, Magdeburg, Germany.,Department of Cellular Neuroscience, Leibniz Institute for Neurobiology, Magdeburg, Germany
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23
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Palazzo O, Rass M, Brembs B. Identification of FoxP circuits involved in locomotion and object fixation in Drosophila. Open Biol 2020; 10:200295. [PMID: 33321059 PMCID: PMC7776582 DOI: 10.1098/rsob.200295] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The FoxP family of transcription factors is necessary for operant self-learning, an evolutionary conserved form of motor learning. The expression pattern, molecular function and mechanisms of action of the Drosophila FoxP orthologue remain to be elucidated. By editing the genomic locus of FoxP with CRISPR/Cas9, we find that the three different FoxP isoforms are expressed in neurons, but not in glia and that not all neurons express all isoforms. Furthermore, we detect FoxP expression in, e.g. the protocerebral bridge, the fan-shaped body and in motor neurons, but not in the mushroom bodies. Finally, we discover that FoxP expression during development, but not adulthood, is required for normal locomotion and landmark fixation in walking flies. While FoxP expression in the protocerebral bridge and motor neurons is involved in locomotion and landmark fixation, the FoxP gene can be excised from dorsal cluster neurons and mushroom-body Kenyon cells without affecting these behaviours.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ottavia Palazzo
- Institut für Zoologie - Neurogenetik, Universität Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany
| | - Mathias Rass
- Institut für Zoologie - Neurogenetik, Universität Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany
| | - Björn Brembs
- Institut für Zoologie - Neurogenetik, Universität Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany
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24
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Eschbach C, Zlatic M. Useful road maps: studying Drosophila larva's central nervous system with the help of connectomics. Curr Opin Neurobiol 2020; 65:129-137. [PMID: 33242722 PMCID: PMC7773133 DOI: 10.1016/j.conb.2020.09.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2020] [Revised: 09/21/2020] [Accepted: 09/24/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
The larva of Drosophila melanogaster is emerging as a powerful model system for comprehensive brain-wide understanding of the circuit implementation of neural computations. With an unprecedented amount of tools in hand, including synaptic-resolution connectomics, whole-brain imaging, and genetic tools for selective targeting of single neuron types, it is possible to dissect which circuits and computations are at work behind behaviors that have an interesting level of complexity. Here we present some of the recent advances regarding multisensory integration, learning, and action selection in Drosophila larva.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claire Eschbach
- Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, United Kingdom.
| | - Marta Zlatic
- Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, United Kingdom; MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology, United Kingdom.
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25
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Eschment M, Franz HR, Güllü N, Hölscher LG, Huh KE, Widmann A. Insulin signaling represents a gating mechanism between different memory phases in Drosophila larvae. PLoS Genet 2020; 16:e1009064. [PMID: 33104728 PMCID: PMC7644093 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1009064] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2019] [Revised: 11/05/2020] [Accepted: 08/19/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The ability to learn new skills and to store them as memory entities is one of the most impressive features of higher evolved organisms. However, not all memories are created equal; some are short-lived forms, and some are longer lasting. Formation of the latter is energetically costly and by the reason of restricted availability of food or fluctuations in energy expanses, efficient metabolic homeostasis modulating different needs like survival, growth, reproduction, or investment in longer lasting memories is crucial. Whilst equipped with cellular and molecular pre-requisites for formation of a protein synthesis dependent long-term memory (LTM), its existence in the larval stage of Drosophila remains elusive. Considering it from the viewpoint that larval brain structures are completely rebuilt during metamorphosis, and that this process depends completely on accumulated energy stores formed during the larval stage, investing in LTM represents an unnecessary expenditure. However, as an alternative, Drosophila larvae are equipped with the capacity to form a protein synthesis independent so-called larval anaesthesia resistant memory (lARM), which is consolidated in terms of being insensitive to cold-shock treatments. Motivated by the fact that LTM formation causes an increase in energy uptake in Drosophila adults, we tested the idea of whether an energy surplus can induce the formation of LTM in the larval stage. Suprisingly, increasing the metabolic state by feeding Drosophila larvae the disaccharide sucrose directly before aversive olfactory conditioning led to the formation of a protein synthesis dependent longer lasting memory. Moreover, formation of this memory component is accompanied by the suppression of lARM. We ascertained that insulin receptors (InRs) expressed in the mushroom body Kenyon cells suppresses the formation of lARM and induces the formation of a protein synthesis dependent longer lasting memory in Drosophila larvae. Given the numerical simplicity of the larval nervous system this work offers a unique prospect to study the impact of insulin signaling on the formation of protein synthesis dependent memories on a molecular level.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melanie Eschment
