Effects of working memory training on functional connectivity and cerebral blood flow during rest

Timescales of learning in prefrontal cortex

The lateral prefrontal cortex (PFC) in humans and other primates is critical for immediate, goal-directed behaviour and working memory, which are classically considered distinct from the cognitive and neural circuits that support long-term learning and memory. Over the past few years, a reconsideration of this textbook perspective has emerged, in that different timescales of memory-guided behaviour are in constant interaction during the pursuit of immediate goals. Here, we will first detail how neural activity related to the shortest timescales of goal-directed behaviour (which requires maintenance of current states and goals in working memory) is sculpted by long-term knowledge and learning - that is, how the past informs present behaviour. Then, we will outline how learning across different timescales (from seconds to years) drives plasticity in the primate lateral PFC, from single neuron firing rates to mesoscale neuroimaging activity patterns. Finally, we will review how, over days and months of learning, dense local and long-range connectivity patterns in PFC facilitate longer-lasting changes in population activity by changing synaptic weights and recruiting additional neural resources to inform future behaviour. Our Review sheds light on how the machinery of plasticity in PFC circuits facilitates the integration of learned experiences across time to best guide adaptive behaviour.

Change in Resting-State Functional Connectivity Following Working Memory Training in Individuals With Repetitive Negative Thinking

BACKGROUND

Repetitive negative thinking (RNT) symptoms, which are characterized by pervasive, uncontrollable negative thoughts, are common in individuals with mood, anxiety, and traumatic stress disorders. Inability to regulate the contents of working memory is a hypothesized etiological factor in RNT, which suggests that training to improve working memory may be beneficial. This study examined the effects of working memory training on resting-state functional connectivity (rsFC) in individuals with elevated RNT and whether such changes would be associated with clinical improvement.

METHODS

We conducted a secondary analysis of pre-post resting-state data collected as part of a randomized controlled trial (NCT04912089) of working memory training interventions (n = 42) compared with a waitlist control group (n = 23). We hypothesized that individuals who completed training would show increased rsFC between the 2 key intrinsic connectivity networks-the default mode network (posterior cingulate cortex) and the frontoparietal network (dorsolateral prefrontal cortex). We explored whether the magnitude of rsFC change was associated with change in RNT symptom severity.

RESULTS

rsFC increased between the posterior cingulate cortex and regions including the frontal and parietal cortex in the training group compared with the waitlist group. Increased connectivity between the posterior cingulate cortex and superior frontal cortex was associated with RNT symptom reduction.

CONCLUSIONS

These data provide evidence that working memory training can modulate neural circuitry at rest in individuals with RNT. Results are consistent with accounts of working memory training effects on large-scale neurocircuitry changes and suggest that these changes may contribute to clinical promise of this type of intervention on transdiagnostic RNT symptoms.

The effect of cognitive training on children with attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder: A meta-analysis

OBJECTIVE

This document is a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials that evaluated the effect of cognitive training interventions on attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) symptoms.

METHODS

A systematic literature search was conducted using databases such as PubMed, Web of Science, and Embase from the inception of each database to April 28, 2022. Data were analyzed using Stata 15 software. The risk of bias assessment was conducted using five domains from the Cochrane Collaborations tool.

RESULTS

A total of 10 studies with 446 children with ADHD were included. The results showed that cognitive training was effective in improving attention symptoms [SMD= -0.78 (95% CI: -1.46, -0.1)] and executive function [SMD = -0.3 (95% CI: -0.56, -0.05)] in children with ADHD compared to controls. No significant difference in the degree of improvement in hyperactivity/impulsivity with cognitive training compared to the control group [SMD = -0.65 (95% CI: -1.35, 0.05)]. In addition, subgroup analyses also found that cognitive training significantly improved attention in children with ADHD <10 years of age [SMD = -1.3 (95% CI: -2.58, -0.02)] and children with ADHD with length of training >30 days [SMD = -0.94 (95% CI: -1.81, -0.07)] compared to controls.

CONCLUSION

This meta-analysis found that the beneficial effects of cognitive training on attention (particularly for children with ADHD <10 years old and >30 days of training) and executive function in children with ADHD, but not on hyperactivity/impulsivity.

Changes in brain perfusion with training-related visuomotor improvement in MS

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a chronic inflammatory disease of the central nervous system. A better understanding of the mechanisms supporting brain plasticity in MS would help to develop targeted interventions to promote recovery. A total of 29 MS patients and 19 healthy volunteers underwent clinical assessment and multi-modal MRI acquisition [fMRI during serial reaction time task (SRT), DWI, T1w structural scans and ASL of resting perfusion] at baseline and after 4-weeks of SRT training. Reduction of functional hyperactivation was observed in MS patients following the training, shown by the stronger reduction of the BOLD response during task execution compared to healthy volunteers. The functional reorganization was accompanied by a positive correlation between improvements in task accuracy and the change in resting perfusion after 4 weeks' training in right angular and supramarginal gyri in MS patients. No longitudinal changes in WM and GM measures and no correlation between task performance improvements and brain structure were observed in MS patients. Our results highlight a potential role for CBF as an early marker of plasticity, in terms of functional (cortical reorganization) and behavioral (performance improvement) changes in MS patients that may help to guide future interventions that exploit preserved plasticity mechanisms.

Common Mechanisms of Learning in Motor and Cognitive Systems

Rapid progress in our understanding of the brain's learning mechanisms has been accomplished over the past decade, particularly with conceptual advances, including representing behavior as a dynamical system, large-scale neural population recordings, and new methods of analysis of neuronal populations. However, motor and cognitive systems have been traditionally studied with different methods and paradigms. Recently, some common principles, evident in both behavior and neural activity, that underlie these different types of learning have become to emerge. Here we review results from motor and cognitive learning, relying on different techniques and studying different systems to understand the mechanisms of learning. Movement is intertwined with cognitive operations, and its dynamics reflect cognitive variables. Training, in either motor or cognitive tasks, involves recruitment of previously unresponsive neurons and reorganization of neural activity in a low dimensional manifold. Mapping of new variables in neural activity can be very rapid, instantiating flexible learning of new tasks. Communication between areas is just as critical a part of learning as are patterns of activity within an area emerging with learning. Common principles across systems provide a map for future research.

Creative thinking and brain network development in schoolchildren

Fostering creative minds has always been a premise to ensure adaptation to new challenges of human civilization. While some alternative educational settings (i.e., Montessori) were shown to nurture creative skills, it is unknown how they impact underlying brain mechanisms across the school years. This study assessed creative thinking and resting-state functional connectivity via fMRI in 75 children (4-18 y.o.) enrolled either in Montessori or traditional schools. We found that pedagogy significantly influenced creative performance and underlying brain networks. Replicating past work, Montessori-schooled children showed higher scores on creative thinking tests. Using static functional connectivity analysis, we found that Montessori-schooled children showed decreased within-network functional connectivity of the salience network. Moreover, using dynamic functional connectivity, we found that traditionally-schooled children spent more time in a brain state characterized by high intra-default mode network connectivity. These findings suggest that pedagogy may influence brain networks relevant to creative thinking-particularly the default and salience networks. Further research is needed, like a longitudinal study, to verify these results given the implications for educational practitioners. A video abstract of this article can be viewed at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xWV_5o8wB5g . RESEARCH HIGHLIGHTS: Most executive jobs are prospected to be obsolete within several decades, so creative skills are seen as essential for the near future. School experience has been shown to play a role in creativity development, however, the underlying brain mechanisms remained under-investigated yet. Seventy-five 4-18 years-old children, from Montessori or traditional schools, performed a creativity task at the behavioral level, and a 6-min resting-state MR scan. We uniquely report preliminary evidence for the impact of pedagogy on functional brain networks.