- Department of Biology, University of Konstanz, Konstanz, Germany
| | - Hanna R. Franz
- Department of Molecular Neurobiology of Behavior, University of Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Nazlı Güllü
- Department of Biology, University of Konstanz, Konstanz, Germany
| | - Luis G. Hölscher
- Department of Molecular Neurobiology of Behavior, University of Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Ko-Eun Huh
- Department of Molecular Neurobiology of Behavior, University of Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Annekathrin Widmann
- Department of Biology, University of Konstanz, Konstanz, Germany
- Department of Molecular Neurobiology of Behavior, University of Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
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26
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Michels B, Franke K, Weiglein A, Sultani H, Gerber B, Wessjohann LA. Rewarding compounds identified from the medicinal plant Rhodiola rosea. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2020; 223:223/16/jeb223982. [PMID: 32848044 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.223982] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2020] [Accepted: 06/23/2020] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Preparations of Rhodiola rosea root are widely used in traditional medicine. They can increase life span in worms and flies, and have various effects related to nervous system function in different animal species and humans. However, which of the compounds in R. rosea is mediating any one of these effects has remained unknown in most cases. Here, an analysis of the volatile and non-volatile low-molecular-weight constituents of R. rosea root samples was accompanied by an investigation of their behavioral impact on Drosophila melanogaster larvae. Rhodiola rosea root samples have an attractive smell and taste to the larvae, and exert a rewarding effect. This rewarding effect was also observed for R. rosea root extracts, and did not require activity of dopamine neurons that mediate known rewards such as sugar. Based on the chemical profiles of R. rosea root extracts and resultant fractions, a bioactivity-correlation analysis (AcorA) was performed to identify candidate rewarding compounds. This suggested positive correlations for - among related compounds - ferulic acid eicosyl ester (FAE-20) and β-sitosterol glucoside. A validation using these as pure compounds confirmed that the correlations were causal. Their rewarding effects can be observed even at low micromolar concentrations and thus at remarkably lower doses than for any known taste reward in the larva. We discuss whether similar rewarding effects, should they be observed in humans, would indicate a habit-forming or addictive potential.
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Affiliation(s)
- Birgit Michels
- Leibniz Institute for Neurobiology (LIN), Department Genetics of Learning and Memory, 39118 Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Katrin Franke
- Leibniz Institute of Plant Biochemistry (IPB), Department of Bioorganic Chemistry, 06120 Halle (Saale), Germany
| | - Aliće Weiglein
- Leibniz Institute for Neurobiology (LIN), Department Genetics of Learning and Memory, 39118 Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Haider Sultani
- Leibniz Institute of Plant Biochemistry (IPB), Department of Bioorganic Chemistry, 06120 Halle (Saale), Germany
| | - Bertram Gerber
- Leibniz Institute for Neurobiology (LIN), Department Genetics of Learning and Memory, 39118 Magdeburg, Germany .,Otto von Guericke University, Institute of Biology, 39106 Magdeburg, Germany.,Center for Behavioral Brain Sciences (CBBS), Otto von Guericke University, 39106 Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Ludger A Wessjohann
- Leibniz Institute of Plant Biochemistry (IPB), Department of Bioorganic Chemistry, 06120 Halle (Saale), Germany
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Schleyer M, Weiglein A, Thoener J, Strauch M, Hartenstein V, Kantar Weigelt M, Schuller S, Saumweber T, Eichler K, Rohwedder A, Merhof D, Zlatic M, Thum AS, Gerber B. Identification of Dopaminergic Neurons That Can Both Establish Associative Memory and Acutely Terminate Its Behavioral Expression. J Neurosci 2020; 40:5990-6006. [PMID: 32586949 PMCID: PMC7392503 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.0290-20.2020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2020] [Revised: 04/14/2020] [Accepted: 05/19/2020] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