Resting-State Connectivity Changes After Goal-Oriented Attentional Self-Regulation Training in Veterans With Mild Traumatic Brain Injury: Preliminary Findings from a Randomized Controlled Trial

Mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI) can have lasting consequences on cognitive functioning and well-being. Goal-Oriented Attentional Self-Regulation (GOALS) training has been shown to improve attention and executive functioning, as well as emotional functioning, in veterans with chronic TBI. An ongoing clinical trial (NCT02920788) is further evaluating GOALS training, including underlying neural mechanisms of change. The present study aimed to examine training-induced neuroplasticity by resting-state functional connectivity (rsFC) changes in GOALS versus active control. Veterans with a history of mTBI ≥6 months post-injury (N = 33) were randomly assigned to GOALS (n = 19) or an intensity-matched active control group (Brain Health Education [BHE] training; n = 14). GOALS consists of attention regulation and problem solving applied to individually defined, relevant goals through a combination of group, individual, and home practice sessions. Participants underwent multi-band resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging at baseline and post-intervention. Exploratory 2 × 2 mixed analyses of variance identified pre-to-post changes in seed-based connectivity for GOALS versus BHE in five significant clusters. GOALS versus BHE demonstrated a significant increase in right lateral pre-frontal cortex connectivity with the right frontal pole and right middle temporal gyrus, as well as increased posterior cingulate connectivity with the pre-central gyrus. Rostral pre-frontal cortex connectivity with the right precuneus and the right frontal pole decreased in GOALS versus BHE. These GOALS-related changes in rsFC point to potential neural mechanisms underlying the intervention. This training-induced neuroplasticity may play a role in improved cognitive and emotional functioning post-GOALS.

Human habit neural circuitry may be perturbed in eating disorders

Circuit-based mechanisms mediating the development and execution of habitual behaviors involve complex cortical-striatal interactions that have been investigated in animal models and more recently in humans. However, how human brain circuits implicated in habit formation may be perturbed in psychiatric disorders remains unclear. First, we identified the locations of the sensorimotor putamen and associative caudate in the human brain using probabilistic tractography from Human Connectome Project data. We found that multivariate connectivity of the sensorimotor putamen was altered in humans with binge eating disorder and bulimia nervosa and that the degree of alteration correlated with severity of disordered eating behavior. Furthermore, the extent of this circuit aberration correlated with mean diffusivity in the sensorimotor putamen and decreased basal dopamine D2/3 receptor binding potential in the striatum, consistent with previously reported microstructural changes and dopamine signaling mediating habit learning in animal models. Our findings suggest a neural circuit that links habit learning and binge eating behavior in humans, which could, in part, explain the treatment-resistant behavior common to eating disorders and other psychiatric conditions.

Adaptive working memory training does not produce transfer effects in cognition and neuroimaging

Despite growing interest in cognitive interventions from academia and industry, it remains unclear if working memory (WM) training, one of the most popular cognitive interventions, produces transfer effects. Transfer effects are training-induced gains in performance in untrained cognitive tasks, while practice effects are improvements in trained task. The goal of this study was to evaluate potential transfer effects by comprehensive cognitive testing and neuroimaging. In this prospective, randomized-controlled, and single-blind study, we administered an 8-week n-back training to 55 healthy middle-aged (50-64 years) participants. State-of-the-art multimodal neuroimaging was used to examine potential anatomic and functional changes. Relative to control subjects, who performed non-adaptive WM training, no near or far transfer effects were detected in experimental subjects, who performed adaptive WM training. Equivalently, no training-related changes were observed in white matter integrity, amplitude of low frequency fluctuations, glucose metabolism, functional and metabolic connectivity. Exploratory within-group comparisons revealed some gains in transfer tasks, which, however, cannot be attributed to an increased WM capacity. In conclusion, WM training produces transfer effects neither at the cognitive level nor in terms of neural structure or function. These results speak against a common view that training-related gains reflect an increase in underlying WM capacity. Instead, the presently observed practice effects may be a result of optimized task processing strategies, which do not necessarily engage neural plasticity.

Cognitive control training enhances the integration of intrinsic functional networks in adolescents

Introduction

We have demonstrated that intensive cognitive training can produce sustained improvements in cognitive performance in adolescents. Few studies, however, have investigated the neural basis of these training effects, leaving the underlying mechanism of cognitive plasticity during this period unexplained.

Methods

In this study, we trained 51 typically developing adolescents on cognitive control tasks and examined how their intrinsic brain networks changed by applying graph theoretical analysis. We hypothesized that the training would accelerate the process of network integration, which is a key feature of network development throughout adolescence.

Results

We found that the cognitive control training enhanced the integration of functional networks, particularly the cross-network integration of the cingulo-opercular network. Moreover, the analysis of additional data from older adolescents revealed that the cingulo-opercular network was more integrated with other networks in older adolescents than in young adolescents.

Discussion

These findings are consistent with the hypothesis that cognitive control training may speed up network development, such that brain networks exhibit more mature patterns after training.

The modulatory effect of adaptive task-switching training on resting-state neural network dynamics in younger and older adults

With increasing life expectancy and active aging, it becomes crucial to investigate methods which could compensate for generally detected cognitive aging processes. A promising candidate is adaptive cognitive training, during which task difficulty is adjusted to the participants' performance level to enhance the training and potential transfer effects. Measuring intrinsic brain activity is suitable for detecting possible distributed training-effects since resting-state dynamics are linked to the brain's functional flexibility and the effectiveness of different cognitive processes. Therefore, we investigated if adaptive task-switching training could modulate resting-state neural dynamics in younger (18-25 years) and older (60-75 years) adults (79 people altogether). We examined spectral power density on resting-state EEG data for measuring oscillatory activity, and multiscale entropy for detecting intrinsic neural complexity. Decreased coarse timescale entropy and lower frequency band power as well as increased fine timescale entropy and higher frequency band power revealed a shift from more global to local information processing with aging before training. However, cognitive training modulated these age-group differences, as coarse timescale entropy and lower frequency band power increased from pre- to post-training in the old-training group. Overall, our results suggest that cognitive training can modulate neural dynamics even when measured outside of the trained task.

The neural correlates of working memory training in typically developing children

Working memory training improves children's cognitive performance on untrained tasks; however, little is known about the underlying neural mechanisms. This was investigated in 32 typically developing children aged 10-14 years (19 girls and 13 boys) using a randomized controlled design and multi-modal magnetic resonance imaging (Devon, UK; 2015-2016). Training improved working memory performance and increased intrinsic functional connectivity between the bilateral intraparietal sulci. Furthermore, improvements in working memory were associated with greater recruitment of the left middle frontal gyrus on a complex span task. Repeated engagement of fronto-parietal regions during training may increase their activity and functional connectivity over time, affording greater working memory performance. The plausibility of generalizable cognitive benefits from a neurobiological perspective and implications for neurodevelopmental theory are discussed.