An adaptive transition from exploring the environment in search of vital resources to exploiting these resources once the search was successful is important to all animals. Here we study the neuronal circuitry that allows larval Drosophila melanogaster of either sex to negotiate this exploration-exploitation transition. We do so by combining Pavlovian conditioning with high-resolution behavioral tracking, optogenetic manipulation of individually identified neurons, and EM data-based analyses of synaptic organization. We find that optogenetic activation of the dopaminergic neuron DAN-i1 can both establish memory during training and acutely terminate learned search behavior in a subsequent recall test. Its activation leaves innate behavior unaffected, however. Specifically, DAN-i1 activation can establish associative memories of opposite valence after paired and unpaired training with odor, and its activation during the recall test can terminate the search behavior resulting from either of these memories. Our results further suggest that in its behavioral significance DAN-i1 activation resembles, but does not equal, sugar reward. Dendrogram analyses of all the synaptic connections between DAN-i1 and its two main targets, the Kenyon cells and the mushroom body output neuron MBON-i1, further suggest that the DAN-i1 signals during training and during the recall test could be delivered to the Kenyon cells and to MBON-i1, respectively, within previously unrecognized, locally confined branching structures. This would provide an elegant circuit motif to terminate search on its successful completion.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT In the struggle for survival, animals have to explore their environment in search of food. Once food is found, however, it is adaptive to prioritize exploiting it over continuing a search that would now be as pointless as searching for the glasses you are wearing. This exploration-exploitation trade-off is important for animals and humans, as well as for technical search devices. We investigate which of the only 10,000 neurons of a fruit fly larva can tip the balance in this trade-off, and identify a single dopamine neuron called DAN-i1 that can do so. Given the similarities in dopamine neuron function across the animal kingdom, this may reflect a general principle of how search is terminated once it is successful.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Schleyer
- Leibniz Institute for Neurobiology, Department Genetics of Learning and Memory, 39118 Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Aliće Weiglein
- Leibniz Institute for Neurobiology, Department Genetics of Learning and Memory, 39118 Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Juliane Thoener
- Leibniz Institute for Neurobiology, Department Genetics of Learning and Memory, 39118 Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Martin Strauch
- Institute of Imaging & Computer Vision, RWTH Aachen University, 52056 Aachen, Germany
| | - Volker Hartenstein
- Department of Molecular, Cell and Developmental Biology, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90095-1606
| | - Melisa Kantar Weigelt
- Leibniz Institute for Neurobiology, Department Genetics of Learning and Memory, 39118 Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Sarah Schuller
- Leibniz Institute for Neurobiology, Department Genetics of Learning and Memory, 39118 Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Timo Saumweber
- Leibniz Institute for Neurobiology, Department Genetics of Learning and Memory, 39118 Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Katharina Eichler
- University of Konstanz, Institute for Biology, 78464 Konstanz, Germany
- HHMI Janelia Research Campus, Ashburn, Virginia 20147
- Institute of Neurobiology, University of Puerto Rico Medical Science Campus, Old San Juan, Puerto Rico 00901
| | - Astrid Rohwedder
- University of Konstanz, Institute for Biology, 78464 Konstanz, Germany
- Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 3EJ, United Kingdom
| | - Dorit Merhof
- Institute of Imaging & Computer Vision, RWTH Aachen University, 52056 Aachen, Germany
| | - Marta Zlatic
- HHMI Janelia Research Campus, Ashburn, Virginia 20147
- Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 3EJ, United Kingdom
| | - Andreas S Thum
- University of Konstanz, Institute for Biology, 78464 Konstanz, Germany
- University Leipzig, Institute for Biology, 04103 Leipzig, Germany
| | - Bertram Gerber
- Leibniz Institute for Neurobiology, Department Genetics of Learning and Memory, 39118 Magdeburg, Germany
- Centre for Behavioural Brain Sciences, 39108 Magdeburg, Germany
- Institute for Biology, Otto von Guericke University Magdeburg, 39106 Magdeburg, Germany
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28
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Miroschnikow A, Schlegel P, Pankratz MJ. Making Feeding Decisions in the Drosophila Nervous System. Curr Biol 2020; 30:R831-R840. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2020.06.036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
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29