Auditory Cognitive Training Improves Brain Plasticity in Healthy Older Adults: Evidence From a Randomized Controlled Trial

The number of older adults is increasing globally. Aging is associated with cognitive and sensory decline. Additionally, declined auditory performance and cognitive function affect the quality of life of older adults. Therefore, it is important to develop an intervention method to improve both auditory and cognitive performances. The current study aimed to investigate the beneficial effects of auditory and cognitive training on auditory ability and cognitive functions in healthy older adults. Fifty healthy older adults were randomly divided into four training groups—an auditory-cognitive training group (AC training; n = 13), an auditory training group (A training; n = 13), a cognitive training group (C training; n = 14), and an active control group (n = 12). During the training period, we reduced the sound intensity level in AC and A training groups and increase training task difficulty in AC, A, and C training groups based on participants’ performance. Cognitive function measures [digit-cancelation test (D-CAT); logical memory (LM); digit span (DS)], auditory measures [pure-tone audiometry (PTA)], and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans were performed before and after the training periods. We found three key findings. First, the AC training group showed difference between other training groups (A, C, and active control training groups) in regional gray matter volume (rGMV) in the right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, the left inferior temporal gyrus (L. ITG), the left superior frontal gyrus, the left orbitofrontal cortex, the right cerebellum (lobule 7 Crus 1). Second, the auditory training factor groups (ATFGs, the AC and A training groups) improved auditory measures and increased the rGMV and functional connectivity (FC) in the left temporal pole compared to the non-ATFGs (the C training group and active control group). Third, the cognitive training factor groups (CTFGs; the AC and C training groups) showed statistically significant improvement in cognitive performances in LM and D-CAT compared to the non-CTFGs (the A training group and active control group). Therefore, the auditory training factor and cognitive training factor would be useful in enhancing the quality of life of older adults. The current AC training study, the plasticity of the brain structure was observed after 4 weeks of training.

Continuous Monitoring of Mental Load During Virtual Simulator Training for Laparoscopic Surgery Reflects Laparoscopic Dexterity: A Comparative Study Using a Novel Wireless Device

Introduction

Cognitive Load Theory (CLT) relates to the efficiency with which individuals manipulate the limited capacity of working memory load. Repeated training generally results in individual performance increase and cognitive load decrease, as measured by both behavioral and neuroimaging methods. One of the known biomarkers for cognitive load is frontal theta band, measured by an EEG. Simulation-based training is an effective tool for acquiring practical skills, specifically to train new surgeons in a controlled and hazard-free environment. Measuring the cognitive load of young surgeons undergoing such training can help to determine whether they are ready to take part in a real surgery. In this study, we measured the performance of medical students and interns in a surgery simulator, while their brain activity was monitored by a single-channel EEG.

Methods

A total of 38 medical students and interns were divided into three groups and underwent three experiments examining their behavioral performances. The participants were performing a task while being monitored by the Simbionix LAP MENTOR™. Their brain activity was simultaneously measured using a single-channel EEG with novel signal processing (Aurora by Neurosteer^®). Each experiment included three trials of a simulator task performed with laparoscopic hands. The time retention between the tasks was different in each experiment, in order to examine changes in performance and cognitive load biomarkers that occurred during the task or as a result of nighttime sleep consolidation.

Results

The participants’ behavioral performance improved with trial repetition in all three experiments. In Experiments 1 and 2, delta band and the novel VC9 biomarker (previously shown to correlate with cognitive load) exhibited a significant decrease in activity with trial repetition. Additionally, delta, VC9, and, to some extent, theta activity decreased with better individual performance.

Discussion

In correspondence with previous research, EEG markers delta, VC9, and theta (partially) decreased with lower cognitive load and higher performance; the novel biomarker, VC9, showed higher sensitivity to lower cognitive load levels. Together, these measurements may be used for the neuroimaging assessment of cognitive load while performing simulator laparoscopic tasks. This can potentially be expanded to evaluate the efficacy of different medical simulations to provide more efficient training to medical staff and measure cognitive and mental loads in real laparoscopic surgeries.

Prefrontal cortical plasticity during learning of cognitive tasks

Training in working memory tasks is associated with lasting changes in prefrontal cortical activity. To assess the neural activity changes induced by training, we recorded single units, multi-unit activity (MUA) and local field potentials (LFP) with chronic electrode arrays implanted in the prefrontal cortex of two monkeys, throughout the period they were trained to perform cognitive tasks. Mastering different task phases was associated with distinct changes in neural activity, which included recruitment of larger numbers of neurons, increases or decreases of their firing rate, changes in the correlation structure between neurons, and redistribution of power across LFP frequency bands. In every training phase, changes induced by the actively learned task were also observed in a control task, which remained the same across the training period. Our results reveal how learning to perform cognitive tasks induces plasticity of prefrontal cortical activity, and how activity changes may generalize between tasks.

It remains unclear whether improvements in one cognitive task transfer to other tasks. Here, the authors show that changes in prefrontal neuronal activation, firing rate, and local field potentials induced during active learning of a working memory task are also evident in a control task.

Cognitive Training with Neurofeedback Using NIRS Improved Cognitive Functions in Young Adults: Evidence from a Randomized Controlled Trial

(1) Background: A previous study has shown that cognitive training with neurofeedback (CT-NF) using down-regulation improves cognitive functions in young adults. Neurofeedback has two strategies for manipulating brain activity (down-regulation and upregulation). However, the benefit of CT-NF with the upregulation of cognitive functions is still unknown. In this study, we investigated whether the upregulation of CT-NF improves a wide range of cognitive functions compared to cognitive training alone. (2) Methods: In this double-blinded randomized control trial (RCT), 60 young adults were randomly assigned to one of three groups: CT-NF group, CT alone group, and an active control (ACT) group who played a puzzle game. Participants in the three groups used the same device (tablet PC and 2ch NIRS (near-infrared spectroscopy)) and performed the training game for 20 min every day for four weeks. We measured brain activity during training in all groups, but only CT-NFs received NF. We also measured a wide range of cognitive functions before and after the intervention period. (3) Results: The CT-NF groups showed superior beneficial effects on episodic memory, working memory, and attention compared to the CT alone and ACT groups. In addition, the CT-NF group showed an increase in brain activity during CT, which was associated with improvements in cognitive function. (4) Discussion: This study first demonstrated that the CT-NF using the upregulation strategy has beneficial effects on cognitive functions compared to the CT alone. Our results suggest that greater brain activities during CT would enhance a benefit from CT.

Polygenic risk score for bipolar disorder associates with divergent thinking and brain structures in the prefrontal cortex

It has been hypothesized that a higher genetic risk of bipolar disorder (BD) is associated with greater creativity. Given the clinical importance of bipolar disorder and the importance of creativity to human society and cultural development, it is essential to reveal their associations and the neural basis of the genetic risk of bipolar disorder to gain insight into its etiology. However, despite the previous demonstration of the associations of polygenic risk score (PRS) of BD and creative jobs, the associations of BD‐PRS and creativity measured by the divergent thinking (CMDT) and regional gray matter volume (rGMV) as well as regional white matter volume (rWMV) have not been investigated. Using psychological analyses and whole‐brain voxel‐by‐voxel analyses, we examined these potential associations in 1558 young, typically developing adult students. After adjusting for confounding variables and multiple comparisons, a greater BD‐PRS was associated with a greater total CMDT fluency score, and a significant relationship was found in fluency subscores. A greater BD‐PRS was also associated with lower total mood disturbance. Neuroimaging analyses revealed that the BD‐PRS was associated with greater rGMV in the right inferior frontal gyrus, which is a consistently affected area in BD, as well as a greater rWMV in the left middle frontal gyrus, which has been suggested to play a central role in the increased creativity associated with the risk of BD with creativity. These findings suggest a relationship between the genetic risk of BD and CMDT and prefrontal cortical structures among young educated individuals.

Working Memory: From Neural Activity to the Sentient Mind

Working memory (WM) is the ability to maintain and manipulate information in the conscious mind over a timescale of seconds. This ability is thought to be maintained through the persistent discharges of neurons in a network of brain areas centered on the prefrontal cortex, as evidenced by neurophysiological recordings in nonhuman primates, though both the localization and the neural basis of WM has been a matter of debate in recent years. Neural correlates of WM are evident in species other than primates, including rodents and corvids. A specialized network of excitatory and inhibitory neurons, aided by neuromodulatory influences of dopamine, is critical for the maintenance of neuronal activity. Limitations in WM capacity and duration, as well as its enhancement during development, can be attributed to properties of neural activity and circuits. Changes in these factors can be observed through training-induced improvements and in pathological impairments. WM thus provides a prototypical cognitive function whose properties can be tied to the spiking activity of brain neurons. © 2021 American Physiological Society. Compr Physiol 11:1-41, 2021.

Lead exposure is associated with functional and microstructural changes in the healthy human brain

Lead is a toxin known to harm many organs in the body, particularly the central nervous system, across an individual's lifespan. To date, no study has yet investigated the associations between body lead level and the microstructural properties of gray matter areas, and brain activity during attention-demanding tasks. Here, utilizing data of diffusion tensor imaging, functional magnetic resonance imaging and cognitive measures among 920 typically developing young adults, we show greater hair lead levels are weakly but significantly associated with (a) increased working memory-related activity in the right premotor and pre-supplemental motor areas, (b) lower fractional anisotropy (FA) in white matter areas near the internal capsule, (c) lower mean diffusivity (MD) in the dopaminergic system in the left hemisphere and other widespread contingent areas, and (d) greater MD in the white matter area adjacent to the right fusiform gyrus. Higher lead levels were also weakly but significantly associated with lower performance in tests of high-order cognitive functions, such as the psychometric intelligence test, greater impulsivity measures, and higher novelty seeking and extraversion. These findings reflect the weak effect of daily lead level on the excitability and microstructural properties of the brain, particularly in the dopaminergic system.

Resting State EEG Related to Mathematical Improvement After Spatial Training in Children

Spatial cognitive abilities, including mental rotation (MR) and visuo-spatial working memory (vsWM) are correlated with mathematical performance, and several studies have shown that training of these abilities can enhance mathematical performance. Here, we investigated the behavioral and neural correlates of MR and vsWM training combined with number line (NL) training. Fifty-seven children, aged 6–7, performed 25 days of NL training combined with either vsWM or MR and participated in an Electroencephalography (EEG)-session in school to measure resting state activity and steady-state visual evoked potentials during a vsWM task before and after training. Fifty children, aged 6–7, received usual teaching and acted as a control group. Compared to the control group, both training groups improved on a combined measure of mathematics. Cognitive improvement was specific to the training. Significant pre-post changes in resting state-EEG (rs-EEG), common to both training groups, were found for power as well as for coherence, with no significant differences in rs-EEG-changes between the vsWM and MR groups. Two of the common rs-EEG changes were correlated with mathematical improvement: (1) an increase in coherence between the central frontal lobe and the right parietal lobe in frequencies ranging from 16 to 25 Hz, and (2) an increase in coherence between the left frontal lobe and the right parietal lobe ranging from 23 to 25 Hz. These results indicate that changes in fronto-parietal coherence are related to an increase in mathematical performance, which thus might be a useful measure in further investigations of mathematical interventions in children.

Effects of training of shadowing and reading aloud of second language on working memory and neural systems

Shadowing and reading aloud both involve multiple complex cognitive processes, and both are considered effective methods for second-language learning. The working memory system, particularly the phonological loop, has been suggested to be involved in shadowing and reading aloud. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of a 4-week intensive adaptive training including shadowing and reading aloud of second language on working-memory capacity, regional gray matter volume (rGMV), and functional activation related to the n-back working-memory task in young adults. The results showed that compared with the training groups without speaking (listening to compressed speech and active control involving the second language), the training groups with speaking (shadowing and reading aloud) showed a tendency for greater test-retest increases in digit-span scores, and significantly greater test-retest decreases in N-back task reaction time (increase in working memory performance). Imaging analyses revealed compared with the active control group, shadowing group exhibited decreases in rGMV and brain activity during the working memory task (2-back task), in the left cerebellum and reading group exhibited decreases in them in the right anterior insula. These regions are parts of the phonological loop, suggesting the presence of training-induced neural plasticity in these neurocognitive mechanisms.

Dorsolateral Prefrontal Functional Connectivity Predicts Working Memory Training Gains

Background: Normal aging is associated with working memory decline. A decrease in working memory performance is associated with age-related changes in functional activation patterns in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC). Cognitive training can improve cognitive performance in healthy older adults. We implemented a cognitive training study to assess determinants of generalization of training gains to untrained tasks, a key indicator for the effectiveness of cognitive training. We aimed to investigate the association of resting-state functional connectivity (FC) of DLPFC with working memory performance improvement and cognitive gains after the training.

Method: A sample of 60 healthy older adults (mean age: 68 years) underwent a 4-week neuropsychological training, entailing a working memory task. Baseline resting-state functional MRI (rs-fMRI) images were acquired in order to investigate the FC of DLPFC. To evaluate training effects, participants underwent a neuropsychological assessment before and after the training. A second follow-up assessment was applied 12 weeks after the training. We used cognitive scores of digit span backward and visual block span backward tasks representing working memory function. The training group was divided into subjects who had and who did not have training gains, which was defined as a higher improvement in working memory tasks than the control group (N = 19).

Results: A high FC of DLPFC of the right hemisphere was significantly associated with training gains and performance improvement in the visuospatial task. The maintenance of cognitive gains was restricted to the time period directly after the training. The training group showed performance improvement in the digit span backward task.

Conclusion: Functional activation patterns of the DLPFC were associated with the degree of working memory training gains and visuospatial performance improvement. Although improvement through cognitive training and acquisition of training gains are possible in aging, they remain limited.

Working memory network plasticity after exercise intervention detected by task and resting-state functional MRI

The current study examined the effects of an 11-week exercise intervention on brain activity during a working memory (WM) task and resting-state functional network connectivity in deaf children. Twenty-six deaf children were randomly assigned to either an 11-week exercise intervention or control conditions. Before and after the exercise intervention, all participants were scanned with functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) during N-back task performance and a resting state. The behavioural results showed that the exercise intervention improved WM performance. Task activation analyses showed an increase in the parietal, occipital, and temporal gyri and hippocampus and hippocampus (HIP). In addition, WM performance improvements were associated with greater activation in the left HIP region. Resting-state functional connectivity (Rs-FC) between HIP and certain other brain areas shown a significant interaction of group (exercise versus no exercise) and time (pre- and postintervention). Moreover, connectivity between the left HIP and left middle frontal gyrus was related to improved WM performance. These data extend current knowledge by indicating that an exercise intervention can improve WM in deaf children, and these enhancements may be related to the WM network plasticity changes induced by exercise.