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Baral SS, Lieux ME, DiMario PJ. Nucleolar stress in Drosophila neuroblasts, a model for human ribosomopathies. Biol Open 2020; 9:bio046565. [PMID: 32184230 PMCID: PMC7197718 DOI: 10.1242/bio.046565] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2019] [Accepted: 03/03/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Different stem cells or progenitor cells display variable threshold requirements for functional ribosomes. This is particularly true for several human ribosomopathies in which select embryonic neural crest cells or adult bone marrow stem cells, but not others, show lethality due to failures in ribosome biogenesis or function (now known as nucleolar stress). To determine if various Drosophila neuroblasts display differential sensitivities to nucleolar stress, we used CRISPR-Cas9 to disrupt the Nopp140 gene that encodes two splice variant ribosome biogenesis factors (RBFs). Disruption of Nopp140 induced nucleolar stress that arrested larvae in the second instar stage. While the majority of larval neuroblasts arrested development, the mushroom body (MB) neuroblasts continued to proliferate as shown by their maintenance of deadpan, a neuroblast-specific transcription factor, and by their continued EdU incorporation. MB neuroblasts in wild-type larvae appeared to contain more fibrillarin and Nopp140 in their nucleoli as compared to other neuroblasts, indicating that MB neuroblasts stockpile RBFs as they proliferate in late embryogenesis while other neuroblasts normally enter quiescence. A greater abundance of Nopp140 encoded by maternal transcripts in Nopp140-/- MB neuroblasts of 1----2-day-old larvae likely rendered these cells more resilient to nucleolar stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sonu Shrestha Baral
- Department of Biological Sciences, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA 70803, USA
| | - Molly E Lieux
- Department of Biological Sciences, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA 70803, USA
| | - Patrick J DiMario
- Department of Biological Sciences, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA 70803, USA
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30
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Eschbach C, Fushiki A, Winding M, Schneider-Mizell CM, Shao M, Arruda R, Eichler K, Valdes-Aleman J, Ohyama T, Thum AS, Gerber B, Fetter RD, Truman JW, Litwin-Kumar A, Cardona A, Zlatic M. Recurrent architecture for adaptive regulation of learning in the insect brain. Nat Neurosci 2020; 23:544-555. [PMID: 32203499 PMCID: PMC7145459 DOI: 10.1038/s41593-020-0607-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2019] [Accepted: 02/06/2020] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Dopaminergic neurons (DANs) drive learning across the animal kingdom, but the upstream circuits that regulate their activity and thereby learning remain poorly understood. We provide a synaptic-resolution connectome of the circuitry upstream of all DANs in a learning center, the mushroom body of Drosophila larva. We discover afferent sensory pathways and a large population of neurons that provide feedback from mushroom body output neurons and link distinct memory systems (aversive and appetitive). We combine this with functional studies of DANs and their presynaptic partners and with comprehensive circuit modeling. We find that DANs compare convergent feedback from aversive and appetitive systems, which enables the computation of integrated predictions that may improve future learning. Computational modeling reveals that the discovered feedback motifs increase model flexibility and performance on learning tasks. Our study provides the most detailed view to date of biological circuit motifs that support associative learning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claire Eschbach
- HHMI Janelia Research Campus, Ashburn, VA, USA
- Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Akira Fushiki
- HHMI Janelia Research Campus, Ashburn, VA, USA
- Departments of Neuroscience and Neurology, Zuckerman Mind Brain Behavior Institute, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Michael Winding
- HHMI Janelia Research Campus, Ashburn, VA, USA
- Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Casey M Schneider-Mizell
- HHMI Janelia Research Campus, Ashburn, VA, USA
- Allen Institute for Brain Science, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Mei Shao
- HHMI Janelia Research Campus, Ashburn, VA, USA
| | | | - Katharina Eichler
- HHMI Janelia Research Campus, Ashburn, VA, USA
- Institute of Neurobiology, University of Puerto Rico Medical Science Campus, San Juan, Puerto Rico, USA
| | | | - Tomoko Ohyama
- HHMI Janelia Research Campus, Ashburn, VA, USA
- Department of Biology, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Andreas S Thum
- Department of Genetics, Institute for Biology, University of Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Bertram Gerber
- Abteilung Genetik von Lernen & Gedächtnis, Leibniz Institut für Neurobiologie, Otto von Guericke University Magdeburg, Institut für Biologie, Verhaltensgenetik, & Center for Behavioral Brain Sciences, Magdeburg, Germany
| | | | - James W Truman
- HHMI Janelia Research Campus, Ashburn, VA, USA
- Department of Biology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Ashok Litwin-Kumar
- Department of Neuroscience, Zuckerman Mind Brain Behavior Institute, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA.
| | - Albert Cardona
- HHMI Janelia Research Campus, Ashburn, VA, USA.
- MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Cambridge, UK.
- Department of Physiology, Development & Neuroscience, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK.
| | - Marta Zlatic
- HHMI Janelia Research Campus, Ashburn, VA, USA.
- Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK.
- MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Cambridge, UK.
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31
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Brünner B, Saumweber J, Samur M, Weber D, Schumann I, Mahishi D, Rohwedder A, Thum AS. Food restriction reconfigures naïve and learned choice behavior in Drosophila larvae. J Neurogenet 2020; 34:123-132. [PMID: 31975653 DOI: 10.1080/01677063.2020.1714612] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
In many animals, the establishment and expression of food-related memory is limited by the presence of food and promoted by its absence, implying that this behavior is driven by motivation. In the past, this has already been demonstrated in various insects including honeybees and adult Drosophila. For Drosophila larvae, which are characterized by an immense growth and the resulting need for constant food intake, however, knowledge is rather limited. Accordingly, we have analyzed whether starvation modulates larval memory formation or expression after appetitive classical olfactory conditioning, in which an odor is associated with a sugar reward. We show that odor-sugar memory of starved larvae lasts longer than in fed larvae, although the initial performance is comparable. 80 minutes after odor fructose conditioning, only starved but not fed larvae show a reliable odor-fructose memory. This is likely due to a specific increase in the stability of anesthesia-resistant memory (ARM). Furthermore, we observe that starved larvae, in contrast to fed ones, prefer sugars that offer a nutritional benefit in addition to their sweetness. Taken together our work shows that Drosophila larvae adjust the expression of learned and naïve choice behaviors in the absence of food. These effects are only short-lasting probably due to their lifestyle and their higher internal motivation to feed. In the future, the extensive use of established genetic tools will allow us to identify development-specific differences arising at the neuronal and molecular level.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benita Brünner
- Department of Genetics, University of Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany
| | | | - Merve Samur
- Department of Genetics, University of Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany.,Faculty of Engineering and Natural Sciences, Üsküdar University, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Denise Weber
- Department of Genetics, University of Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany
| | | | - Deepthi Mahishi
- Department of Genetics, University of Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany
| | | | - Andreas S Thum
- Department of Genetics, University of Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany
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32
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Impedance Measures and a Mounting Technique for Drosophila: Larval Movements, Heart Rate, Imaging, and Electrophysiology. Methods Protoc 2020; 3:mps3010012. [PMID: 31991683 PMCID: PMC7189670 DOI: 10.3390/mps3010012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2019] [Revised: 01/19/2020] [Accepted: 01/20/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Monitoring movements of larval Drosophila with electrical detection allows one to record the behaviors without the use of lights and cameras. This is a suitable technique when studying the use of light-sensitive proteins in optogenetic studies. Electrical measures are feasible to use in determining when a larva starts to move or continues to move after a light induced activation of channelrhodopsin. We have developed a technique using an electrical measure of the media as an index of larval movement. As a proof of concept, recordings with an infrared camera of the larval movement were simultaneous made with electrical measures. The two techniques parallel each other in their ability to index larval movements. Bright light-emitting diode (LED) lights used in optogenetic experiments tend to saturate the detectors of the camera unless filters are used and different filters maybe necessary depending on the LED spectrum and sensitivity of the camera. Impedance measures are independent of the type of LED or brightness. We also assessed the use of a non-solvent based glue (3M Vetbond) to hold larvae in place while measuring synaptic function of neuromuscular junctions, cardiac function and influence of modulators, or activation of light-sensitive channels.