Effects of β-Lactolin on Regional Cerebral Blood Flow within the Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex during Working Memory Task in Healthy Adults: A Randomized Controlled Trial

Epidemiological studies have reported that consumption of dairy products rich in β-lactolin is beneficial for cognitive decline among elderly individuals. Although previous studies have shown that β-lactolin supplementation improves memory function and attention in healthy adults, the mechanism through which β-lactolin affects human brain function has yet to be elucidated. This placebo-controlled randomized double-blind study therefore examined the effects of β-lactolin on human regional cerebral blood flow (rCBF) using near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) according to the Consolidated Standards of Reporting Trials guidelines. A total of 114 healthy participants aged between 50 and 75 years with relatively low cognition were randomly allocated into the β-lactolin or placebo groups (n = 57 for both groups) and received supplementation for 6 weeks. After the 6 weeks of supplementation, total hemoglobin during cognitive tasks (Kraepelin and 2-back tasks) was measured using two-channel NIRS to determine rCBF. Accordingly, the β-lactolin group had significantly higher changes in total hemoglobin at the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) area measured using the left-side channel during the 2-back tasks (p = 0.027) compared to the placebo group. The present study suggests that β-lactolin supplementation increases rCBF and DLPFC activity during working memory tasks.

Executive Function Training in Childhood Obesity: Food Choice, Quality of Life, and Brain Connectivity (TOuCH): A Randomized Control Trial Protocol

Background: Individuals with obesity are known to present cognitive deficits, especially in executive functions. Executive functions play an important role in health and success throughout the whole life and have been related to food decision-making and to the ability to maintain energy balance. It is possible to improve executive functions through targeted training. This would involve brain plasticity changes that could be studied through connectivity MRI. The general hypothesis of this study is that executive functions training in children with obesity can improve food choices and produce cognitive and neuroimaging changes (structural and functional connectivity), as well as improve emotional state and quality of life. Methods: Randomized controlled double-blind trial with 12-month follow-up. Thirty children with obesity will be randomly allocated into "executive training" (Cognifit with adaptive difficulty + Cogmed) or "control task" group (Cognifit without adaptive difficulty). Both groups will attend 30-45 min of individual gamified training (Cogmed and/or Cognifit systems) by iPad, five times per week during 6 weeks. Cogmed and Cognifit software are commercially available from Pearson and Cognifit, respectively. Participants will receive an iPad with both apps installed for a 6-week use. Participants will also receive counseling diet information via presentations sent to the iPad and will wear a Fitbit Flex 2 tracker to monitor daily activity and sleep patterns. Main outcomes will be cognitive, emotional, food decision, and quality-of-life measures, as well as neuroimaging measures. Participants are evaluated at baseline (T0), after treatment (T1), and 12 months since baseline (T2). Discussion: Longitudinal study with active control group and 3 time points: baseline, immediately after treatment, and 1 year after baseline. Threefold treatment: executive function training, psychoeducation, and feedback on activity/sleep tracking. We will evaluate the transfer effects of the intervention, including emotional and functional outcomes, as well as the effects on neural plasticity by connectivity MRI. Trial registration: This project has been registered in ClinicalTrials.gov (trial registration number NCT03615274), August 3, 2018.

Association Between OLIG2 Gene SNP rs1059004 and Negative Self-Schema Constructing Trait Factors Underlying Susceptibility to Depression

Recent evidence has indicated that the disruption of oligodendrocytes may be involved in the pathogenesis of depression. Genetic factors are likely to affect trait factors, such as characteristics, rather than state factors, such as depressive symptoms. Previously, a negative self-schema had been proposed as the major characteristic of constructing trait factors underlying susceptibility to depression. Thus, the association between a negative self-schema and the functional single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) rs1059004 in the OLIG2 gene, which influences OLIG2 gene expression, white matter integrity, and cerebral blood flow, was evaluated. A total of 546 healthy subjects were subjected to genotype and psychological evaluation using the Beck Depression Inventory-II (BDI-II) and the Brief Core Schema Scale (BCSS). The rs1059004 SNP was found to be associated with the self-schema subscales of the BCSS and scores on the BDI-II in an allele dose-dependent manner, and to have a predictive impact on depressive symptoms via a negative-self schema. The results suggest the involvement of a genetic factor regulating oligodendrocyte function in generating a negative-self schema as a trait factor underlying susceptibility to depression.

Working memory training restores aberrant brain activity in adult attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder

The development of treatments for attention impairments is hampered by limited knowledge about the malleability of underlying neural functions. We conducted the first randomized controlled trial to determine the modulations of brain activity associated with working memory (WM) training in adults with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). At baseline, we assessed the aberrant functional brain activity in the n-back WM task by comparing 44 adults with ADHD with 18 healthy controls using fMRI. Participants with ADHD were then randomized to train on an adaptive dual n-back task or an active control task. We tested whether WM training elicits redistribution of brain activity as observed in healthy controls, and whether it might further restore aberrant activity related to ADHD. As expected, activity in areas of the default-mode (DMN), salience (SN), sensory-motor (SMN), frontoparietal (FPN), and subcortical (SCN) networks was decreased in participants with ADHD at pretest as compared with healthy controls, especially when the cognitive load was high. WM training modulated widespread FPN and SN areas, restoring some of the aberrant activity. Training effects were mainly observed as decreased brain activity during the trained task and increased activity during the untrained task, suggesting different neural mechanisms for trained and transfer tasks.

Dual n-back training improves functional connectivity of the right inferior frontal gyrus at rest

Several studies have shown that the benefits of working memory (WM) training can be attributed to functional and structural neural changes in the underlying neural substrate. In the current study, we investigated whether the functional connectivity of the brain at rest in the default mode network (DMN) changes with WM training. We varied the complexity of the training intervention so, that half of the participants attended dual n-back training whereas the other half attended single n-back training. This way we could assess the effects of different training task parameters on possible connectivity changes. After 16 training sessions, the dual n-back training group showed improved performance accompanied by increased functional connectivity of the ventral DMN in the right inferior frontal gyrus, which correlated with improvements in WM. We also observed decreased functional connectivity in the left superior parietal cortex in this group. The single n-back training group did not show significant training-related changes. These results show that a demanding short-term WM training intervention can alter the default state of the brain.

Emotional working memory training reduces rumination and alters the EEG microstate in anxious individuals

Rumination is an important etiological factor of anxiety pathology, with its mechanism related to the deficit of working memory. The current study examined whether working memory training (WM-T) and emotional working memory training (EWM-T) could reduce rumination in anxious individuals. The participants with high trait anxiety underwent 21 days of mobile applications-based WM-T (n = 34), EWM-T (n = 36) or placebo control (n = 36), with questionnaires, cognitive tasks, and resting electroencephalogram (EEG) as the pre-post-test indicators. The results revealed that two training groups obtained comparable operation span increases (WM-T: d = 0.53; EWM-T: d = 0.65), updating improvement (WM-T: d = 0.43; EWM-T: d = 0.60) and shifting improvement (WM-T: d = 0.49; EWM-T: d = 0.72). Furthermore, compared to the control group, the EWM-T showed significant self-reported rumination reduction (d = 0.69), increased inhibition ability (d = 0.72), as well as modification of resting EEG microstate C parameters (Duration C: d = 0.42, Coverage C: d = 0.39), which were closely related to rumination level (r ~ 0.4). The WM-T group also showed the potential to reduced self-reported rumination (d = 0.45), but with the absence of the observable inhibition improvement and resting EEG changes. The correlation analysis suggested that the emotional benefits of WM-T depending more on improved updating and shifting, and that of EWM-T depending more on improved inhibition ability. The advantage to add emotional distractions into general working memory training for targeting rumination related anxiety has been discussed.