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33
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The Drosophila melanogaster as Genetic Model System to Dissect the Mechanisms of Disease that Lead to Neurodegeneration in Adrenoleukodystrophy. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2020; 1299:145-159. [PMID: 33417213 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-030-60204-8_11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Drosophila melanogaster is the most successful genetic model organism to study different human disease with a recent increased popularity to study neurological disorders. Drosophila melanogaster has a complex yet well-defined brain with defined anatomical regions with specific functions. The neuronal network in the adult brain has a structural organization highly similar to human neurons, but in a brain that is much more amenable for complex analyses. The availability of sophisticated genetic tools to study neurons permits to examine neuronal functions at the single cell level in the whole brain by confocal imaging, which does not require sections. Thus, Drosophila has been used to successfully study many neurological disorders such as Parkinson's disease and has been recently adopted to understand the complex networks leading to neurological disorders with metabolic origins such as Leigh disease and X-linked adrenoleukodystrophy (X-ALD).In this review, we will describe the genetic tools available to study neuronal structures and functions and also illustrate some limitations of the system. Finally, we will report the experimental efforts that in the past 10 years have established Drosophila melanogaster as an excellent model organism to study neurodegenerative disorders focusing on X-ALD.
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Toshima N, Kantar Weigelt M, Weiglein A, Boetzl FA, Gerber B. An amino-acid mixture can be both rewarding and punishing to larval Drosophila melanogaster. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2019; 222:jeb.209486. [PMID: 31672727 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.209486] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2019] [Accepted: 10/24/2019] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Amino acids are important nutrients for animals because they are necessary for protein synthesis in particular during growth, as well as for neurotransmission. However, little is known about how animals use past experience to guide their search for amino-acid-rich food. We reasoned that the larvae of Drosophila melanogaster are suitable for investigating this topic because they are the feeding and growth stages in the life cycle of these holometabolous insects. Specifically, we investigated whether experiencing an odour with a 20 amino-acid mixture as a semi-natural tastant during training establishes odour-tastant associative memories. Across a broad concentration range (0.01-20 mmol l-1), such an amino-acid mixture was found to have a rewarding effect, establishing appetitive memory for the odour. To our surprise, however, manipulation of the test conditions revealed that relatively high concentrations of the amino-acid mixture (3.3 mmol l-1 and higher) in addition establish aversive memory for the odour. We then characterized both of these oppositely valenced memories in terms of their dependency on the number of training trials, their temporal stability, their modulation through starvation and the specific changes in locomotion underlying them. Collectively, and in the light of what is known about the neuronal organization of odour-food memory in larval D . melanogaster, our data suggest that these memories are established in parallel. We discuss the similarity of our results to what has been reported for sodium chloride, and the possible neurogenetic bases for concentration-dependent changes in valence when these tastants are used as reinforcers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Naoko Toshima
- Department Genetics of Learning and Memory, Leibniz Institute for Neurobiology (LIN), Brenneckestrasse 6, 39118 Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Melisa Kantar Weigelt
- Department Genetics of Learning and Memory, Leibniz Institute for Neurobiology (LIN), Brenneckestrasse 6, 39118 Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Aliće Weiglein
- Department Genetics of Learning and Memory, Leibniz Institute for Neurobiology (LIN), Brenneckestrasse 6, 39118 Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Fabian A Boetzl
- Department of Animal Ecology and Tropical Biology, Biocenter, University of Würzburg, Am Hubland, 97074 Würzburg, Germany
| | - Bertram Gerber
- Department Genetics of Learning and Memory, Leibniz Institute for Neurobiology (LIN), Brenneckestrasse 6, 39118 Magdeburg, Germany.,Institute for Biology, Otto von Guericke University Magdeburg, Universitätsplatz 2, 39106 Magdeburg, Germany.,Center for Behavioral Brain Sciences (CBBS), 39106 Magdeburg, Germany
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35
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Mancini N, Hranova S, Weber J, Weiglein A, Schleyer M, Weber D, Thum AS, Gerber B. Reversal learning in Drosophila larvae. Learn Mem 2019; 26:424-435. [PMID: 31615854 PMCID: PMC6796787 DOI: 10.1101/lm.049510.119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2019] [Accepted: 08/09/2019] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Adjusting behavior to changed environmental contingencies is critical for survival, and reversal learning provides an experimental handle on such cognitive flexibility. Here, we investigate reversal learning in larval Drosophila Using odor-taste associations, we establish olfactory reversal learning in the appetitive and the aversive domain, using either fructose as a reward or high-concentration sodium chloride as a punishment, respectively. Reversal learning is demonstrated both in differential and in absolute conditioning, in either valence domain. In differential conditioning, the animals are first trained such that an odor A is paired, for example, with the reward whereas odor B is not (A+/B); this is followed by a second training phase with reversed contingencies (A/B+). In absolute conditioning, odor B is omitted, such that the animals are first trained with paired presentations of A and reward, followed by unpaired training in the second training phase. Our results reveal "true" reversal learning in that the opposite associative effects of both the first and the second training phase are detectable after reversed-contingency training. In what is a surprisingly quick, one-trial contingency adjustment in the Drosophila larva, the present study establishes a simple and genetically easy accessible study case of cognitive flexibility.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nino Mancini
- Department of Genetics, Leibniz Institute for Neurobiology (LIN), 39118 Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Sia Hranova
- Institute for Biology, University of Leipzig, 04103 Leipzig, Germany
| | - Julia Weber
- Department of Genetics, Leibniz Institute for Neurobiology (LIN), 39118 Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Aliće Weiglein
- Department of Genetics, Leibniz Institute for Neurobiology (LIN), 39118 Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Michael Schleyer
- Department of Genetics, Leibniz Institute for Neurobiology (LIN), 39118 Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Denise Weber
- Institute for Biology, University of Leipzig, 04103 Leipzig, Germany
| | - Andreas S Thum
- Institute for Biology, University of Leipzig, 04103 Leipzig, Germany
| | - Bertram Gerber
- Department of Genetics, Leibniz Institute for Neurobiology (LIN), 39118 Magdeburg, Germany
- Institute for Biology, Otto von Guericke University, 39106 Magdeburg, Germany
- Center for Behavioral Brain Sciences (CBBS), 39106 Magdeburg, Germany
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Thane M, Viswanathan V, Meyer TC, Paisios E, Schleyer M. Modulations of microbehaviour by associative memory strength in Drosophila larvae. PLoS One 2019; 14:e0224154. [PMID: 31634372 PMCID: PMC6802848 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0224154] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2019] [Accepted: 10/07/2019] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Finding food is a vital skill and a constant task for any animal, and associative learning of food-predicting cues gives an advantage in this daily struggle. The strength of the associations between cues and food depends on a number of parameters, such as the salience of the cue, the strength of the food reward and the number of joint cue-food experiences. We investigate what impact the strength of an associative odour-sugar memory has on the microbehaviour of Drosophila melanogaster larvae. We find that larvae form stronger memories with increasing concentrations of sugar or odour, and that these stronger memories manifest themselves in stronger modulations of two aspects of larval microbehaviour, the rate and the direction of lateral reorientation manoeuvres (so-called head casts). These two modulations of larval behaviour are found to be correlated to each other in every experiment performed, which is in line with a model that assumes that both modulations are controlled by a common motor output. Given that the Drosophila larva is a genetically tractable model organism that is well suited to the study of simple circuits at the single-cell level, these analyses can guide future research into the neuronal circuits underlying the translation of associative memories of different strength into behaviour, and may help to understand how these processes are organised in more complex systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Thane
- Leibniz Institute for Neurobiology (LIN), Department Genetics of Learning and Memory, Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Vignesh Viswanathan