Intrinsic functional connectivity of the default mode and cognitive control networks relate to change in behavioral performance over two years

Understanding how brain circuitry mediates cognitive control of behavior is crucial for understanding both mental health and disease. Cognitive control describes the group of behaviors that guide goal-directed action such as sustaining attention, processing information and inhibiting impulsive responses. We rely on these behaviors for daily social, occupational and emotional functioning. Two brain networks, the cognitive control network (CCN) and default mode network (DMN), are thought to cooperate in an inverse relationship to support these functions. However, we do not yet know how connectivity within and between these networks directly relates to healthy cognitive control behaviors, and whether these interactions change over time. Here, we employed a longitudinal design to investigate if change in intrinsic connectivity in these networks will correlate with change in a range of cognitive control functions. Over two years, 109 healthy individuals, aged eight to thirty-eight, were tested twice using fMRI to assess intrinsic functional connectivity of the CCN and DMN and a validated cognitive battery. We found that increased within-network connectivity through central and left DMN was associated with increased memory performance. Additionally, decreased connectivity between posterior parietal CCN and DMN nodes and decreased connectivity between left and right dorsolateral prefrontal nodes was associated with increased cognitive performance. These findings were age and gender controlled, suggesting that age-independent plastic change in intrinsic connectivity through these networks directly relate to changing behavior. This has implications for targeting intrinsic connectivity as a possible mechanism to improve cognitive function.

β-lactolin increases cerebral blood flow in dorsolateral prefrontal cortex in healthy adults: a randomized controlled trial

The number of elderly individuals with age-related cognitive decline or dementia is rapidly increasing. Dairy product consumption, including β-lactolin, is beneficial for their cognitive function. The underlying mechanism of β-lactolin's effects on human brain activity is yet to be investigated. We examined the β-lactolin effects on human cerebral blood flow (CBF) using near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) in a placebo-controlled randomized double-blind study, which reported according to the CONSORT guidelines. Fifty healthy participants (aged 45-60 years) were randomly allocated into the β-lactolin or the placebo group (n = 25 each) and supplemented for 6 weeks. During the 6^th week, oxy-hemoglobin during the working memory tasks was measured using 34-channels (CHs) NIRS. The changes of oxy-hemoglobin, which represents the CBF, in CH 23 located at the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) during the spatial working memory task showed higher statistical significance (false discovery rate (q) = 0.045) in the β-lactolin than in the placebo group. The oxy-Hb changes in CH23 have a co-relationship with the working memory task reaction time. This clinical trial showed an increase in the CBF in the left DLPFC area during the 6-week β-lactolin supplementation. This study contributes to elucidating the underlying mechanisms of β-lactolin on cognitive performance.

MRI Predictors of Cognitive Training Outcomes

The prospect of improving or maintaining cognitive functioning has provoked a steadily increasing number of cognitive training interventions over the last years, especially for clinical and elderly populations. However, there are discrepancies between the findings of the studies. One of the reasons behind these heterogeneous findings is that there are vast inter-individual differences in how people benefit from the training and in the extent that training-related gains are transferred to other untrained tasks and domains. In this paper, we address the value of incorporating neural measures to cognitive training studies in order to fully understand the mechanisms leading to inter-individual differences in training gains and their generalizability to other tasks. Our perspective is that it is necessary to collect multimodal neural measures in the pre- and post-training phase, which can enable us to understand the factors contributing to successful training outcomes. More importantly, this understanding can enable us to predict who will benefit from different types of interventions, thereby allowing the development of individually tailored intervention programs.

Sex-Dependent Effects of the APOE ɛ4 Allele on Behavioral Traits and White Matter Structures in Young Adults

The APOE ɛ4 allele is associated with a risk of Alzheimer’s disease in the elderly, with the association being pronounced in females. Conversely, findings of the effects of the APOE ɛ4 allele in young adults are mixed. Here, we investigated the sex–genotype interaction effects of the APOE ɛ4 allele on cognitive functions as well as brain structures among 1258 young adults. After adjusting for multiple comparisons, there were significant effects of the interaction between sex and the number of APOE ɛ4 allele on some speed tasks (e.g., simple processing speed tasks and the reverse Stroop task) as well as on regional white matter volume (rWMV). The observed sex–genotype interaction conferred better cognitive performance and greater rWMV in the anterior frontal and precentral white matter areas in females having more APOE ɛ4 alleles and reduced rWMV in the same areas in male having more APOE ɛ4 alleles. These findings support the long-debated antagonistic pleiotropic effects of the APOE ɛ4 allele in females.

Working memory training increases neural efficiency in Parkinson's disease: a randomized controlled trial

Impairment of working memory and executive functions is already frequently observed in early stages of Parkinson's disease. Improvements in working memory performance in this cohort could potentially be achieved via working memory training. However, the specific neural mechanisms underlying different working memory processes such as maintenance as opposed to manipulation are largely under-investigated in Parkinson's disease. Moreover, the plasticity of these correlates as a function of working memory training is currently unknown in this population. Thus, the working memory subprocesses of maintenance and manipulation were assessed in 41 cognitively healthy patients with Parkinson's disease using a newly developed working memory paradigm and functional MRI. Nineteen patients were randomized to a 5-week home-based digital working memory training intervention while the remaining patients entered a control, wait list condition. Working memory task-related activation patterns and context-dependent functional connectivity, as well as the change of these neural correlates as a function of training, were assessed. While both working memory processes activated an extended frontoparietal-cerebellar network, only the manipulation of items within working memory also recruited the anterior striatum. The intervention effect on the neural correlates was small, but decreased activation in areas relevant for working memory could be observed, with activation changes correlating with behavioural change. Moreover, training seemed to result in decreased functional connectivity when pure maintenance was required, and in a reorganization of functional connectivity when items had to be manipulated. In accordance with the neural efficacy hypothesis, training resulted in overall reduced activation and reorganized functional connectivity, with a differential effect on the different working memory processes under investigation. Now, larger trials including follow-up examinations are needed to further explore the long-term effects of such interventions on a neural level and to estimate the clinical relevance to potentially delay cognitive decline in cognitively healthy patients with Parkinson's disease.

Neural correlates of working memory training: Evidence for plasticity in older adults

Brain activity typically increases with increasing working memory (WM) load, regardless of age, before reaching an apparent ceiling. However, older adults exhibit greater brain activity and reach ceiling at lower loads than younger adults, possibly reflecting compensation at lower loads and dysfunction at higher loads. We hypothesized that WM training would bolster neural efficiency, such that the activation peak would shift towards higher memory loads after training. Pre-training, older adults showed greater recruitment of the WM network than younger adults across all loads, with decline at the highest load. Ten days of adaptive training on a verbal WM task improved performance and led to greater brain responsiveness at higher loads for both groups. For older adults the activation peak shifted rightward towards higher loads. Finally, training increased task-related functional connectivity in older adults, both within the WM network and between this task-positive network and the task-negative/default-mode network. These results provide new evidence for functional plasticity with training in older adults and identify a potential signature of improvement at the neural level.

Succeeding in deactivating: associations of hair zinc levels with functional and structural neural mechanisms

Zinc is a biologically essential element and involved in a wide range of cellular processes. Here, we investigated the associations of zinc levels in hair with brain activity during the n-back working memory task using functional magnetic resonance imaging, fractional anisotropy (FA) of diffusion tensor imaging, and cognitive differences in a study cohort of 924 healthy young adults. Our findings showed that greater hair zinc levels were associated with lower brain activity during working memory in extensive areas in the default mode network (i.e., greater task-induced deactivation) as well as greater FA in white matter areas near the hippocampus and posterior limbs of the internal capsule. These findings advance previous non-neuroimaging findings of zinc's associations with excitability, excitability-associated disorders, and myelination.

Effects of Simultaneously Performed Dual-Task Training with Aerobic Exercise and Working Memory Training on Cognitive Functions and Neural Systems in the Elderly

Working memory (WM) training (WMT), aerobic exercise training (AET), and dual-task training improve cognitive functions and alter neural systems in older adults. In particular, the effects have been investigated of dual-task training that combines a walking or standing activity (balance exercise) simultaneously performed with cognitive training (which is ecologically difficult for the elderly). In this study, we investigated the effects of simultaneously performed dual-task training incorporating both AET and WMT (SDAEWMT), using a recumbent ergocycle bicycle and a WMT program that provided a portable console and made the training ecologically easy for the elderly. Older adults (65.9±13.7 years old) participated in 3 months of SDAEWMT, WMT, or AET after random allocation, and the effects of SDAEWMT were compared with those of WMT and AET. Prior to and after training, all the subjects underwent cognitive testing, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) involving diffusion tensor imaging (DTI), and functional MRI during performance of an N-back WM task. SDAEWMT improved executive function (performance of a frontal assessment battery); however, there was no evidence of broader transfer effects or enhanced learning with WMT. SDAEWMT resulted in mean diffusivity changes in brain areas involving the dopaminergic system, suggesting that neural tissue changes occurred in these areas. SDAEWMT also resulted in an increase in brain activity during the 2-back working memory task in brain areas involved in attentional reorientation. These results suggest that SDAEWMT is effective for improving cognitive functions and inducing beneficial neural changes in older adults.

Effect of ZNF804A gene polymorphism (rs1344706) on the plasticity of the functional coupling between the right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and the contralateral hippocampal formation

ZNF804A has now been recognized as a schizophrenia risk gene by multiple genome-wide association studies with its intronic polymorphism rs1344706 being reported as the first genome-wide significant risk variant for schizophrenia. Although the functional impact of this gene is still unknown, rs1344706's contribution to the functional coupling between the right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) and the contralateral hippocampal formation (HF) has been reported by several studies. The current study tested whether the right DLPFC-left HF functional coupling showed plasticity during cognitive training (Study I) and whether rs1344706 affected the plasticity (Study II). In Study I, we conducted a randomized controlled trial with 30 subjects receiving 20 sessions of adaptive training on a memory span task (the training group) and 30 subjects practicing on a non-adaptive easy version of the same memory span task for 20 sessions (the control group). All subjects were scanned using fMRI before and after the training. Analyses of resting-state and task-state fMRI data consistently showed that the adaptive memory span training significantly strengthened the right DLPFC-left HF functional coupling. In Study II, we conducted a genetic association study with 101 subjects (combining the data from the training group in Study I with those from an additional subsequent sample of 71 subjects who received the same training and fMRI scans). Results showed that rs1344706 was significantly associated with training-induced changes in functional coupling. Subjects carrying the non-risk allele (C) of rs1344706 showed greater training-induced plasticity than the risk allele (A) homozygotes. These findings expanded our current understanding of the functional impact of the schizophrenia risk variant of ZNF804A gene and suggested that the ZNF804A gene could be used as a prospective target for future antipsychotic drugs and clinical research.

Plasticity of Persistent Activity and Its Constraints

Stimulus information is maintained in working memory by action potentials that persist after the stimulus is no longer physically present. The prefrontal cortex is a critical brain area that maintains such persistent activity due to an intrinsic network with unique synaptic connectivity, NMDA receptors, and interneuron types. Persistent activity can be highly plastic depending on task demands but it also appears in naïve subjects, not trained or required to perform a task at all. Here, we review what aspects of persistent activity remain constant and what factors can modify it, focusing primarily on neurophysiological results from non-human primate studies. Changes in persistent activity are constrained by anatomical location, with more ventral and more anterior prefrontal areas exhibiting the greatest capacity for plasticity, as opposed to posterior and dorsal areas, which change relatively little with training. Learning to perform a cognitive task for the first time, further practicing the task, and switching between learned tasks can modify persistent activity. The ability of the prefrontal cortex to generate persistent activity also depends on age, with changes noted between adolescence, adulthood, and old age. Mean firing rates, variability and correlation of persistent discharges, but also time-varying firing rate dynamics are altered by these factors. Plastic changes in the strength of intrinsic network connections can be revealed by the analysis of synchronous spiking between neurons. These results are essential for understanding how the prefrontal cortex mediates working memory and intelligent behavior.

Resting-state networks of the neonate brain identified using independent component analysis

Resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging (rs-fMRI) has been successfully used to probe the intrinsic functional organization of the brain and to study brain development. Here, we implemented a combination of individual and group independent component analysis (ICA) of FSL on a 6-min resting-state data set acquired from 21 naturally sleeping term-born (age 26 ± 6.7 d), healthy neonates to investigate the emerging functional resting-state networks (RSNs). In line with the previous literature, we found evidence of sensorimotor, auditory/language, visual, cerebellar, thalmic, parietal, prefrontal, anterior cingulate as well as dorsal and ventral aspects of the default-mode-network. Additionally, we identified RSNs in frontal, parietal, and temporal regions that have not been previously described in this age group and correspond to the canonical RSNs established in adults. Importantly, we found that careful ICA-based denoising of fMRI data increased the number of networks identified with group-ICA, whereas the degree of spatial smoothing did not change the number of identified networks. Our results show that the infant brain has an established set of RSNs soon after birth.