- Leibniz Institute for Neurobiology (LIN), Department Genetics of Learning and Memory, Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Tessa Christin Meyer
- Leibniz Institute for Neurobiology (LIN), Department Genetics of Learning and Memory, Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Emmanouil Paisios
- Leibniz Institute for Neurobiology (LIN), Department Genetics of Learning and Memory, Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Michael Schleyer
- Leibniz Institute for Neurobiology (LIN), Department Genetics of Learning and Memory, Magdeburg, Germany
- * E-mail:
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Weiglein A, Gerstner F, Mancini N, Schleyer M, Gerber B. One-trial learning in larval Drosophila. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2019; 26:109-120. [PMID: 30898973 PMCID: PMC6432171 DOI: 10.1101/lm.049106.118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2018] [Accepted: 02/25/2019] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
Animals of many species are capable of “small data” learning, that is, of learning without repetition. Here we introduce larval Drosophila melanogaster as a relatively simple study case for such one-trial learning. Using odor-food associative conditioning, we first show that a sugar that is both sweet and nutritious (fructose) and sugars that are only sweet (arabinose) or only nutritious (sorbitol) all support appetitive one-trial learning. The same is the case for the optogenetic activation of a subset of dopaminergic neurons innervating the mushroom body, the memory center of the insects. In contrast, no one-trial learning is observed for an amino acid reward (aspartic acid). As regards the aversive domain, one-trial learning is demonstrated for high-concentration sodium chloride, but is not observed for a bitter tastant (quinine). Second, we provide follow-up, parametric analyses of odor-fructose learning. Specifically, we ascertain its dependency on the number and duration of training trials, the requirements for the behavioral expression of one-trial odor-fructose memory, its temporal stability, and the feasibility of one-trial differential conditioning. Our results set the stage for a neurogenetic analysis of one-trial learning and define the requirements for modeling mnemonic processes in the larva.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aliće Weiglein
- Department of Genetics, Leibniz Institute for Neurobiology, 39118 Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Florian Gerstner
- Department of Genetics, Leibniz Institute for Neurobiology, 39118 Magdeburg, Germany.,Department of Animal Physiology, University Bayreuth, 95447 Bayreuth, Germany
| | - Nino Mancini
- Department of Genetics, Leibniz Institute for Neurobiology, 39118 Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Michael Schleyer
- Department of Genetics, Leibniz Institute for Neurobiology, 39118 Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Bertram Gerber
- Department of Genetics, Leibniz Institute for Neurobiology, 39118 Magdeburg, Germany.,Institute of Biology, Otto von Guericke University Magdeburg, 39106 Magdeburg, Germany.,Center for Behavioral Brain Sciences, 39106 Magdeburg, Germany
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Waddell S, Sjöström PJ. Editorial overview: Neurobiology of learning and plasticity. Curr Opin Neurobiol 2019; 54:iii-vi. [PMID: 30712705 DOI: 10.1016/j.conb.2019.01.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Scott Waddell
- University of Oxford, Centre for Neural Circuits and Behaviour, Tinsley Building, Mansfield Road, Oxford, OX1 3TA, United Kingdom.
| | - Per Jesper Sjöström
- Centre for Research in Neuroscience, Department of Medicine, The Research Institute of the McGill University Health Centre, Montréal, Québec, Canada.
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Triphan T, Thum AS. Connectomics: Arrested Development. Curr Biol 2019; 29:R90-R92. [PMID: 30721681 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2018.11.069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Connectomics, the reconstruction of neuronal wiring diagrams via electron microscopy, is bringing us closer to understanding how brains organize behavior. But high-resolution imaging of the brain can do more. A new study now provides insights into how neuronal circuits develop.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tilman Triphan
- University of Leipzig, Institute for Biology, Talstraße 33, 04103 Leipzig, Germany.
| | - Andreas S Thum
- University of Leipzig, Institute for Biology, Talstraße 33, 04103 Leipzig, Germany.
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Brain evolution in social insects: advocating for the comparative approach. J Comp Physiol A Neuroethol Sens Neural Behav Physiol 2019; 205:13-32. [DOI: 10.1007/s00359-019-01315-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2018] [Revised: 01/09/2019] [Accepted: 01/11/2019] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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