The neural code of intelligence: From correlation to causation

Research into the neural underpinning of intelligence has mainly adopted a construct perspective: trying to find structural and functional brain characteristics that would accommodate the psychological concept of g. Few attempts have been made to explain intelligence exclusively based on brain characteristics - the brain perspective. From a methodological viewpoint the brain intelligence relation has been studied by means of correlational and interventional studies. The later providing a causal elucidation of the brain - intelligence relation. The best neuro-anatomical predictor of intelligence is brain volume showing a modest positive correlation with g, explaining between 9 to 16% of variance. The most likely explanation was that larger brains, containing more neurons, have a greater computational power and in that way allow more complex cognitive processing. Correlations with brain surface, thickness, convolution and callosal shape showed less consistent patterns. The development of diffusion tensor imaging has allowed researchers to look also into the microstructure of brain tissue. Consistently observed was a positively correlation between white matter integrity and intelligence, supporting the idea that efficient information transfer between hemispheres and brain areas is crucial for higher intellectual competence. Based on functional studies of the brain intelligence relationship three theories have been put forward: the neural efficiency, the P-FIT and the multi demand (MD) system theory. On the other hand, The Network Neuroscience Theory of g, based on methods from mathematics, physics, and computer science, is an example for the brain perspective on neurobiological underpinning of intelligence. In this framework network flexibility and dynamics provide the foundation for general intelligence. With respect to intervention studies the most promising results have been achieved with noninvasive brain stimulation and behavioral training providing tentative support for findings put forward by the correlational approach. To date the best consensus based on the diversity of results reported would be that g is predominantly determined by lateral prefrontal attentional control of structured sensory episodes in posterior brain areas. The capacity of flexible transitions between these network states represents the essence of intelligence - g.

Neurocognitive Profiles of Older Adults with Working-Memory Dysfunction

Individuals differ in how they perceive, remember, and think. There is evidence for the existence of distinct subgroups that differ in cognitive performance within the older population. However, it is less clear how individual differences in cognition in old age are linked to differences in brain-based measures. We used latent-profile analysis on n-back working-memory (WM) performance to identify subgroups in a large sample of older adults (n = 181; age = 64–68 years). Our analysis identified one larger normal subgroup with higher performance (n = 113; 63%), and a second smaller subgroup (n = 55; 31%) with lower performance. The low-performing subgroup showed weaker load-dependent BOLD modulation and lower connectivity within the fronto-parietal network (FPN) as well as between FPN and striatum during n-back, along with lower FPN connectivity at rest. This group also exhibited lower FPN structural integrity, lower frontal dopamine D2 binding potential, inferior performance on offline WM tests, and a trend-level genetic predisposition for lower dopamine-system efficiency. By contrast, this group exhibited relatively intact episodic memory and associated brain measures (i.e., hippocampal volume, structural, and functional connectivity within the default-mode network). Collectively, these data provide converging evidence for the existence of a group of older adults with impaired WM functioning characterized by reduced cortico-striatal coupling and aberrant cortico-cortical integrity within FPN.

Inter-Individual Differences in Striatal Connectivity Is Related to Executive Function Through Fronto-Parietal Connectivity

The striatum has long been associated with cognitive functions, but the mechanisms behind this are still unclear. Here we tested a new hypothesis that the striatum contributes to executive function (EF) by strengthening cortico-cortical connections. Striatal connectivity was evaluated by measuring the resting-state functional connectivity between ventral and dorsal striatum in 570 individuals, aged 3–20 years. Using structural equation modeling, we found that inter-individual differences in striatal connectivity had an indirect effect (via fronto-parietal functional connectivity) and a direct effect on a compound EF measure of working memory, inhibition, and set-shifting/flexibility. The effect of fronto-parietal connectivity on cognition did not depend on age: the influence was as strong in older as younger children. In contrast, striatal connectivity was closely related to changes in cognitive ability during childhood development, suggesting a specific role of the striatum in cognitive plasticity. These results support a new principle for striatal functioning, according to which striatum promotes cognitive development by strengthening of cortico-cortical connectivity.

Working memory capacity is enhanced by distributed prefrontal activation and invariant temporal dynamics

The amount of information that can be stored in working memory is limited but may be improved with practice. The basis of improved efficiency at the level of neural activity is unknown. To investigate this question, we trained monkeys to perform a working memory task that required memory for multiple stimuli. Performance decreased as a function of number of stimuli to be remembered, but improved as the animals practiced the task. Neuronal recordings acquired during this training revealed two hitherto unknown mechanisms of working memory capacity improvement. First, more prefrontal neurons became active as working memory improved, but their baseline activity decreased. Second, improved working memory capacity was characterized by less variable temporal dynamics, resulting in a more consistent firing rate at each time point during the course of a trial. Our results reveal that improved performance of working memory tasks is achieved through more distributed activation and invariant neuronal dynamics.

Resting-state fMRI detects the effects of learning in short term: A visual search training study

Can resting-state functional connectivity (rs-FC) detect the impact of learning on the brain in the short term? To test this possibility, we have combined task-FC and rs-FC tested before and after a 30-min visual search training. Forty-two healthy adults (20 men) divided into no-contact control and trained groups completed the study. We studied the connectivity between four different regions of the brain involved in visual search: the primary visual area, the right posterior parietal cortex (rPPC), the right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (rDLPFC), and the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex (dACC). Task-FC showed increased connectivity between the rPPC and rDLPFC and between the dACC and rDLPFC from pretraining to posttraining for both the control group and the trained group, suggesting that connectivity between these areas increased with task repetition. In rs-FC, we found enhanced connectivity between these regions in the trained group after training, especially in those with better learning. Whole brain independent component analyses did not reveal any change in main networks after training. These results imply that rs-FC may not only predict individual differences in task performance, but rs-FC might also serve to monitor the impact of learning on the brain after short periods of cognitive training, localizing them in brain areas specifically involved in training.

Association of copper levels in the hair with gray matter volume, mean diffusivity, and cognitive functions

Although copper plays a critical role in normal brain functions and development, it is known that excess copper causes toxicity. Here we investigated the associations of copper levels in the hair with regional gray matter volume (rGMV), mean diffusivity (MD), and cognitive differences in a study cohort of 924 healthy young adults. Our findings showed that high copper levels were associated mostly with low cognitive abilities (low scores on the intelligence test consisting of complex speed tasks, involving reasoning task, a complex arithmetic task, and a reading comprehension task) as well as lower reverse Stroop interference, high rGMV over widespread areas of the brain [mainly including the bilateral lateral and medial parietal cortices, medial temporal structures (amygdala, hippocampus, and parahippocampal gyrus), middle cingulate cortex, orbitofrontal cortex, insula, perisylvian areas, inferior temporal lobe, temporal pole, occipital lobes, and supplementary motor area], as well as high MD of the right substantia nigra and bilateral hippocampus, which are indicative of low density in brain tissues. These results suggest that copper levels are associated with mostly aberrant cognitive functions, greater rGMV in extensive areas, greater MD (which are indicative of low density in brain tissues) in subcortical structures in the healthy young adults, possibly reflecting copper's complex roles in neural mechanisms.

Exploring distinct default mode and semantic networks using a systematic ICA approach

Resting-state networks (RSNs; groups of regions consistently co-activated without an explicit task) are hugely influential in modern brain research. Despite this popularity, the link between specific RSNs and their functions remains elusive, limiting the impact on cognitive neuroscience (where the goal is to link cognition to neural systems). Here we present a series of logical steps to formally test the relationship between a coherent RSN with a cognitive domain. This approach is applied to a challenging and significant test-case; extracting a recently-proposed semantic RSN, determining its relation with a well-known RSN, the default mode network (DMN), and assessing their roles in semantic cognition. Results showed the DMN and semantic network are two distinct coherent RSNs. Assessing the cognitive signature of these spatiotemporally coherent networks directly (and therefore accounting for overlapping networks) showed involvement of the proposed semantic network, but not the DMN, in task-based semantic cognition. Following the steps presented here, researchers could formally test specific hypotheses regarding the function of RSNs, including other possible functions of the DMN.